CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

1.1 Introduction: Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a

complex variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex
numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics such as algebraic geometry, number
theory, applied mathematics; as well as physics, hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, mechanical
engineering and electrical engineering.
Complex analysis is practically concerned with the analytic functions of complex variables.
Because the separate real and imaginary parts of any analytic function must satisfy the Laplace
equation, the complex analysis is widely applicable to two-dimensional problems in physics.
Complex analysis is one of the classical branches of mathematics with roots in the 19 th century
and just prior. Important mathematicians associated with complex analysis include Euler,
Gauss, Bernhard, Riemann, Cauchy, Weirstrass, and many more in the 20th century. Complex
analysis, in modern times, has become very popular through a new boost from complex
dynamics and the picture of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions. Another
important application of complex analysis is in string theory which studies conformal invariants
in quantum field theory.
1.2 Function of Complex Variable: Let us consider a number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑖 = −1.
Here𝑥 and 𝑦 are real numbers. The number 𝑧 is called a complex number. The real numbers
𝑥and 𝑦are called the real and imaginary parts of the complex number 𝑧. The complex number 𝑧
is represented by the point 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 in the Argand’s diagram.
If 𝑟, 𝜃 are the polar co-ordinates of the point 𝑃, then 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
𝑦
Here 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is called the modulus of 𝑧 and it is denoted as 𝑧 . Also,𝜃 = tan−1 is
𝑥
called the argument of z and is denoted as arg (z).
Thus, every non-zero complex number z can be expressed as 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .

Figure 1.1
Also, the complex number 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦is called the conjugate of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and is denoted as 𝑧 .
Thus, 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦.
We can also derive the following properties:
2
(i) 𝑧 = 𝑧, 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧
𝑧+𝑧 𝑧−𝑧
(ii) 𝑅 𝑧 = ,𝐼 𝑧 =
2 2𝑖
2-2 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Here 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦is called the complex variable or complex function. A complex function is a
function that is defined for complex numbers in some set S and takes on complex values. If C
denotes the set of complex numbers, and f is such a function, then we write it as 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝐶. This
simply means that 𝑓 𝑧 is a complex number for each z in S. The set S is called the domain of
f.
For example, if S consists of all z with 𝑧 < 1 and 𝑓 𝑧 is defined as 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 for 𝑧 in 𝑆,
then 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝐶 and f is a complex function.
Often we define a complex function by some explicit expression in z, e.g. 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , where
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑤(𝑠𝑎𝑦).
∴ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦)
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦.
Here 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are respectively the real and imaginary parts of w. Also 𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑣 are, in turn,
functions of real variables𝑥and𝑦.
If corresponding to each value of z, there exists one and only one value of𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧), then 𝑤 is
called a single valued function. If corresponding to one value of 𝑧, there exist more than one
values of 𝑤, then 𝑤 is called a multi-valued function of z.
1.3 Limit of 𝒇(𝒛): The number 𝑙is said to be the limit of the complex function 𝑓 𝑧 as 𝑧
approaches 𝑧0 if for every 𝜖 > 0, there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑙 < 𝜖 whenever 𝑧 − 𝑧0 < 𝛿.
The limit is denoted as lim𝑧→𝑧𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑙.
1.4 Continuity of 𝒇(𝒛)
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at the point 𝑧0 if 𝑓(𝑧0 ) exists, lim𝑧→𝑧𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 exists and
lim𝑧→𝑧𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧0 ). i.e. in the case of a continuous function, the limiting value of 𝑓(𝑧) as 𝑧
approaches 𝑧0 coincides with the value 𝑓(𝑧0 ).
A function is said to be continuous in a domain if it is continuous at every point of the domain.
If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is not continuous at 𝑧0 , then either 𝑓(𝑧0 ) does not exist, or lim𝑧→𝑧𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 does
not exist or lim𝑧→𝑧𝑜 𝑓 𝑧 ≠ 𝑓 𝑧0 . In this case, the function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be discontinuous at
𝑧0 .
Note1: If 𝑓 𝑧 and𝑔 𝑧 are continuous functions in the domain 𝑆, then 𝑓 𝑧 + 𝑔 𝑧 , difference
𝑓 − 𝑔, product 𝑓𝑔 and quotient 𝑓/𝑔 are are all continuous in S. The continuous function of a
continuous function is always continuous.
Note 2 : If the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is continuous, then both 𝑢 and 𝑣will be continuous.
1.5 Derivative of 𝒇(𝒛)
If 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is a single-valued function of the variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , then the derivative or
differential coefficient of 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is defined as
𝑑𝑤 𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧)
= 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = lim ,
𝑑𝑧 𝑧→𝑧𝑜 𝛿𝑧
provided the limit exists, and is independent of the manner in which 𝛿𝑧 → 0.
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-3

1.6 Analytic Function

A single-valued function𝑓(𝑧) is called an analytic function if 𝑓 𝑧 possesses a unique derivative
at every point of a region R.
An analytic function is also called a regular function or holomorphic function. A point at which
the function is not analytic is called a singular point.
A function is said to be analytic in a certain domain D if it is analytic at every point in that
domain. For example, the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 , sin 𝑧 , cosh 𝑧 are analytic functions at every point
of the domain.
1.6.1 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for 𝒇(𝒛) to be Analytic
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) to be
analytic in region R, are
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
(i) , , , are continuous functions of 𝑥, 𝑦 in the region R and
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
(ii) = ; = − (Cauchy – Riemann equations).
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Proof. Necessary Condition

Let 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, where 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, be analytic in the region 𝑅.
Let 𝛿𝑥 and 𝛿𝑦 be the increments given to 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively. If 𝛿𝑢 and 𝛿𝑣 are the
corresponding increments in 𝑢 and 𝑣 respectively, then
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝛿𝑢 + 𝑖 𝑣 + 𝛿𝑣
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝛿𝑢 + 𝑖𝛿𝑣
Hence
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣
= +𝑖
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣
∴ lim = lim + 𝑖 … … … … … . (1)
𝛿𝑧 →0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧 →0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧
Since the function 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function, the above limit must exist and must be unique
as 𝛿𝑧 approches zero in any manner.
Let us firstly assume that 𝛿𝑧 → 0 along the real axis. Then 𝛿𝑦 = 0 and𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥.
∴ From (1), we have
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣
lim = lim +𝑖
𝛿𝑧 →0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 →0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= lim + 𝑖 lim = + 𝑖 … … … … … … (2)
𝛿𝑥 →0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 →0 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Let us now assume that 𝛿𝑧 → 0 along the imaginary axis. Then 𝛿𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛿𝑧 = 𝑖𝛿𝑦.
∴ From (1), we have
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓 (𝑧) 𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣
lim = lim + 𝑖
𝛿𝑧 →0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 →0 𝑖𝛿𝑦 𝑖 𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= −𝑖 lim + lim = −𝑖 + … … … . . . (3)
𝛿𝑦 →0 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦 →0 𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
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Since 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic, hence it must be differentiable in the region R. For the service of the
purpose, both the limits given by (2) and (3) should exist and should be the same i.e.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ 𝑖 = −𝑖 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
⟹ = ; =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⟹ = ; =− [Cauchy – Reimann (C-R) equations]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

These are the necessary conditions for the function𝑓(𝑧) to be analytic.

Sufficient Condition
Let us assume that 𝑤 = 𝑓 (𝑧) is a single-valued function possessing partial derivatives
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
, , and such that = and = − .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Then, 𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 … … … … (4)

By using the Taylor’s theorem of two variables, 𝑢 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦 and 𝑣 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦
can be expanded so as to retain the terms only up to first powers of 𝛿𝑥𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛿𝑦.
∴ From (4), we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 + + 𝑖 𝛿𝑥 + + 𝑖 𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
=𝑓 𝑧 + + 𝑖 𝛿𝑥 + − + 𝑖 𝛿𝑦 [from C-R equations]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=𝑓 𝑧 + + 𝑖 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 𝛿𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=𝑓 𝑧 + + 𝑖 (𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
or, 𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑓 𝑧 = + 𝑖 𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 −𝑓 𝑧 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
or , = + 𝑖
𝛿𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑓 𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧 −𝑓 𝑧 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = lim𝛿𝑧 →0 = + 𝑖 = −𝑖 (by C-R equations)
𝛿𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Hence 𝑓′(𝑧) will exist at each point of the region R.

So the function 𝑓 𝑧 will be analytic, thereby proving the sufficient condition.
1.6.2 Cauchy – Riemann Equations in Polar Co-ordinates
Let (𝑟, 𝜃) be the polar co-ordinates of the point whose Cartesian co-ordinates are (𝑥, 𝑦), then
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
∴ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Hence 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ).
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-5

Differentiating it partially w.r.t. 𝑟and𝜃,we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ 𝑖 = 𝑓′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
and + 𝑖 = 𝑓′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟𝑖 𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑟 −
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= −𝑟 ∴ =− … … . (1)
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
=𝑟 ∴ = … … … … . . (2)
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
which are the required C-R equations.
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. 𝜃, we have
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣
= − 𝑟 … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝜕𝜃 2 𝜕𝜃𝜕𝑟
Differentiating (2) partially w.r.t. 𝑟, we have
𝜕2𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕 2 𝑣
= − +
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑟𝜕𝜃
1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕2 𝑣
= − 𝑟 + [from (2)]
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕2𝑢
= − − [from (3)]
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2

𝜕 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕 2 𝑢
∴ + + =0
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕 2 𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕 2 𝑣
Similarly, + + =0
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
1.7 Harmonic Functions
𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
Any solution of the Laplace’s equation + = 0 is called harmonic function.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
If 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function in the region R, then 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 will satisfy C-R
equations i.e.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= … … … … . … … … … … … … . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= − … … … … … … . . … … … … (2)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. 𝑥and (2) w.r.t. 𝑦, we obtain
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣
= … … … … … … … … . … … (3)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣
= − … … … … … … … . . … … (4)
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
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Adding (3) and (4), we obtain

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
+ =0 ∵ = . … … … … (5)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Similarly, differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. 𝑦 and (2) w.r.t. 𝑥, we obtain
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣
= 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6)
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢 −𝜕 2 𝑣
= … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
Subtracting (7) from (6), we obtain
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ =0 ∵ = . … … … . (8)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Thus, the real and imaginary parts of the analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 satisfy the Laplace’s equation.
Hence, 𝑢 and 𝑣 are known as harmonic functions.
Note: The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are called conjugate functions. If
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function, then 𝑢 and 𝑣 are conjugate functions. The relation
between two conjugate functions is given by C-R equations.
1.8 Orthogonal System
Two families of curves 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶1 … … … … . . (1)
and 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶2 … … … … . (2)
are defined by an analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. 𝑥, we obtain
𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ = 0, giving = − 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 = 𝑚1 (say)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
Similarly, from (2), we obtain
𝜕𝑣
𝑑𝑦
= − 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑚2 (say)
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∙ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝑚1 𝑚2 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 = −1 ∵ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
∙
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Thus, the product of the slopes of the curves (1) and (2) is -1. The curves, therefore, intersect
each other at right angles. So, they form an orthogonal system.
1.9 Application of Analytic Functions to Flow Problems
Let us consider a two dimensional irrotational motion of an incompressible fluid in xy-plane. If
𝑉 is the velocity of a fluid particle in the flow-field, then
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑗
Since the motion is irrotational, hence there exists a scalar function ∅(𝑥, 𝑦) such that
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-7

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
𝑉 = ∇∅ = 𝑖+ 𝑗…………… 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
From (1) and (2), we obtain
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
𝑣𝑥 = , 𝑣𝑦 = … … … … … . (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
The scalar function ∅ (𝑥, 𝑦) giving velocity components is called the velocity potential. Since
the fluid is incompressible, the equation of continuity will give
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦
∇. 𝑉 = 0 i. e. + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝛿𝑦
or,
𝜕 𝜕∅ 𝜕 𝜕∅
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
or,
𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
+ = 0.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Thus, ∅ is satisfying the Laplace’s equation. Hence, ∅ is a harmonic function.
The function ∅ can now be treated as the real part of the analytic function.
𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = ∅ 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝜓 (𝑥, 𝑦)
So, the conjugate functions ∅𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜓satisfy the C-R equations
𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜓 𝜕∅ −𝜕𝜓
= ; = … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Now, the slope of the curve 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶 ′ will be helpful in the interpretation of the conjugate
function 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 . The slope is given by
𝜕𝜓 𝜕∅
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= − 𝜕𝑥 = … … … … … . … … . [From (4)]
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜓 𝜕∅
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑣𝑦
= .
𝑣𝑥
This indicates that the resultant velocity 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 of the fluid particle is along the tangent
to the curve 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶 ′ . So, the fluid particles move along such curves that are known as
stream lines. The function 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 is called stream function.
The curves represented by ∅ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶 are called equipotential lines.
Since ∅ 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 are the conjugate functions of the analytic function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧), hence
the equipotential lines ∅ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶 and the stream lines 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐶 ′ intersect each other
orthogonally.
Also,
𝑑𝑤 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜓 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
= +𝑖 = − 𝑖 From (4)
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑖𝑣𝑦
2-8 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑑𝑤
Hence, the magnitude of the resultant velocity of the fluid particle = = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 .
𝑑𝑧

The function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) representing the flow pattern is called complex potential.
𝑥 𝑦
Example 1.1 Determine whether the function 𝑓 𝑧 = + 𝑖 is an analytic
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
function.
𝑥 𝑦
Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = +𝑖
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑥 𝑦
⟹𝑢= ,𝑣 =
𝑥2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑦2
2

𝜕𝑢 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝜕𝑢 −2𝑥𝑦
∴ = 2 , = 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2 2

and
𝜕𝑣 −2𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
= , =
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦2
2 2 𝜕𝑦 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

Hence,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
≠ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≠−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
i.e. the Cauchy – Riemann equations are not satisfied. So, the given function is not analytic.
𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧
Example 1.2 Prove that 𝑓 𝑧 = sin 𝑕𝑧 = is analytic function of the variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
2
Solution: Here
𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑥−𝑖𝑦 1 𝑥 𝑖𝑦
𝑓 𝑧 = = = 𝑒 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑖𝑦
2 2 2
1
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑥 (cos 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
2
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
= cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦
2 2
⇒ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = cos 𝑦 sin 𝑕𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 cos 𝑕𝑥
⇒ 𝑢 = cos 𝑦 sin 𝑕𝑥 , 𝑣 = sin 𝑦 cos 𝑕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
∴ = cos 𝑦 cos 𝑕𝑥 , = − sin 𝑦 sin 𝑕𝑥 , = sin 𝑦 sin 𝑕𝑥 , = cos 𝑦 cos 𝑕𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ = ; =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
i.e. the C-R equations are satisfied. Hence, the function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic.
Example 1.3 Find a function 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 which is analytic if 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .
Solution: Given that 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑥 = and = −2𝑦 = − (by C − R equations)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
Now = 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑓1 (𝑥) after integration w.r.t. 𝑦…………………..(1)
𝜕𝑦
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-9

From (1), we have therefore

𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑦 + 𝑓1′ (𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
But
𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑦 ⇒ 2𝑦 + 𝑓1′ 𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥
⇒ 𝑓1′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝑓1 𝑥 = 𝑐, where𝑐 is constant
∴ 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
∴ 𝑤 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐 .
Example 1.4 Show that 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1 is a harmonic function and hence
determine the corresponding analytic function.
Solution: Given that 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1, we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 ⇒ 2 = 6𝑥 + 6
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 ⇒ 2 = −6𝑥 − 6
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
∴ + =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
i.e. the function 𝑢 is harmonic.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Now, = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 = (by C-R equations)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

∴ 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝜙(𝑥)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ = 6𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 + ∅′ 𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 ∵ =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
⇒ ∅′ 𝑥 = 0
⇒∅ 𝑥 =𝑐
∴ 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
Hence, 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1 + 𝑖(3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐).
Example 1.5 Find the analytic function whose imaginary part is 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦 .
Solution: Given that 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦), we have
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = − by C − R equation … … . . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢
⇒ = −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑦
Integrating w.r.t. 𝑦, we obtain
𝑢 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + ∅(𝑥)
2-10 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + ∅′ 𝑥 = by C − R equations
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
⇒ ∅′ (𝑥) = 0
⇒ ∅ 𝑥 =𝑐
∴ 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐.
Hence, 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 cos 𝑦 .
Example 1.6: Find 𝑚 such that the function 𝑓(𝑧) expressed in polar co-ordinates as 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 2 sin 𝑚𝜃 is analytic.
Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 2 sin 𝑚𝜃
⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 , 𝑣 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝑚𝜃
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
⇒
= 2 𝑟 cos 2𝜃 , = −2 𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑟 sin 𝑚𝜃 , = 𝑟 2 𝑚 cos 𝑚𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
Now, by C-R equations, we have
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
= ; =−
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
1
⇒ 2𝑟 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑚𝑟 2 cos 𝑚𝜃 = 𝑚𝑟 cos 𝑚𝜃 ;
𝑟
1
2𝑟 sin 𝑚𝜃 = − −2𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃 = 2𝑟 sin 2𝜃
𝑟
⇒ 𝑚=2
Example 1.7 Show that the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 is not regular at the origin, although
Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied.
Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥𝑦 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦 , 𝑣 = 0
Now at the origin i.e. at (0,0), we have
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 𝑥, 0 − 𝑢(0,0) 0−0
= Lt = Lt =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝑢 0, 𝑦 − 𝑢(0,0) 0−0
= Lt = Lt =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 →0 𝑦 𝑦→0 𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝑣 𝑥, 0 − 𝑣(0,0) 0−0
= Lt = Lt =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝑣 𝑥, 0 − 𝑣(0,0) 0−0
= Lt = Lt =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 →0 𝑥 𝑦 →0 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Thus, = ; =− .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-11

Hence, the C-R equations are satisfied at the origin.

Now,
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓 0 𝑥𝑦 − 0
𝑓 ′ 0 = Lt = Lt
𝑧→0 𝑧−0 𝑧→0 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

If 𝑧 → 0 along the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, we obtain

𝑚𝑥 2 𝑚 𝑚
𝑓 ′ 0 = Lt = Lt =
𝑥→0 𝑥(1 + 𝑖𝑚) 𝑥→0 1 + 𝑖𝑚 1 + 𝑖𝑚
This limit is not unique as it depends on 𝑚. So, 𝑓 ′ (0) does not exist. Hence the function 𝑓(𝑧) is
not regular at the origin.
Example 1.8 If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic, show that
2 2
𝜕𝑓 𝑧 𝜕𝑓 𝑧
+ = 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Solution: Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
𝜕𝑓 𝑧 1 2 −
1 𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥 𝑢𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑢𝑦
∴ = 𝑢 + 𝑣2 2 2𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑥 = 1 = 1 [∵ 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 ]
𝜕𝑥 2
𝑢2 + 𝑣2 2 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 2
or,
2
2
𝜕𝑓 𝑧 𝑢𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑢𝑦 𝑢2 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣 2 𝑢𝑦2 − 2𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
= 1 = … … … … … (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 2

Also,
𝜕𝑓 𝑧 1 2 −
1 𝑢𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦 𝑢𝑢𝑦 − 𝑣𝑢𝑥
= 𝑢 + 𝑣2 2 2𝑢𝑢𝑦 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑦 = 1 = 1 [∵ 𝑢𝑥 = −𝑣𝑦 ]
𝜕𝑦 2
𝑢2 + 𝑣2 2 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 2
or,
2
𝜕𝑓 𝑧 𝑢2 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣 2 𝑢𝑥2 − 2𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑥 𝑢𝑦
= … … … … … (2)
𝜕𝑦 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
∴ From (1) and (2), we have
2 2
𝜕𝑓 𝑧 𝜕𝑓 𝑧 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 (𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 )
+ = = 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 [∵ 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2
= 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
.
Example 1.9 Find the analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 where 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 𝑦 +
2 sin 𝑥.
Solution: Here 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 2 sin 𝑥
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 2 cos 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦
𝑢𝑦 = −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥
∴ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
Hence 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
+2 cos 𝑥 + 𝑖(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦)
2-12 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

By Milne-Thompson method, let us replace 𝑥 by 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 0 to obtain.

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 2 cos 𝑧 + 𝑖 0 = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 2 cos 𝑧
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑒 𝑧 + 2 sin 𝑧 + 𝑐, after integration
⇒ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 2 sin 𝑧 + 𝑐.
2𝑥𝑦 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦 )
Example 1.10 Show that for 𝑓 𝑧 = if 𝑧 ≠ 0, 𝑓(𝑧) = 0 if 𝑧 = 0, the C-R equations
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
are satisfied at the origin but 𝑓′(𝑧) does not exist at the origin.
Solution: C-R equations at origin:
2𝑥 2 𝑦+2𝑥𝑦 2 𝑖 2𝑥 2 𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 2
Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = ⇒𝑢= 2,𝑣 =
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

𝜕𝑢 𝑢 𝑥, 0 − 𝑢(0,0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑥→𝑜 𝑥 𝑥→𝑜 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 0, 𝑦 − 𝑢(0,0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 →𝑜 𝑦 𝑦 →𝑜 𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝑣 𝑥, 0 − 𝑣(0,0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
𝜕𝑥 𝑥→𝑜 𝑥 𝑥→𝑜 𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝑣 0, 𝑦 − 𝑣(0,0) 0−0
= lim = lim =0
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 →𝑜 𝑦 𝑦 →𝑜 𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ = and =− at 𝑧 = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Thus, the C-R equations are satisfied at the origin.

Derivative at 𝑧 = 0:
2𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑓(0) −0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑓 ′ 0 = lim = lim
𝑧→𝑜 𝑧−0 𝑧→𝑜 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

2𝑥𝑦 𝑥→0 , 𝑦→0

= lim𝑧→𝑜 = 0 as
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑦→0 , 𝑥→0
and
2𝑥𝑦 2𝑚𝑥 2 2𝑚 2𝑚
= lim = lim = lim = ≠ 0.
𝑦 →𝑚𝑥 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥→𝑜 𝑥 2 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2 𝑥→𝑜 1 + 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚2
Thus, the derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) does not exist at 𝑧 = 0.
Example 1.11 Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 = 𝑐.
Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 , then 𝑣 = constant family of the curves are required to be found
out. The trajectories 𝑢 = constant and 𝑣 = constant will be orthogonal if the function 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic.
Here 𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 = 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 = −𝑣𝑥
3 2 2 𝑦4
∴ 𝑣= 𝑥 𝑦 − + ∅(𝑥)
2 4
which gives
𝑣𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 + ∅′ 𝑥 = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-13

⇒ ∅′ 𝑥 = −𝑥 3
𝑥4
⇒ ∅ 𝑥 =− +𝑐
4
3 2 2 𝑦4 𝑥4
∴𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑦 − − + 𝑐.
2 4 4
The required orthogonal trajectories will, therefore, be
𝑣 = constant
or,
3 2 2 𝑦4 𝑥4
𝑥 𝑦 − − + 𝑐 = constant
2 4 4
or,
6 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 4 − 𝑥 4 = constant.
𝑥 3 1+𝑖 −𝑦 3 (1−𝑖)
Example 1.12 Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑧) defined by 𝑓 𝑧 = , 𝑧 ≠ 0 and
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑓 0 = 0 is continuous and the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at origin, yet 𝑓 ′ (0)
does not exist.
𝑥 3 1+𝑖 −𝑦 3 (1−𝑖) 𝑥 3 −𝑦 3 𝑥 3 +𝑦 3
Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = = +𝑖
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

𝑥3 − 𝑦3 𝑥3 + 𝑦3
⇒𝑢= , 𝑣=
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
At the origin, we have
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 𝑥, 0 − 𝑢(0,0) 𝑥 − 0
= lim = =1
𝜕𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝑢 0, 𝑦 − 𝑢(0,0) −𝑦 − 0
= lim = = −1
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 →0 𝑦 𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝑣 𝑥, 0 − 𝑣(0,0) 𝑥 − 0
= lim = =1
𝜕𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝑣 0, 𝑦 − 𝑣(0,0) 𝑦 − 0
= lim = =1
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 →0 𝑦 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Hence = and =− at the origin.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Thus, the C-R equations are satisfied at the origin.

Also,
𝑥 3 1 + 𝑖 − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖)
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim = lim − 𝑦 1 − 𝑖 = 0
𝑧→0 𝑥→0 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑦 →0
𝑦 →0

𝑥 3 1 + 𝑖 − 𝑦 3 (1 − 𝑖)
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = lim = lim − 𝑥 1 + 𝑖 = 0
𝑧→0 𝑦 →0 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥→0
𝑥→0

Also 𝑓 0 = 0 (given). Thus, lim𝑧→0 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(0) when 𝑥 → 0 first and then 𝑦 → 0 and also
vice-versa.
Now, let both 𝑥 and 𝑦 tend to zero simultaneously along the path 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥. Then
2-14 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑥3 1 + 𝑖 − 𝑦3 1 − 𝑖 𝑥 3 1 + 𝑖 − 𝑚3 𝑥 3 1 − 𝑖
lim 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑦→𝑚𝑥
lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥→0 1 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2
𝑥→0

𝑥{ 1 + 𝑖 − 𝑚3 1 − 𝑖 }
= lim =0
𝑥→0 1 + 𝑚2
Hence, lim𝑧→0 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓(0) in whatever manner 𝑧 → 0. So, the function 𝑓(𝑧) is continuous at
the origin.
But
′
𝑓 𝑧 −𝑓 0 𝑓 𝑧 𝑥3 − 𝑦3 + 𝑖 𝑥3 + 𝑦3
𝑓 0 = lim = lim = lim
𝑧→0 𝑧 𝑧→0 𝑧 𝑧→0 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
If 𝑧 → 0 along the path 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, then
1 − 𝑚2 + 𝑖(1 + 𝑚3 )
𝑓′ 0 =
1 + 𝑚3 (1 + 𝑚𝑖)
which assumes different values as 𝑚 varies. So, 𝑓(𝑧) is not unique at the origin i.e.𝑓 ′ (0) does
not exist. Thus, the function 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic at the origin even though it is continuous at the
origin, and C-R equations are also satisfied at the origin.
𝜕2 𝜕2 2
Example 1.13 If 𝑓(𝑧) is a regular function of 𝑧, prove that 2 + 𝑓 𝑧 = 4 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, then 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2

2
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = ∅ 𝑥, 𝑦 say
𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ = 2𝑢 + 2𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Hence,
2 2
𝜕2∅ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
2
=2 + 2𝑢 2
+2 + 2𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
Similarly,
2 2
𝜕2∅ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
2
=2 + 2𝑢 2
+2 + 2𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2
Hence
2 2
𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
2
+ 2= 2 +2 + 2𝑢 + + 2𝑣 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑣 2
+2 +2 … … … … … … … . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Since 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is a regular function of 𝑧, hence 𝑢, 𝑣 will satisfy C-R equations and the
Laplace equation i.e.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 ∂2 u ∂2 u ∂2 v ∂2 v
= , = − and + = 0, + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∴ From (1), we have
2 2 2 2
𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
2
+ 2= 2 +2 − +2 +2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-15

2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=4 + = 4 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
or,
𝜕2 𝜕2
+ ∅ = 4 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
or,
𝜕2 𝜕2 2
+ 𝑓 𝑧 = 4 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Example 1.14 If an electrostatic field in the xy-plane is given by the potential function
∅ = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 , find the stream function.
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓 , then 𝑓(𝑧) will be an analytic function as 𝜙 and 𝜓 are the
harmonic functions. So, the C-R equations will also be satisfied to obtain
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓
= and =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
Also, 𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖 = −𝑖 = 6𝑥𝑦 − 𝑖 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 (∵ 𝜙 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

By Milne- Thompson method, let 𝑥 → 𝑧 and 𝑦 → 0 to obtain

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = −3𝑧 2 𝑖
or,
𝑓 𝑧 = −𝑧 3 𝑖 + 𝑐 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓
or,
− 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 3 𝑖 + 𝑐 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓
or,
3 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑖 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑐 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓
⇒ 𝜓 = 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 .
Example 1.15 If 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) and 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is an analytic function
of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, find 𝑓(𝑧) in terms of 𝑧.
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, then
𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑣
∴ 1+𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢−𝑣 +𝑖 𝑢+𝑣
or,
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉, where 𝐹 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 , 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣, 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
or,
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖 = −𝑖 … … … … … . (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
But
𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
⇒ = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 , = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
∴ From (1), 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 − 𝑖(3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 )
2-16 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

As per the provision of Milne-Thompson method, let 𝑥 → 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 0 to obtain

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 2 𝑖 = 3 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 2
or,
𝐹 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑧3 + 𝑐
or,
1 + 𝑖 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑧3 + 𝑐
or,
1−𝑖 3 𝑐
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 +
1+𝑖 1+𝑖
or,
𝑓 𝑧 = −𝑖 𝑧 3 + 𝐴,
which is the required function.
Example 1.16 If 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function with constant modulus, show that 𝑓(𝑧) is
constant.
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣, then

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = constant

⇒ 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 = constant = c say … … … … … (1)

∴ From (1), we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
2𝑢+ 2𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 +𝑣 − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
⇒𝑢 −𝑣 = 0 … … … … … … … (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
From (1), we also have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
2𝑢 + 2𝑣 =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
⇒ 𝑢 +𝑣 = 0 … … … … … … . (3)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Squaring and adding (2) and (3), we have
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒𝑐 + − =0 by C − R Equations
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⇒ + =0 (∵ 𝑐 ≠ 0)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
=0
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-17

⇒ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 0
So, 𝑓 𝑧 = constant.
Example 1.17 Find the analytic function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃) such that 𝑣 𝑟, 𝜃 =
𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 2.
Solution: Using C-R equations in polar co-ordinates, we have
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑟 = = −2𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 … … … … … … … . . . (1)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
− = = 2𝑟 cos 2𝜃 − cos 𝜃 … … … … … … … … . … . . 2
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
From (1),
𝜕𝑢
= −2𝑟 sin 2𝜃 + sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑟
∴ 𝑢 = −𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝜙 𝜃 … … … … … … . . … (3)
Hence,
𝜕𝑢
= −2𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝜙 ′ 𝜃 = −2𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 … … . . . (4)
𝜕𝜃
⇒ 𝜙′ 𝜃 = 0
or,
𝜙 𝜃 = 𝑐, c being constant
∴ 𝑢 = −𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
Hence 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = −𝑟 2 sin 2𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑐 + 𝑖 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 2 .

ADDITIONAL SOLVED PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. Prove that 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝒚 + 𝒊 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟑 and find 𝒇′ 𝒛
& 𝑓 𝒛 𝐢𝐧 ′𝒛′
Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
Compare with 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 1 + 2𝑦 1 = 3𝑦 2𝑥 − 2𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 6𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 0 − 3𝑥 2𝑦 + 2𝑥 1 = 3𝑥 2 1 − 0 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= −6𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= & =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
∴ function is analytic
𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2-18 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

By Milne-Thompson’s Method

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦=0

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 𝑖(−2𝑧)

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑖

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = (3𝑧 2 − 2𝑧𝑖) 𝑑𝑧

3𝑧 3 2𝑖𝑧 2
𝑓 𝑧 = − +𝐶
3 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 3 − 𝑖𝑧 2 + 𝐶
𝒙 𝒊𝒚 𝒅𝝎
𝟐. 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐓𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝝎 = − 𝟐 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐥𝐬𝐨 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐝
𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 𝒙 +𝒚 𝟐 𝒅𝒛
𝑥 𝑖𝑦
Solution: 𝜔 = −
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

compare with 𝜔 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝒙 −𝒚
𝒖= 𝒗=
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
+ 𝒚𝟐
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑥 𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑥
= 2 2
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
2

𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝜕 1 1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) =𝑥
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 2
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 − 𝑥(2𝑥 + 0) −1 𝜕 2
= =𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝜕𝑦
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 2 −𝑥
= = 0 + 2𝑦
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

−𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 −2𝑥𝑦
= =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

𝝏𝒗 𝝏 𝒚 𝝏𝒗 𝝏 𝒚
=− =−
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐
𝟐

𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑦 𝑢
= −𝑦 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
2 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
2 𝑣
𝜕 𝜕
−1 𝜕 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑦 − 𝑦 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= −𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2 =−
𝑥 + 𝑦2
2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

𝑦 (2𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑦(0 + 2𝑦)

=+ =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-19

+2𝑥𝑦 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 2 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
= = = −
𝑥 + 𝑦2
2 2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
−𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
= 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= =− ∴ 𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

and
𝑑𝜔 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
= +
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Put 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝜔 −𝑧 2
= 4 +𝑖×0
𝑑𝑧 𝑧
𝑑𝜔 −1
= 2
𝑑𝑧 𝑧
3. Show that 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒉 𝒛 is analytic function

Solution: 𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑕 𝑧

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑕 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)

cos 𝑕 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cos 𝑕 𝐴 cos 𝑕 𝐵 + sin 𝑕 𝐴 sin 𝑕 𝐵

𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑕 𝑥 cos 𝑕 𝑖𝑦 + sin 𝑕 𝑥 sin 𝑕 𝑖𝑦

𝑓 𝑧 = cos 𝑕 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑕 𝑥 sin 𝑦

Compare with𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑢 = cos 𝑕 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕
= cos 𝑕 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑦 cos 𝑕 𝑥 = cos 𝑕 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑕 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
∴ = cos 𝑦 sin 𝑕 𝑥 ∴ = − cos 𝑕 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑣 = sin 𝑕 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕
= sin 𝑕 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = sin 𝑦 sin 𝑕 𝑥 = sin 𝑕𝑥 sin 𝑦 = sin 𝑕𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
∴ = sin 𝑦 cos 𝑕 𝑥 ∴ = sin 𝑕 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= & = ∴ 𝑓 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2-20 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

4. If 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒂𝒙𝟒 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒄𝒚𝟒 + 𝒅𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒚𝟐 + 𝒊 𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝒚 − 𝒆𝒙𝒚𝟑 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 is analytic. Find
const 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆

Solution: 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑦 4 + 𝑑𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 𝑣 = 4𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑒𝑥𝑦 3 + 4𝑥𝑦

𝜕𝑢
= 𝑎 4𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑦 2 2𝑥 + 0 + 𝑑 2𝑥 − 0 = 4𝑎𝑥 3 + 2𝑏𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 0 + 𝑏𝑥 2 2𝑦 + 𝑐 4𝑦 3 + 0 − 2 2𝑦 = 2𝑏𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑐𝑦 3 − 4𝑦
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑣
= 4𝑦 3𝑥 2 − 𝑒𝑦 3 1 + 4𝑦 1 = 12𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑒𝑦 3 + 4𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= 4𝑥 3 1 − 𝑒𝑥 3𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 1 = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑒𝑥𝑦 2 + 4𝑥
𝜕𝑦

Since function is analytic

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

4𝑎𝑥 3 + 2𝑏𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑒𝑥𝑦 2 + 4𝑥

4𝑎 = 4 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1

2𝑏 = −3𝑒 2 −6 = −3𝑒 𝑒=4

2𝑑 = 4 ⇒ 𝑑 = 2
𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

2𝑏𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4𝑐𝑦 3 − 4𝑦 = −12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑒𝑦 3 − 4𝑦

2𝑏 = −12 ⇒ 𝑏 = −6

4𝑐 = 4 ⇒ 𝑐 = 1

4𝑐 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑒 = 4
𝟏 𝒌𝒙
5. Find ‘k’ if 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝒊 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 is analytic
𝟐 𝒚
Solution:
𝟏 𝒌𝒙
𝒖= 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) 𝒗 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝟐 𝒚
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕 𝑘𝑥
= log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑘𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦
1+
𝑦
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-21

1 1 𝜕 2 1 𝜕 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑦2 = 2 2 𝑘𝑥
2 2
2 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦
1+ 2
𝑦
1 1 𝑘𝑥 1
= 2𝑥 + 0 = − 2
2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑦2 + 𝑘2 𝑥2 𝑦
𝑦2
𝜕𝑢 𝑥 𝜕𝑣 −𝑘𝑥
= 2 = 2 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
𝝏𝒖 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝒗 𝝏 𝒌𝒙
= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝝏𝒚 𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒚
1 1 𝜕 2 1 𝜕 𝑘𝑥
= 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2 = 2
2 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑘𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑦
1+
𝑦
1 1
= ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2𝑦 1 𝑘 𝜕 1 𝑘
2 𝑥 + 𝑦2
= 2 2 𝑥 = 2 2 2
𝑘 𝑥 𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑦 +𝑘 𝑥 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝑦 1+ 2
= 2 𝑦 𝑦2
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑣 𝑘𝑦
= 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑘 2 𝑥 2
Since function is analytic
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑥 −𝑘𝑥
= 2 2
𝑥2 +𝑦 2 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑦2

𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥

𝑘 = −1

6. Construct an analytic function if = 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 . Also find harmonic conjugate & P.T. u is
harmonic function

𝒂). 𝑓 𝑧
𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑢
= cos 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑦
Since function is analytic
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= & =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2-22 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Diff w.r.t. ′𝑥′ partially

𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑢
𝑓′ 𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
By MT method

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 𝑦 = 0
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑖 × 0

𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧

𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐

(b). Harmonic Conjugate

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐
Put 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 + 𝑐

= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑐

= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐

= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐

𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦

𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 → harmonic conjugate

(c). Harmonic Function
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= cos 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢 𝑥 𝜕2𝑢
= cos 𝑦 𝑒 = −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ = cos 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
∴ 𝑢 is harmonic function

7. Construct an analytic function if 𝒗 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟔𝒙𝒚 − 𝒚𝟑 . Also find harmonic conjugate

& P.T. 𝒗 is harmonic function

(a). 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 3
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-23

𝜕𝑣
= 3𝑦 2𝑥 + 6𝑦 1 − 0 = 6𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= 3𝑥 2 1 + 6𝑥 1 − 3𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦
Since function is analytic
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= & =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Diff. w.r.t. ′𝑥 ′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
By MT Method

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧 + 𝑖 × 0 = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧

𝑓′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑧3 𝑧2
𝑓 𝑧 =3 + 6 + 𝑐 = 𝑧 3 + 3𝑧 2 + 𝑐
3 2
(b). Harmonic Conjugate

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 3 + 3𝑧 2 + 𝑐
Put 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
3 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 3 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 +𝑐

= 𝑥3 + 3 𝑥 2
𝑖𝑦 + 3 𝑥 𝑖𝑦 2
+ 𝑖𝑦 3
+ 3 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 2
+𝑐

= 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑖 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦𝑖 − 3𝑦 2 + 𝑐

= 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 𝑖 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑐
𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 & 𝑣 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 6𝑥𝑦
Harmonic conjugate
(c). Harmonic function
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2-24 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
= 6𝑦 = −6𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
+ =0 ∴ 𝑢 is harmonic function
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝟏
8. Construct an analytic function if 𝒖 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ). Also find harmonic conjugate &
𝟐
P.T. 𝒖 satisfies Laplace equation

(a). 𝑓(𝑧)
1
𝑢= log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
2
𝜕𝑢 1 1 𝜕 2
= 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1 1 𝑥
= 2 2
2𝑥 =
2 (𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 𝑥 + 𝑦2
2

𝜕𝑢 1 1 𝑦
= 2 2
2𝑦 = 2
𝜕𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
Condition = & =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Diff. w.r.t.′𝑥′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
By M. T.

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧 𝑦=0
𝑧 1
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 2
−0=
𝑧 𝑧
1
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑑𝑧
𝑧
𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑧 + 𝑐

b). Harmonic Conjugate

𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑧 + 𝑐

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑐
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-25

1 𝑦
𝑓 𝑧 = log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑖 tan−1 + 𝑐
2 𝑥
1
𝑢= log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
2
𝑦
𝑣 = tan−1 → 𝐻. 𝐶.
𝑥
(c). Laplace Equation
𝜕𝑢 𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝑦
= 2 = 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝑥 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝑦
2
= =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⋅ 1 − 𝑥(2𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 (1) − 𝑦(2𝑦)

= =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 2
= =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
= =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2
+ =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
9. Construct an analytic function if 𝒗 = 𝒆−𝒙 (𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 + 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚)

(a). 𝒇(𝒛)
𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕 −𝑥
= 𝑒 (𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕 −𝑥
= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑒
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥
= 𝑒 −𝑥 0 + cos 𝑦 + 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑥 (−1)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= 𝑒 −𝑥 [cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 𝑦 − 𝑥 cos 𝑦]
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕 −𝑥
= 𝑒 (𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦)
𝜕𝑦
2-26 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝑦 𝜕
= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + sin 𝑦 +𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑦 cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦 − 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Diff. w.r.t. 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= +𝑖
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
M.T. Method

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 𝑦=0

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖 𝑒 −𝑧 1 − 𝑧

𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑖 1 − 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧

1 − 𝑧 𝑒 −𝑧 −1 𝑒 −𝑧
=𝑖 − +𝐶
−1 −1 × −1
= −𝑖 − 1 − 𝑧 𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝑒 −𝑧 + 𝐶
= 𝑖𝑒 −𝑧 −1 + 𝑧 + 1 + 𝐶
= 𝑖𝑒 −𝑧 𝑧 + 𝐶
10. If 𝒖 = 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 . Construct an analytic function also find harmonic conjugate &
P.T. u is harmonic function

𝑢 = 𝑦 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 0 − 3𝑦 2𝑥 = 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
Condition = & =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Diff w.r.t.′𝑥 ′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-27

𝐵𝑦 𝑀. 𝑇. 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖3𝑧 2

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝑖3𝑧 2

𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑖3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

23
𝑓 𝑧 = 3𝑖 +𝐶
3

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧 3 + 𝐶

(b). Harmonic Conjugate

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧 3 + 𝑐
Put 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
3
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 +𝑐

= 𝑖 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑖𝑦 + 3𝑥 𝑖𝑦 2
+ 𝑖𝑦 3
+𝑐

= 𝑖 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑖𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑦 3 + 𝑐

= 𝑖 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑖 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 +𝑐

= 𝑖 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑐

= − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑖 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑐

𝑢 = −3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 𝑣 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 → Harmonic conjugate

(c). Harmonic Function

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= −6𝑦 1 = −6𝑦 = 3 2𝑦 − 0 = 6𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ = −6𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
Harmonic function

(B). If u + v or u - v (mix)

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑣
2-28 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑓 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 + 𝑖𝑢 − 𝑣

𝑓 𝑧 1+𝑖 = 𝑢−𝑣 +𝑖 𝑢+𝑣

1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢−𝑣 +𝑖 𝑢+𝑣
1+𝑖
Put 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑈; 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑉
1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉 … … . . 5
1+𝑖
11. Construct an analytic function if 𝒖 − 𝒗 = 𝒆𝒙 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚) .
1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉 … … … . . 1
1+𝑖
where 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 and 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣

𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦

𝑈 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (− sin 𝑦 − cos 𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Function is analytic
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉
∴ = & =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1
𝑓 𝑧 = [𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉]
1+𝑖
Diff w. r. t. ′𝑥 ′ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝜕 1 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉
𝑓 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑓′ 𝑧 = −𝑖
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐵𝑦 𝑀. 𝑇. 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0
1
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑖 −𝑒 𝑧
1+𝑖
1
= 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑧
1+𝑖
𝑒𝑧
= 1 + 𝑖 = 𝑒𝑧
1+𝑖
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-29

12. Construct an analytic function if 𝒖 − 𝒗 = 𝒙 − 𝒚 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 )

1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
1+𝑖
𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣

𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

𝑈 = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3

𝑈 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑈
= 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 2 1 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉
= 0 + 3𝑥 2 1 − 3𝑥 2𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑈 −𝜕𝑉
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1
𝑓 𝑧 = [𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉]
1+𝑖
Diff w. r. t. ′𝑥′𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝜕 1 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉
𝑓 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
= −𝑖
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝐵𝑦 𝑀. 𝑇. 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧
1
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 − 𝑖3𝑧 2
1+𝑖
3𝑧 2 3𝑧 2 1 − 𝑖 (1 − 𝑖)
= 1−𝑖 =
1+𝑖 1 + 𝑖 (1 − 𝑖)

3𝑧 2 12 − 𝑖 − 𝑖 + 𝑖 2 3𝑧 2 1 − 2𝑖 − 1
= =
12 − 𝑖 2 1+1
−6𝑧 2 𝑖
= = −3𝑧 2 𝑖
2

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = −3𝑖 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

𝑧3
= −3𝑖 = −𝑧 3 𝑖 + 𝑐
3
2-30 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙
13. Construct an analytic function if 𝒖 + 𝒗 =
𝒆𝟐𝒚 +𝒆−𝟐𝒚 −𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙
1
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
1+𝑖
𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
2 sin 2𝑥
𝑉 =𝑢+𝑣 =
𝑒 2𝑦
+ 𝑒 −2𝑦 − 2 cos 2𝑥
2 sin 2𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥
= =
𝑒 2𝑦 + 𝑒 −2𝑦 2 cosh 2𝑦 − 2 cos 2𝑥
2 − 2 cos 2𝑥
2
2 sin 2𝑥
=
2(cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥)
sin 2𝑥
𝑉=
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 sin 2𝑥
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
𝜕 𝜕
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 (cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥)
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
2 cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 (0 + 2 sin 2𝑥)
=
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
2[cosh 2𝑦 cos 2𝑥 − cos 2 2𝑥 − sin2 2𝑥]
=
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
2[cosh 2𝑦 cos 2𝑥 − 1]
=
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 sin 2𝑥
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
𝜕 1
= sin 2𝑥
𝜕𝑦 cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
−1 𝜕
= sin 2𝑥 2
⋅ cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
(cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥) 𝜕𝑦
− sin 2𝑥
= 2
2 sinh 2𝑦 − 0
cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥
𝜕𝑉 −2 sin 2𝑥 sin 𝑕 2𝑦
=
𝜕𝑦 cosh 2𝑦 − cos 2𝑥 2
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑈 −𝜕𝑉
condition = & =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
1
𝑓 𝑧 = [𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉]
1+𝑖
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-31

Diff w. r. t. ′𝑥′
1 𝜕𝑈 𝑖𝜕𝑉
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑉 𝑖𝜕𝑣
= +
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝐵𝑦 𝑀. 𝑇. 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0
1 −2 sin 2𝑧 sin 0 𝑖 2 cos 0 cos 2𝑧 − 1
𝑓′ 𝑧 = 2
−
1 + 𝑖 cos 20 − cos 2𝑧 cos 0 − cos 2𝑧 2
1 cos 2𝑧 − 1
= 0 + 2𝑖
1+𝑖 1 − cos 2𝑧 2
−2𝑖 1 − cos 2𝑧 1 − cos 2𝑧
= 2
∵ sin2 𝑧 =
1 + 𝑖 1 − cos 2𝑧 2
−2𝑖 1
= × 2 sin2 𝑧 = 1 − cos 2𝑧
1 + 𝑖 1 − cos 2𝑧
−2𝑖 1 −𝑖
= × = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑧
1 + 𝑖 2 sin2 𝑧 1+𝑖
−𝑖
𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1+𝑖
= −𝑖 − cot 𝑧 + 𝑐 = 𝑖 cot 𝑧 + 𝑐

Category – 4 Orthogonal Trajectory 𝒖 𝒗

14. Find orthogonal trajectory of flowing of curves𝒙𝟑 𝒚 − 𝒙𝒚𝟑 = 𝒄

Solution: Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 = 𝑐
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑦 3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 1 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑥 3 1 − 𝑥 3𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Diff w. r. t. ′𝑥′
𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2-32 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝐵𝑦 𝑀. 𝑇. 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 − 𝑖𝑧 3

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = −𝑖𝑧 3

𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = −𝑖 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧

−𝑖𝑧 4
𝑓 𝑧 = +𝑐
4
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
−𝑖 4
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 +𝑐
4
−𝑖 4 0 3 1
= [1 𝑥 𝑖𝑦 +4 𝑥 𝑖𝑦 + 6𝑥 2 𝑖𝑦 2
+ 4𝑥 1 𝑖𝑦 3
+ 𝑥 0 𝑖𝑦 4 ]
4
−𝑖 4
= 𝑥 + 4𝑥 3 𝑖𝑦1 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑦 3 𝑖 + 𝑦 4
4
−𝑖
= 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 + 4𝑖 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 +𝑐
4
−𝑖 4
= 𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑐
4
𝑖 4
= 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 + 𝑐
4
–1 4
𝑢 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 3 𝑣= 𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4
4
Orthogonal trajectory

15. Find orthogonal trajectory of family of curves𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 − 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒄

Solution: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑐

𝜕𝑢
= cos 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Diff w. r. t. ′𝑥′
𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-33

𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑢
𝑓′ 𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝐵𝑦 𝑀. 𝑇. 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑕𝑜𝑑
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0
𝑓′ 𝑧 = cos 0 𝑒 𝑧 − 0 − 𝑖 −𝑒 𝑧 sin 0 − 𝑧
= 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑧

𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑖𝑧 2
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 + +𝑐
2
Put 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
2
𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 + +𝑐
2
𝑖 2
= 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦 2
+𝑐
2
𝑖 2
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑐
2
𝑥2 𝑦2
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + − +𝑐
2 2

𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦
𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + − ← orthogonal tragectory
2 2
Category – 5: Examples on polar form

16. Derive Cauchy’s Riemann’s conditions for analytic function

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

𝑓 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 … … … … 1

Diff equation (1) w.r.t. ‘r’ partially

𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕 𝑖𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟𝑒 = +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
2-34 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = + … … … . . (2)
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
Diff equation 1 wrt ′𝜃′ partially
𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = +
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃
𝜕 𝑖𝜃 𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟 𝑒 = +
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⋅ 𝑖 = +
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃
Divide by 𝑟𝑖
1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝑖𝜕𝑣
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = +
𝑟𝑖 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑖 𝜕𝜃
−𝑖 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
= +
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
1 𝜕𝑣 𝑖 𝜕𝑢
𝑓 ′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = − …………. 3
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
From (2) and (3)
𝜕𝑢 𝑖𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
+ = −
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Compare
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 −1 𝜕𝑢
= & =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
17. Find P, if 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒓𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 + 𝒊𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒑𝜽 is analytic.
Solution: 𝑢 = 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 𝑣 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝑝𝜃
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑟 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑟 2 𝑝 cos 𝑝𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Since, function is analytic
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 −1 𝜕𝑢
= & =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
1 2
2𝑟 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑝 cos 𝑝𝜃
𝑟
2 𝑟 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑝 cos 𝑝𝜃
𝑝=2
18. If 𝒖 = −𝒓𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝜽 find analytic function f (z), also find v and P.T. u satisfies Laplace
equation
Solution: 𝑢 = −𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃
𝜕𝑢
= −3𝑟 2 sin 3𝜃
𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑢
= −3𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃
𝜕𝜃
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-35

Since function is analytic

𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 −1 𝜕𝑢
= & =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
1 𝜕𝑣
−3𝑟 2 sin 3𝜃 =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣
−3𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃 =
𝜕𝜃
−3𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃 𝜕𝜃 = 𝜕𝑣

𝜕𝑣 = −3𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃 𝜕𝜃

−3𝑟 3 − cos 3𝜃
𝑣= +𝑐
3
𝑣 = +𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑐
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

= −𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑐

= 𝑟 3 − sin 3𝜃 + 𝑖 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑐

= 𝑟 3 𝑖 2 sin 3𝜃 + 𝑖 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑐

= 𝑖𝑟 3 𝑖 sin 3𝜃 + cos 3𝜃 + 𝑐

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃 + 𝑐

= 𝑖𝑟 3 𝑒 3𝜃𝑖 + 𝑐
3
= 𝑖𝑟 3 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑐
3
= 𝑖 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑐

𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑧 3 + 𝑐
Laplace equation
𝜕 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕 2 𝑢
+ +
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= −3𝑟 2 sin 3𝜃 , = −3𝑟 3 cos 3𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕2𝑢
= −3 2𝑟 sin 3𝜃 = −6𝑟 sin 3𝜃
𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕2𝑢
= 3 × 3𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃 = 9𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃
𝜕𝜃 2
2-36 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Laplace equation
𝜕 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕 2 𝑢
+ +
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
1 1
= −6𝑟 sin 3𝜃 + −3𝑟 2 sin 3𝜃 + 2 9𝑟 3 sin 3𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
= −6𝑟 sin 3𝜃 − 3𝑟 sin 3𝜃 + 9𝑟 sin 3𝜃
=0
∴ 𝑢 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒂𝟐
19. Find analytic function if 𝒖 = 𝒓 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 also find 𝒗 and 𝒖. P.T. 𝒖 satisfies Laplace
𝒓
equation
𝑎2
Solution: 𝑢= 𝑟+ cos 𝜃
𝑟

𝜕𝑢 1 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 1 + 𝑎2 − 2 = 1− cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟2
𝜕𝑢 𝑎2 𝑎2
= 𝑟+ −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − 𝑟 + sin 𝜃
𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝑟
(a). ‘𝒗’ Since, function is analytic 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣
=
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑎2 1 𝜕𝑣
cos 𝜃 1 − 2
=
𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑎2 𝜕𝑣
cos 𝜃 𝑟 − =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑎2
𝜕𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑟 − 𝑑𝜃
𝑟
𝑎2
𝑣= 𝑟− cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟
𝑎2
𝑣= 𝑟− sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
𝑟
(b). 𝒇(𝒛)
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑎2 𝑎2
= 𝑟+ cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑟 − sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
𝑟 𝑟
𝑎2 𝑖𝑎2
= 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
𝑟 𝑟
𝑎2
= 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 + 𝑐
𝑟
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-37

𝑖𝜃
𝑎2 −𝑖𝜃
= 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑒 +𝑐
𝑟
𝑎2
= 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + +𝑐
𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑎2
=𝑧+ +𝑐
𝑧
(c). Laplace Equation
𝜕𝑢 𝑎2 𝜕𝑢 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 1 − 2 =− 𝑟+ sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝑎2 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 1− 2 =− 𝑟+ cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 2 𝑟
2
= cos 𝜃 0 − 𝑎2 −
𝑟3
2𝑎2
= cos 𝜃
𝑟3
𝜕 2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕 2 𝑢
= 2+ +
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 2
2𝑎2 1 𝑎2 1 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 1 − − 𝑟 + cos 𝜃
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟
2𝑎2 1 𝑎2 1 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 + 1 − − 𝑟 +
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟

2𝑎2 1 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 1 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 + −
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟

2𝑎2 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 1 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 + − − 3
𝑟3 𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟
2𝑎2 1 𝑎2 1 𝑎2
= cos 𝜃 + − 3− − 3
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
=0
Category – 6: Standard Examples
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
1. If f (z) = u + iv is analytic function then P.T. 𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗
= 𝒇′ 𝒛 𝟐

𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

Solution: Since function is analytic

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 −𝜕𝑣
= and =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2-38 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
L. H. S. =
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= × − ×
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
= × − − × ∵ function is analytic
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Diff w. r. t. ′𝑥′
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑓′ 𝑧 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2 2
′ 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = + = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝟐
2. If f (z) = u + iv is analytic function 𝑷. 𝑻. + 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝟒 𝒇′ 𝒛 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
2 2
Solution: 𝑧⋅𝑧 = 𝑧 = 𝑧
2 2
𝑓 𝑧 ⋅𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧
𝑓′ 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓′ 𝑧 = 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
= 𝑓′ 𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝜕2 4𝜕 2
+ =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 ⋅ 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 2
L. H. S. = + × 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2
=4 [𝑓 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
=4 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
= 4 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) ⋅ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
= 4 𝑓′ 𝑧 2
= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-39

𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝒏
3. If 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 is analytic function 𝑷. 𝑻. + 𝒇 𝒛 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒇 𝒛 𝒏−𝟐
⋅ 𝒇′ 𝒛 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
𝑛
𝑛 2 2
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 : 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧
𝑛
= 𝑓 𝑧 ⋅𝑓 𝑧 2
𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑓 2 (𝑧) ⋅ 𝑓 2 (𝑧)
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝑛
L. H. S. = + 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 𝑛 𝑛
=4 [𝑓 2 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓 2 𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝑛 𝜕 𝑛
= 4 𝑓 2 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓 2 (𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑛 𝑛 𝜕 𝑛 𝑛 𝜕𝑓
= 4 𝑓 2 −1 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓 2 −1 𝑧 𝑧
2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧
𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛
= 4 × 𝑓 2 −1 (𝑧)𝑓 2 −1 𝑧 𝑓 ′ (𝑧)𝑓 ′ (𝑧)
4
𝑛
−1
= 𝑛2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓 𝑧 2 𝑓′ 𝑧 2

𝑛
2 2 −1
= 𝑛2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑓′ 𝑧 2

= 𝑛2 𝑓 𝑧 𝑛−2
𝑓′ 𝑧 2
= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
4. If 𝒇 (𝒛) = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 is analytic function𝑷. 𝑻. + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒇(𝒛) = 𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
1
2 2
Solution: log 𝑓(𝑧) = log 𝑓 𝑧
1
= log 𝑓 𝑧 2
2
1
= log[𝑓 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑧 ]
2
1
= [log 𝑓 𝑧 + log 𝑓 𝑧 ]
2
𝜕2 𝜕2
L. H. S. = + log 𝑓(𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2 1
=4 [log 𝑓 𝑧 + log 𝑓 𝑧 ]
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕2 𝜕2
=2 log 𝑓 𝑧 + log 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=2 log 𝑓 𝑧 + ⋅ log 𝑓 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
=0
= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
2-40 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

1. P.T. 𝑭 𝒛 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒛 is analytical function.

Solution: 𝐹 𝑧 = sinh 𝑧
= sinh 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑖𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑖𝑦
𝐹 𝑧 = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
As 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑢 = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 𝑣 = cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= − sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
As = and =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

∴ Function is analytical

2. Determine constant 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅 if 𝑭 𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙𝒚 + 𝒃𝒚𝟐 + 𝒊 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒅𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 is

analytical.
Solution 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑥 2 + 2𝑑𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
As 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑥 2 + 2𝑑𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑥 + 2𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 = 2𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
As function is analytical
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

2𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑦 = 2𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦 2𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 = − 2𝑐𝑥 + 2𝑑𝑦 = −2𝑐𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑦

Compare Compare

2 = 2𝑑 ⇒ 𝑑 = 1 2𝑎 = −2𝑐 ⇒ 1 = −𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1

2𝑎 = 2 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1 2𝑏 = −2𝑑 ⇒ 𝑏 = −1

3. Find the constants 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, 𝒆 if 𝑭 𝒛 = 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒚𝟐 + 𝒙 +

𝒊 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒚𝟑 + 𝒆𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚 is analytical
Solution: As 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-41

𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑦 2 + 𝑥

𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑦 3 + 𝑒𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑑𝑥𝑦 + 𝑒𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 2 − 6𝑦 2 + 𝑒𝑥 + 1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

As function 𝐹 𝑧 is analytical
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑖 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

3𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 = 𝑑𝑥 2 − 6𝑦 2 + 𝑒𝑥 + 1
Compare
3𝑎 = 𝑑 , 𝑏 = −6 , 𝑒=6
Also
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

2𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑦 = − 2𝑑𝑥𝑦 + 𝑒𝑦

2𝑏𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑐𝑦 = −2𝑑𝑥𝑦 − 𝑒𝑦

Compare

2𝑏 = −2𝑑 2𝑐 = −𝑒

2 −6 = −2𝑑 2𝑐 = −6

6=𝑑 𝑐 = −3

∴ 3𝑎 = 6

𝑎=2

4. Find analytical function if 𝒖 = 𝒆𝟐𝒙 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒚 − 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒚

Solution: Given 𝑢 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥 cos 2𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 2𝑦

(i) Derivative
𝜕𝑢
= 2𝑒 2𝑥 𝑥 cos 2𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 2𝑦 + 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 2𝑥 −2𝑥 sin 2𝑦 − 2𝑦 cos 2𝑦 + sin 2𝑦
𝜕𝑦
(ii) Condition
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2-42 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(iii) Dialoge and Replacement
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝐹′ 𝑧 = −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
(iv) By Milne Thomson Method:
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 2𝑒 2𝑧 𝑧 − 0 + 𝑒 2𝑧 − 𝑖 0
= 2𝑒 2𝑧 𝑧 + 𝑒 2𝑧
= 2𝑧 + 1 𝑒 2𝑧
(v) Integration:

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑧 + 1 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧

2𝑧 + 1 𝑒 2𝑧 2 𝑒 2𝑧
𝐹 𝑧 =+ − +𝑐
2 4
2𝑧 + 1 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
= − +𝑐
2 2
5. Find analytical function if 𝒗 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚
Solution: Given 𝑣 = log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 − 2𝑦

(i) Derivative
𝜕𝑣 1
= 2 2𝑥 + 1
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑣 1
= 2 2𝑦 − 2
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
(ii) Condition
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-43

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(iv) By MT Method:

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0
2𝑧
𝐹′ 𝑧 = 0 − 2 + 𝑖 +1
𝑧2+0
2𝑧𝑖 2𝑖
= −2 + 2
+ 𝑖 = −2 + 𝑖 +
𝑧 𝑧
(v) Integration:
2𝑖
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = −2 + 𝑖 + 𝑑𝑧
𝑧
𝐹 𝑧 = −2𝑧 + 𝑖𝑧 + 2𝑖 log 𝑧 + 𝑐

6. Find the imaginary part whose real part is 𝒖 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏
Solution: Given 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1
(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 6𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= −6𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦
𝜕𝑦
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝐹′ 𝑧 = −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2-44 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

(iv) By MT Method:

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧 − 𝑖 0 − 0

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧

(v) Integration:

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 6𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑧3 𝑧2
=3 +6 +𝑐
3 2
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑧 3 + 3𝑧 2 + 𝑐
𝒙
7. Find analytical function whose imaginary part is 𝒗 = 𝒙𝟐 + − 𝒚𝟐
𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐
𝑥
Solution: Given 𝑣 = 𝑥2 + − 𝑦2
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑣 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2𝑥
= 2𝑥 +
𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 2
= 2𝑥 +
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2

𝜕𝑣 −𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
= 2𝑥 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
𝜕𝑣 −2𝑥𝑦
= 2 − 2𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-45

(iv) By MT Method:

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0
−𝑧 2 + 0
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖 2𝑧 +
𝑧2 + 0 2

1
= 𝑖 2𝑧 −
𝑧2
(v) Integration:

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 2𝑧 − 𝑧 −2 𝑑𝑧

𝑧2 𝑧 −2+1
𝐹 𝑧 =𝑖 2 − +𝑐
2 −2 + 1

1
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑖 𝑧2 + +𝑐
𝑧
𝒙
8. Find the analytical function whose imaginary part is 𝒗 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒉𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐
𝑥
Solution: Given 𝑣= + cos 𝑕𝑦 cos 𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑣 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 − 𝑥 2𝑥
= + cos 𝑕𝑦 − sin 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝜕𝑣 −2𝑥𝑦
= 2 + sin 𝑕𝑦 cos 𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(iv) By MT Method:

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0
2-46 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

′
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 2
𝐹 𝑧 = 0+0 +𝑖 − sin 𝑧
𝑧2 + 0 2

−𝑧 2 1
=𝑖 − sin 𝑧 = 𝑖 − − sin 𝑧
𝑧4 𝑧2

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = −𝑖 𝑧 −2 + sin 𝑧

(v) Integration:

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = −𝑖 𝑧 −2 + sin 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝐹 𝑧 = −𝑖 𝑧 −2 + sin 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑧 −1
= −𝑖 + − cos 𝑧 +𝑐
−1

1
=𝑖 + cos 𝑧 + 𝑐
𝑧
9. Find analytical function whose 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚

Solution: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦

(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑣
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= 𝑒 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 + cos 𝑦
𝜕𝑦
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

1
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
1+𝑖
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-47

(iv) By MT Method:
1
𝐹′ 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 0 + 1 + 𝑖 𝑒𝑧 1 + 0
1+𝑖
1 1
= 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑒𝑧
1+𝑖 1+𝑖
𝐹′ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧
(v) Integration:

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐

10. Find analytical function whose

𝒆𝒚 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝝅 𝟑−𝒊
𝒖−𝒗= 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝑭 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟐 𝟐
Solution:
𝑒 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑢 − 𝑣 =
cosh 𝑦 − cos 𝑥
(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑢 cosh 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 0 + sin 𝑥
=
𝜕𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 2

𝜕𝑢 cosh 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

=
𝜕𝑦 cosh 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 2
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

1
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
1+𝑖
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖 −
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝐹′ 𝑧 = −𝑖
1 + 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2-48 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

(iv) By MT Method:

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0

1 1 − cos 𝑧 sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧 − 1 − cos 𝑧 + sin 𝑧 sin 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧

𝐹′ 𝑧 = −𝑖
1+𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 2 1 − cos 𝑧 2

1 sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧 − cos 𝑧 sin 𝑧 − cos 2 𝑧 − sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧 sin 𝑧 − sin2 𝑧 1

𝐹′ 𝑧 = 2
−𝑖
1+𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧

1 cos 𝑧 − cos 2 𝑧 + sin2 𝑧 1

= 2
−𝑖
1+𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧

1 cos 𝑧 − 1 1
= 2
−𝑖
1 + 𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧

1 − 1 − cos 𝑧 𝑖
= 2
−
1 + 𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧

−1 1 𝑖
= +
1 + 𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧
− 1+𝑖 −1
= =
1 + 𝑖 1 − cos 𝑧 1 − cos 𝑧
−1 1 𝑧
∴ 𝐹′ 𝑧 = 𝑧 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
2 sin2 2 2
2
(v) Integration:
1 𝑧
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑑𝑧
2 2
𝑧
1 cot 2 𝑧
𝐹 𝑧 =+ + 𝐶 = cot + 𝐶
2 1 2
2
𝜋
Put 𝑧 =
2
𝜋 𝜋
𝐹 = cot +𝐶
2 4
3−𝑖
=1+𝐶
2
3−𝑖
−1=𝐶
2
3−𝑖−2 1−𝑖
∴𝐶= =
2 2
𝑧 1−𝑖
∴ 𝐹 𝑧 = cot +
2 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-49

𝒙
11. Find analytical function whose 𝒖 + 𝒗 =
𝒙𝟐 +𝒚𝟐

Solution:
𝑥
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 =
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑣 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 1 − 𝑥 2𝑥
=
𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 2
𝜕𝑣 −𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
= 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
𝜕𝑣 −2𝑥𝑦
= 2
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2 2
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

1
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
1+𝑖
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥
1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
1+𝑖 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
1+𝑖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(iv) By MT Method:
1 𝑧 2 + 0 − 2𝑧 2
𝐹′ 𝑧 = 0+𝑖
1+𝑖 𝑧2 + 0 2
𝑖 −𝑧 2 −𝑖 1
= 4
=
1+𝑖 𝑧 1 + 𝑖 𝑧2
𝑖 𝑖 1−𝑖 𝑖 − 𝑖2 1+𝑖
⟹ = × = 2 2
=
1+𝑖 1+𝑖 1−𝑖 1 −𝑖 2
1+𝑖 1
𝐹′ 𝑧 = − 2
2 𝑧
1 + 𝑖 −2
𝐹′ 𝑧 = − 𝑧
2
(v) Integration:
− 1 + 𝑖 −2
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
2
2-50 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

− 1 + 𝑖 𝑧 −1
𝐹 𝑧 = +𝑐
2 −1
1+𝑖
𝐹 𝑧 = +𝑐
2𝑧
12. P.T. 𝒖 = 𝒆𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 + 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 is harmonic
Solution:
𝜕𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑢
= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 6𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑢
= −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝑢
= −𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 6𝑥
𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
⟹ + = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 6𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 6𝑥
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
=0

∴ 𝑢 is harmonic function

13. Find orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟐𝒚𝟐 = 𝒄
Solution: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑦 3 − 2𝑦 2

(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑢
= 6𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 − 4𝑦
𝜕𝑦
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-51

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝐹′ 𝑧 = −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Put 𝑥 = 𝑧, 𝑦 = 0

(iv) By MT Method:
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 4𝑧 − 𝑖 3𝑧 2

(v) Integration:
𝑧2 𝑧3
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 4𝑧 − 𝑖3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 4 − 3𝑖 + 𝑐
2 3

∴ 𝐹 𝑧 = 2𝑧 2 − 𝑖𝑧 3 + 𝑐

(vi) Orthogonal Trajectories

Put 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
2 3
𝐹 𝑧 = 2 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 +𝑐

= 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑖 𝑥 3 + 𝑖3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑦 3 + 𝑐

= 2𝑥 2 + 𝑖4𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑖3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑐

= 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑖 4𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑐
∴ Orthogonal trajectories
= 4𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

14. Find orthogonal trajectories of family of curve 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂, where ′𝒂′ is

constant
Solution: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

(i) Derivative:
𝜕𝑣
= 2 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
= 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦
(ii) Condition:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑎 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑏 =−
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

(iii) Dialoge and Replacement:

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

2-52 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
(iv) By MT Method:

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0
𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖 2 − 3𝑧 2
(v) Integration:

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖 2 − 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

𝑧3
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑖 2𝑧 − 3 +𝑐
3

= 𝑖 2𝑧 − 𝑧 3 + 𝑐
(vi) Orthogonal Trajectories

Put 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
3
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑖 2 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 +𝑐

= 𝑖 2𝑥 + 𝑖2𝑦 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑖3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑖𝑦 3 +𝑐

= 𝑖2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑖3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑐

= −2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 + 𝑖 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑐
∴ Orthogonal trajectories
= −2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3

15. P.T. 𝑭 𝒛 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒊𝒙𝒚 is analytical and find 𝑭′ 𝒛

Solution: 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦

⟹ 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

𝑢 = 𝑥2 − 𝑦2

𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= 2𝑥 = 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
= −2𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⟹ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
∴ 𝐹 𝑧 is analytical function
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-53

⟹ 𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
By MT Method

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧 + 𝑖 0

𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧

16. State true or false with proper justification. There doesn’t exist an analytical function
whose real part is 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟑
Solution: For any analytical function, its real and imaginary part is always harmonic in nature.
𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3
𝜕𝑢
= 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑢
= 6𝑥 − 6𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑢
= −3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦
𝜕2𝑢
= −6𝑦
𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ = 6𝑥 − 6𝑦 + −6𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
= 6𝑥 − 12𝑦 ≠ 0
∴ 𝑢 is not harmonic

∴ 𝑢 cannot form a analytical function

17. Determine the analytical function 𝑭 𝒛 = 𝒖 + 𝒊𝒗 given 𝟑𝒖 + 𝟑𝒗 = 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝒚

Solution:
3𝑢 + 2𝑣 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 16𝑥𝑦 … … … 𝐼

Differentiating (1) with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
3 +2 = −2𝑥 + 16𝑦 … … 𝐴
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Differentiating (1) with respect to 𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
3 +2 = 2𝑦 + 16𝑥 … … 𝐵
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
2-54 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

As 𝐹 𝑧 is analytical
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = − … … … . 𝐼𝐼
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
From (B)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
−3 +2 = 2𝑦 + 16𝑥 … … … … … . 𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Multiplying (A) with (2) and (C) with (3)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∴ 6 +4 = −4𝑥 + 32𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
−9 +6 = 6𝑦 + 48𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
13 = 26𝑦 − 52𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
∴ = 2𝑦 − 4𝑥
𝜕𝑥
From (A)
𝜕𝑢
3 + 2 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 = −2𝑥 + 16𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
3 = −2𝑥 + 16𝑦 − 4𝑦 + 8𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
3 = 6𝑥 + 12𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢
∴ = 2𝑥 + 4𝑦
𝜕𝑥
(II) Dialoge
𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

Differentiating with respect to 𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝐹′ 𝑧 = +𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
(III) By MT Method

Put 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧 + 0 + 𝑖 0 − 4𝑧 = 2𝑧 − 4𝑧𝑖
(IV) Integration

′
𝑧2 𝑧2
𝐹 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝑧 − 4𝑧𝑖 𝑑𝑧 = 2 − 4 𝑖 + 𝑐
2 2

𝐹 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 2 𝑖 + 𝑐
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-55

18. S.T. 𝒖 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 satisfies Laplacian equation

Solution: 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 2 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑦

𝜕𝑢
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 2 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑢
= − sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 2 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 + 2
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑢
= sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 + 2 cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑥
𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝑢
= sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 2 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 − 2
𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
+ = − sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 2 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 + 2 + sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 2 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 − 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

=0 [∴ 𝑢 is satisfying Laplacian Equation]

𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
19. P.T. + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑭′ 𝒛 =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐

𝜕2 𝜕2
Solution: 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 2 + log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2 𝜕2
= + log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 2 1/2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕2 1
=4 log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 2
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕2
=2 log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 ⋅ 𝐹 ′ 𝑧
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
𝜕2
=2 log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 + log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
=2 log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧 + log 𝐹 ′ 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 1
=2 0+ ′ × 𝐹 ′′ 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝐹 𝑧

=20

=0

= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆.
2-56 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝟐
20. S.T. + 𝑭 𝒛 = 𝟒 𝑭′ 𝒛 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐

𝜕2 𝜕2 2 𝜕2
Solution: + 𝐹 𝑧 =4 𝐹 𝑧 ⋅𝐹 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧𝜕 𝑧

𝜕 𝜕
=4 𝐹 𝑧 ⋅𝐹 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 ′
=4 𝐹 𝑧 𝐹 𝑧
𝜕𝑧

= 4 𝐹′ 𝑧 ⋅ 𝐹′ 𝑧

= 4 𝐹′ 𝑧 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-57

EXERCISE
1. If the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 𝑖 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 is analytic, find the
values of the constants 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.
[Ans: a = 2, b = −1, c = −1, d = 2]
1 𝑚𝑥
2. Determine 𝑚 such that the function 𝑓 𝑧 = log(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) + 𝑖 tan−1 is analytic.
2 𝑦

[Ans: 𝑚 = −1]
𝑥 2 𝑦 3 (𝑥+𝑖𝑦 )
3. Show that the function 𝑓 𝑧 = , 𝑧 ≠ 0, 𝑓 0 = 0, is not analytic at the origin
𝑥 6 +𝑦 10
even though it satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equations at the origin.
2
4. Show that 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 is not analytic at any point.
𝑥−𝑖𝑦
5. Show that 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = , 𝑎 ≠ 0 is not analytic function of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, whereas 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣
𝑥−𝑖𝑦 +𝑎
is such a function.
6. Determine the analytic function whose real part is

(i) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 + 1 (ii) log 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 (iii) 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 cos 𝑦 − 𝑦 sin 𝑦)

(iv) cos 𝑥 cos 𝑕𝑦 (v) 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 sin 𝑦 − 𝑦 cos 𝑦
Ans: i 𝑧 3 + 3z 2 + 1 + c ii log z + c iii 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑐 iv cos 𝑧 + 𝑐 v 𝑖 𝑒 −𝑥 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
7. Find the regular function whose imaginary part is
𝑥−𝑦
(i) (ii) cos 𝑥 cos 𝑕𝑦 (iii) sin 𝑕𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

1+i
Ans: i + c ii − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑕𝑦 + 𝑐 iii − cos 𝑕𝑥 sin 𝑦 + 𝑐
𝑧
8. Prove that 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 is harmonic. Find a function 𝑣 such that
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic. Also express 𝑓(𝑧) in terms of 𝑧.
Ans: 𝑣 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 − 3𝑥, 𝑓 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 𝑧 2 − 2 + 3𝑖 𝑧
9. If 𝑤 = ∅ + 𝑖𝜓 represents the complex potential for an electric field and 𝜓 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 +
𝑥
2
𝑥 +𝑦 2 , then determine the function 𝜙.

𝑥
Ans: − 2𝑥𝑦 + +𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
10. If the stream function of an electrostatic field is 𝜓 = 3𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 3 , find the potential
function 𝜙, where 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝜙 + 𝑖𝜓.
[Ans: 𝜙 = 3𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 3 ]
𝑥−𝑦
11. Find the analytic function 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 if (i) 𝑢 − 𝑣 = (ii) 2𝑢 + 𝑣 =
𝑥 2 +4𝑥𝑦 +𝑦 2
1+3𝑖
𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑦 . Ans: i 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑧 3 ii 𝑒𝑧 + c .
5
2-58 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

1.10 Transformation or Mapping

As is known to us, the real function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be graphically represented by a curve in xy-
plane. Similarly, the real function 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) can be represented by a surface in three
dimensional space. But, this method of graphical representation does not hold good in case of
complex functions. This is simply because a complex function 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 i.e. 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 =
𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 involves four real variables. Thus, a four dimensional space is required to represent
it graphically in Cartesian co-ordinates. As it is not possible geometrically, two planes called z-
plane and w-plane are chosen for the graphical representation of complex functions. In the z-
plane, the point 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is plotted and in the w-plane the corresponding point 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is
plotted. Thus, the complex function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) defines the correspondence between points of
these two planes.
Now if the point 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 describes some curve C in the z-plane, the point 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 will
move along a corresponding curve 𝐶 ′ in the w-plane, because to each point (𝑥, 𝑦) there
corresponds a point (𝑢, 𝑣) in w-plane. Thus, the function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) defines a transformation or
mapping of z-plane into w-plane.
To elaborate on the afore-mentioned discussion, let us consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 +
(1 + 𝑖). Let us determine the region 𝑅′ of the w-plane corresponding to the rectangular region
R in the z-plane bounded by
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2.
Now 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1 − 𝑖 = 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑖(𝑦 − 1)
Thus, 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑣 = 𝑦 − 1.
Hence the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2 in the z-plane are transformed onto the lines
𝑢 = 1, 𝑣 = −1, 𝑢 = 2 and 𝑣 = 1 in the w-plane. The region 𝑅 and 𝑅′ are shown as shaded in
the figures.

Figure 1.2(a) Figure 1.2(b)

1.11 Conformal Transformation
Let us consider two curves 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 in the z-plane intersecting each other at the point P. Let
the corresponding curves 𝑐1′ and 𝑐2′ in w-plane intersect each other at the point 𝑃′ under the
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧). If the angle of intersection at the point 𝑃′ in w-plane remains the
same as that at point P in the z-plane, both in magnitude and sense, then the transformation
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be conformal at point P.
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-59

Figure 1.3(a) Figure 1.3(b)

Thus, a transformation which preserves angles both in magnitude and sense between every pair
of curves through a point is said to be conformal at the point.
The conditions under which the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal are given by the
following theorem:
Theorem: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) ≠ 0 in a region R of the z-plane, then the
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal at all points of R.

Figure 1.4(a) Figure 1.4(b)

Proof: Let 𝑃(𝑧) be a point in the region R of the z-plane. Let 𝑃′ (𝑤) be the corresponding point
in the region 𝑅′ of the w-plane. Let the point 𝑃(𝑧) move on the curve 𝐶 and 𝑃′ (𝑤) move on the
corresponding curve 𝐶 ′ .Let 𝑄(𝑧 + 𝛿𝑧) and 𝑄′ (𝑤 + 𝛿𝑤) respectively be the neighbouring
points of 𝑃(𝑧) in z-plane on curve C and 𝑃′ (𝑤) in w-plane on the curve 𝐶′, so that 𝑃𝑄 = 𝛿𝑧
and 𝑃′𝑄′ = 𝛿𝑤 . Then, 𝛿𝑧 is a complex number whose modulus 𝑟 is the length 𝑃𝑄 , and
amplitude 𝜃 is the angle which 𝑃𝑄 makes with x-axis.
′
Hence 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . Similarly, 𝛿𝑤 = 𝑟 ′ 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 where 𝑟′ is the modulus and 𝜃′ is the amplitude of
𝛿𝑤.
𝛿𝑤 𝑟 ′ 𝑖(𝜃 ′ −𝜃)
∴ = 𝑒
𝛿𝑧 𝑟
Let the tangent to the curve 𝐶 at 𝑃 make an angle 𝛼 with x-axis and tangent to 𝐶′ at 𝑃′ make an
angle 𝛼′ with u-axis. Then as 𝛿𝑧 → 0, 𝜃 → 𝛼 and 𝜃′ → 𝛼′.
2-60 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

′
𝑑𝑤 δw r′ 𝑖 𝜃 ′ −𝜃
∴ 𝑓 𝑧 = = lim = lim 𝑒 … … . . (1)
𝑑𝑧 δz→0 δz δz→0 r
As 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 ≠ 0, let 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑖𝜙 . Then 𝜌 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) and 𝜙 = amplitude of 𝑓 ′ (𝑧).
∴ From (1), we have
r′ 𝑖 𝜃 ′ −𝜃
𝜌 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = lim 𝑒 ,
δz→0 r
r′
giving ρ = limδz→0 and 𝜙 = limδz→0 𝜃 ′ − 𝜃 = α′ − α … … … … . 2
r

Let 𝐶1 be another curve through the point 𝑃(𝑧) in the z-plane and 𝐶1′ be the corresponding curve
through 𝑃′ (𝑤) in w-plane. If the tangent to 𝐶1 at 𝑃(𝑧) makes an angle 𝛽 with x-axis and the
tangent to 𝐶1′ at 𝑃′ (𝑤) makes an angle 𝛽 ′ with 𝑢 −axis, then as in (2), we have
𝜙 = 𝛽′ − 𝛽 … … … … … … … … … … … … … 3
From (2) and (3), we have 𝛼 ′ − 𝛼 = 𝛽′ − 𝛽 i.e. 𝛽 − 𝛼 = 𝛽′ − 𝛼 ′ = 𝛾

Figure 1.5(a) Figure 1.5(b)

This shows that the angle between the curves before and after the transformation is preserved in
magnitude and sense. Thus the transformation by the analytic function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) is conformal
at each point where 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) ≠ 0.
Note 1: From (2), it also follows that under the conformal transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 , the lengths
of arcs through P are magnified in the ratio 𝜌: 1, where 𝜌 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) . Thus the infinitesimal
length in z-plane is magnified by the factor 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) in w-plane.
Note 2: A point at which 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 0 is called critical point of the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧).
Note 3: From the relation (2) given above, 𝛼 ′ = 𝛼 + 𝜙, thereby showing that the tangent at P
to the curve C is rotated through an angle 𝜙 under the given transformation.
Note 4: The conjugate functions 𝑢 abd 𝑣 when subjected to conformal transformation remain
conjugate functions.
Note 5: From (2), 𝛼 ′ = 𝛼 + 𝜙 shows that the tangent to the curve C at P is rotated through an
angle 𝜙 = amp 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 under the given transformation.
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-61

Example 1.18 For the conformal transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 , show that

(i) the coefficient of the magnification at 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is 2 2 and
𝜋
(ii) the angle of rotation at 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is .
4
2
Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑤 = 𝑧
∴ 𝑓 ′ 𝑧 = 2𝑧 and 𝑓 ′ 1 + 𝑖 = 2 1 + 𝑖 = 2 + 2𝑖
The coefficient of magnification at 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is, therefore, 𝑓 ′ (1 + 𝑖) = 4 + 4 = 2 2
2 𝜋
The angle of rotation at 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is amp 𝑓 ′ 1 + 𝑖 = tan−1 = .
2 4

1.12 Some Standard Transformations

1.12.1 Translation: 𝒘 = 𝒛 + 𝒄, where ‘c’ is complex constant.
Let us assume that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
Then, the transformation becomes
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) and 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 so that 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 𝑎, 𝑣 = 𝑦 + 𝑏
Thus, this transformation is mere a translation of axes. The shape and size remain the same.
The rectangle OPQN in z-plane is transformed to the rectangle 𝑂′𝑃′𝑄′𝑁′ in the w-plane under
the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + (3 + 𝑖).

Figure 1.6(a) Figure 1.6(b)

1.12.2 Rotation and Magnification: 𝒘 = 𝒄𝒛, where c is complex constant

Let 𝑐 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝛼 , 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 and 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 .
Then the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧 gives
𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝛼 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑝𝑟 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃 +𝛼

⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑝𝑟, 𝜙 = 𝜃 + 𝛼
Thus, this transformation maps a point 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) in the z-plane into a point 𝑃′ (𝑝𝑟, 𝜃 + 𝛼) in the
w-plane. In this way, the transformation comprises the magnification of the radius vector of P
by 𝑃 = 𝑐 and its rotation through an angle 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑐 . However, this transformation maps
the figures in the z-plane into the geometrically similar figures in w-plane. For example, the
rectangle OPQN in the z-plane is transformed to a rectangle 𝑂𝑃′𝑄′𝑁′ in w-plane under the
transformation 𝑤 = 1 + 𝑖 𝑧.
2-62 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Figure 1.7 (a) Figure 1.7(b)

𝟏
1.12.3 Inversion: 𝒘 = .
𝒛

Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 and 𝑤 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 . Then the transformation becomes

1 1
𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 , giving 𝑅 = and 𝜙 = −𝜃.
𝑟 𝑟
1
In this way, a point 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) in z-plane gets mapped into the point 𝑃′ , −𝜃 in w-plane under
𝑟
1
the transformation 𝑤 = .
𝑧

Let us now consider the w-plane superposed on the z-plane such that 𝑃 is (𝑟, 𝜃) and 𝑃1 is
1
, 𝜃 , then
𝑟
1 1
𝑂𝑃1 = = i.e. 𝑂𝑃. 𝑂𝑃1 = 1.
𝑟 𝑂𝑃

Thus, the point 𝑃1 is inverse of 𝑃 with respect to a unit circle with centre at O.

1
Thus, the reflection 𝑃′ of 𝑃1 in the real axis represents 𝑤 = .
𝑧

Figure 1.8
Example 1.19 Prove that the inversion transformation maps a circle in the z-plane into a circle
in w-plane or to a straight line if the circle in the z-plane passes through the origin.
Proof: The general equation of a circle in z-plane can be written as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 … … … … … . … . (1)
1 1
Now the transformation 𝑤 = gives 𝑧 =
𝑧 𝑤
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-63

1 𝑢 − 𝑖𝑣 𝑢 𝑣
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = = 2 2
= 2 2
−𝑖 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝑢 −𝑣
⇒ 𝑥= 2 2
, 𝑦= 2
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
∴ From (1), we obtain
𝑢 2 −𝑣 2 𝑢 −𝑣
+ + 2𝑔 + 2𝑓 2 +𝑐 =0
𝑢 + 𝑣2
2 𝑢 + 𝑣2
2 𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑢 + 𝑣2
or,
1 2𝑔𝑢 2𝑓𝑣
+ 2 − 2 +𝑐 =0
𝑢2 +𝑣 2 𝑢 +𝑣 2 𝑢 + 𝑣2
or,
𝑐 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑔𝑢 − 2𝑓𝑣 + 1 = 0 … … … … … . . (2)
If 𝑐 ≠ 0, then the circle (1) does not pass through the origin and the equation (2) represents a
circle in w-plane.

If 𝑐 = 0, the circle (1) passes through the origin and the equation (2) reduces to 2𝑔𝑢 − 2𝑓𝑢 +
1 = 0 which is a straight line in the w-plane.

1.12.4 Bilinear Transformation

The transformation
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑤= …………………… 1
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
where a, b, c, d are the complex constants and 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 is called bilinear trans-formation.
𝑑𝑤
Here the condition 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 ensures that ≠ 0 , thereby proving that a bilinear
𝑑𝑧
transformation is also a conformal transformation.
If 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0, every point in the z-plane will become a critical point.
The inversion of (1) is
−𝑑𝑤 + 𝑏
𝑧= … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑐𝑤 − 𝑎
which is also a bilinear transformation.
𝑑
Note 1: From (1), it is obvious that each point in the z-plane except the point 𝑧 = −
𝑐
corresponds to a unique point in w-plane. Likewise, (2) shows that each point in the w-plane
𝑎
except the point 𝑤 = corresponds to a unique point in z-plane. Including the images of these
𝑐
two exceptional points as the infinite points in the two planes, it follows that there is one to one
correspondence between all points in the two planes.
Note 2: Invariant Points of Bilinear Transformation:
If 𝑧 maps into itself in the w-plane i.e. if 𝑤 = 𝑧, then we have from (1)
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑧= ,
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
giving 𝑐𝑧 2 + 𝑑 − 𝑎 𝑧 + 𝑏 = 0.
The roots (say: 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ) of this equation are termed as invariant or fixed points of the bilinear
transformation (1). If 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 , the bilinear transformation is said to be parabolic.
2-64 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Note 3: If we divide the numerator and the denominator of the RHS of (1) by one of the four
constants, then (1) has only three essential arbitrary constants. As a matter of this fact, we
require only three conditions to determine a bilinear transformation. For instance, the three
distinct points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 can be mapped into any three specific points 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 .
Example 1.20 Show that a bilinear transformation maps circles into circles.
Proof: A bilinear transformation is given by
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 1
𝑤= = + 2
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 𝑐 𝑐 𝑧 + 𝑑/𝑐
which is a combination of the transformations:
𝑑 1 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 𝑎
𝑤1 = 𝑧 + , 𝑤2 = , 𝑤3 = 2
𝑤2 , 𝑤 = + 𝑤3 .
𝑐 𝑤1 𝑐 𝑐
By these transformations, one can successively pass from z-plane to𝑤1 −plane, from 𝑤1 −
plane to 𝑤2 -plane , from 𝑤2 -plane to 𝑤3 -plane and finally from 𝑤3 − plane to w-plane. Each of
1
these transformations is one or other of the standard transformations 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 𝑐, 𝑤 = 𝑐𝑧, 𝑤 =
𝑧
and under each of these a circle always maps onto a circle. Hence, a bilinear transformation
maps circle into circles.
Example 1.21 A bilinear transformation preserves cross-ratio of four points.
Proof: Let the points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , 𝑧4 of the z-plane respectively map into the points 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 , 𝑤4
of w-plane under the bilinear transformation
𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏
𝑤= …………………… 1
𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑
If these points are finite, then we have from (1)
𝑎𝑧𝑗 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑧𝑘 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 𝑧𝑗 − 𝑧𝑘
𝑤𝑗 − 𝑤𝑘 = − = ……… 2
𝑐𝑧𝑗 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑧𝑘 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑧𝑗 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑧𝑘 + 𝑑
From (2), we have after simplification
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 (𝑤3 − 𝑤4 ) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 (𝑧3 − 𝑧4 )
= .
𝑤1 − 𝑤4 (𝑤3 − 𝑤2 ) 𝑧1 − 𝑧4 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 )
Thus, the cross-ratio of four points is invariant under the bilinear transformation.
Note: If one of the points, say 𝑧1 → ∞, the quotient of those differences which contain 𝑧1 , is
replaced by 1
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 (𝑧3 − 𝑧4 ) 𝑧3 − 𝑧4
∴ = .
𝑧1 − 𝑧4 (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) 𝑧3 − 𝑧2
Example 1.22 Find the bilinear transformation which maps the points 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1 onto the
points 𝑤 = 𝑖, 0, −𝑖 . Also find (a) the image of 𝑧 < 1 and (b) the invariant points of this
transformation.
Solution: Let the points 𝑧1 = 1, 𝑧2 = 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −1, 𝑧4 = 𝑧 in the z-plane map onto the points
𝑤1 = 𝑖, 𝑤2 = 0, 𝑤3 = −𝑖, 𝑤4 = 𝑤.
Since the cross-ratio remains unchanged under the bilinear transformation, hence we have
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-65

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧3 − 𝑧4 𝑤1 − 𝑤2 (𝑤3 − 𝑤4 )
=
𝑧1 − 𝑧4 𝑧3 − 𝑧2 𝑤1 − 𝑤4 (𝑤3 − 𝑤2 )
1 − 𝑖 (−1 − 𝑧) 𝑖 − 0 (−𝑖 − 𝑤)
⇒ =
1 − 𝑧 (−1 − 𝑖) 𝑖 − 𝑤 (−𝑖 − 0)
1 + 𝑖𝑧
⇒𝑤= … … … … … … … … (1)
1 − 𝑖𝑧
which is the required bilinear transformation.
(a) From (1), we have
1−𝑤
𝑧=𝑖
1+𝑤
𝑖(1 − 𝑤)
∴ 𝑧 <1⇒ <1
1+𝑤
𝑣 + 𝑖(1 − 𝑢)
⇒ <1
1 + 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
𝑣2 + 1 − 𝑢 2
∴ <1
1+𝑢 2 + 𝑣2

⇒ 𝑣2 + 1 − 𝑢 2 < 1+𝑢 2 + 𝑣2
⇒𝑢>0
Thus, the interior of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 in the z-plane is mapped onto the entire half of the
w-plane to the right of the imaginary axis.
(b) Let us put 𝑤 = 𝑧 in (1) to find the invariant points:
1 + 𝑖𝑧
𝑧=
1 − 𝑖𝑧
⇒ 𝑧2 + 𝑖 + 1 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 0
−𝑖 − 1 ± 6𝑖
⇒𝑧=
2
which are the required invariant points.
ADDITIONAL SOLVED PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1). Find Bilinear Transformation which maps the points 2, i,-2 onto the points 1,i,-1
𝑤 = 1, 𝑖, −1 𝑧 = 2, 𝑖, −2
𝑤 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 𝑧 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
× = ×
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑤3 − 𝑤1 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧3 − 𝑧
𝑤 − 1 𝑖 − (−1) 𝑧 − 2 𝑖 − (−2)
× = ×
1−𝑖 −1 − 𝑤 𝑧 − 𝑖 −2 − 𝑧
𝑤−1 𝑖+1 𝑧−2 𝑖+2
× = ×
1 − 𝑖 −(1 + 𝑤) 𝑧 − 𝑖 −(2 + 𝑧)
2-66 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑤−1 𝑖+1 𝑧−2 𝑖+2

× = ×
𝑤 + 1 1 − 𝑖 (2 + 𝑧) 2 − 𝑖
𝑤−1 𝑧−2 2+𝑖 1+𝑖
×𝑖 = × ∵ =𝑖
𝑤+1 𝑧+2 2−𝑖 1−𝑖
𝑤−1 𝑧 − 2 3 + 4𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 + 4𝑖
×𝑖 = × ∵ =
𝑤+1 𝑧+2 5 2−𝑖 5
𝑤 − 1 𝑧 − 2 3 + 4𝑖
= ×
𝑤+1 𝑧+2 5𝑖
𝑤 − 1 3𝑧 + 4𝑧𝑖 − 6 − 8𝑖
=
𝑤+1 5𝑧𝑖 + 10𝑖
𝑤 − 1 + 𝑤 + 1 3𝑧 + 4𝑧𝑖 − 6 − 8𝑖 + 5𝑧𝑖 + 10𝑖
=
𝑤 − 1 − 𝑤 − 1 3𝑧 + 4𝑧𝑖 − 6 − 8𝑖 − 5𝑧𝑖 − 10𝑖
2𝑤 3𝑧 + 9𝑧𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 6
=
−2 3𝑧 − 𝑧𝑖 − 6 − 18𝑖
3𝑧 1 + 3𝑖 − 2 3 − 𝑖
−𝑤 =
𝑧 3 − 𝑖 − 6 1 + 3𝑖
2 3−𝑖
1 + 3𝑖 3𝑧 − 1 + 3𝑖
−𝑤 =
1 + 3𝑖 𝑧 3 − 𝑖 − 6
1 + 3𝑖
3𝑧 − 2 −𝑖
−𝑤 =
𝑧 −𝑖 − 6
3𝑧 + 2𝑖
𝑤=
𝑖𝑧 + 6
2). Find Bilinear Transformation which maps the points ∞, 𝒊, 𝟎 onto the points 𝟎, 𝒊, ∞
𝑤 = 0, 𝑖, ∞ 𝑧 = ∞, 𝑖, 0
𝑤 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 𝑧 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
× = ×
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑤3 − 𝑤 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧3 − 𝑧
𝑤2 𝑧
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤3 𝑤3 − 1 𝑧1
𝑧1
−1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
× 𝑤 = 𝑧 ×
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑤 1 − 𝑧1 1 − 2 𝑧3 − 𝑧
3 𝑤3 𝑧1

𝑤 − 0 (0 − 1) (0 − 1) 𝑖 − 0
× = ×
0 − 𝑖 (1 − 0) (1 − 0) 0 − 𝑧

𝑤 −1 −1 𝑖
× = ×
−𝑖 1 1 −𝑧
𝑤 𝑖 𝑖2 −1
= ⇒𝑤= ⇒ 𝑤=
𝑖 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-67

3). Find Bilinear Transformation which maps the points 𝒛 = 𝟏, −𝟏, ∞ onto the points
𝒘 = 𝟏 + 𝒊, 𝟏 − 𝒊, ∞
𝑤 = 1 + 𝑖, 1 − 𝑖, ∞ 𝑧 = 1, −1, ∞
𝑤 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 𝑧 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤2 − 𝑤3 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧3
× = ×
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑤3 − 𝑤 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧3 − 𝑧
𝑤2 𝑧2
𝑤 − 𝑤1 𝑤3 𝑤3 − 1 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑧3 𝑧3 − 1
× = ×
𝑤1 − 𝑤2 𝑤 1 − 𝑤 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑧 1 − 𝑧
3 𝑤3 3 𝑧3
𝑤− 1+𝑖 0−1 𝑧−1 0−1
× = ×
1+𝑖− 1−𝑖 (1 − 0) 1 − (−1) (1 − 0)
𝑤−1−𝑖 −1 𝑧 − 1 −1
× = ×
1+𝑖−1+𝑖 1 2 1
𝑤 − 1 − 𝑖 −𝑧 + 1
=
2𝑖 𝑧+1
By dividendo
𝑤 − 1 − 𝑖 − 𝑤 + 1 −𝑧 + 1 − 1
=
𝑤−1 1
−𝑖 −𝑧 𝑖 𝑧
= ⟹ =
𝑤−1 1 𝑤−1 1
𝑤−1 1 𝑤−1 𝑖
= ⟹ =
𝑖 𝑧 1 𝑧
𝑖
𝑤 = +1
𝑧
𝑖−𝑧
Example 1.23 Show that 𝑤 = maps the real axis of z-plane into circle 𝑤 = 1 and the half
𝑖+𝑧
plane 𝑦 > 0 into the interior of the unit circle 𝑤 = 1 in the w-plane.
𝑖−𝑧
Solution: Here 𝑤 =
𝑖+𝑧
𝑖−𝑧
Now, 𝑤 = 1 ⇒ =1
𝑖+𝑧
−𝑥 + 𝑖(1 − 𝑦)
⇒ =1
𝑥 + 𝑖(𝑦 + 1)
−𝑥 2 + 1−𝑦 2
⇒ =1
𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2

⇒ 𝑥2 + 1 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2

⇒ 4𝑦 = 0
∴𝑦=0
which is the real axis.
For the interior of the circle, we have 𝑤 < 1
2-68 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑖−𝑧
i.e. < 1 ⇒ −4𝑦 < 0
𝑖+𝑧

i.e. 𝑦 > 0.
Hence, the half-plane 𝑦 > 0 is mapped into the interior of the circle 𝑤 = 1.

Example 1.24 Show that the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 maps the circle 𝑧 − 1 = 1 into the
cardioid 𝜌 = 2 1 + cos 𝜙 , where 𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 in the w-plane.
Solution: Let 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , then 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 gives
𝜌 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = 𝑟 2 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 ,
so that 𝜌 = 𝑟 2 and 𝜙 = 2𝜃 … … … … … … … (1)
Now the equation of the circle in the z-plane is
𝑧 − 1 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1 = 1
⇒ 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦 = 1

⇒ 𝑥−1 2 + 𝑦2 = 1
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 = 0
∴ 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 0
or,
𝑟 = 2 cos 𝜃
or,
𝑟 2 = 4 cos 2 𝜃 = 2(1 + cos 2𝜃)
or,
𝜌 = 2 1 + cos 2𝜃 = 2 (1 + cos 𝜙)
Thus, the circle 𝑧 − 1 = 1 in the z-plane gets transformed into the cardiod 𝜌 = 2(1 + cos 𝜙).
1
Example 1.25 Under the transformation 𝑤 = , find the image of 𝑧 − 2𝑖 = 2.
𝑧
1 1
Solution: Here 𝑤 = gives 𝑧 = .
𝑧 𝑤

So,
1 𝑢 𝑣
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = = 2 2
−𝑖 2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
𝑢 𝑣
⇒ 𝑥= 2 2
, 𝑦=− 2 … … … … … … (1)
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣2
Now 𝑧 − 2𝑖 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2𝑖 = 2
⇒ 𝑥+𝑖 𝑦−2 =2

∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 2 2 =2
or,
𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 2 2
=4
or,
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-69

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 = 0 … … … … … … … … … . . (2)
or,
2 2 2
𝑥−0 + 𝑦−2 = 2

which is a circle in the z-plane with centre (0,2) and radius 2.

Using (1) in (2), we obtain
𝑢2 𝑣2 4𝑣
+ + =0
𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 2 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 2 𝑢2 + 𝑣2
⇒ 1 + 4𝑣 = 0,
which is a straight line.
Thus, the image of the given curve 𝑧 − 2𝑖 = 2 is a straight line.
𝑧−𝑖
Example 1.26 Show that under the transformation 𝑤 = , real axis in the z-plane is mapped
𝑧+𝑖
into the circle 𝑤 = 1, which portion of z-plane corresponds to the interior of the circle?
𝑧−𝑖 𝑧−𝑖 𝑧−𝑖
Solution: Here 𝑤 = ⟹ 𝑤 = =
𝑧+𝑖 𝑧+𝑖 𝑧+𝑖

𝑥 + 𝑖(𝑦 − 1)
=
𝑥+𝑖 𝑦+𝑖

𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 1 2
=
𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2

The real axis in the z-plane i.e. 𝑦 = 0, transforms into

𝑥2 + 1
𝑤 = =1
𝑥2 − 1
Hence, the real axis in the z-plane is mapped into the circle 𝑤 = 1.
The interior of the circle i.e. 𝑤 < 1, gives

𝑥2 + 𝑦 − 1 2 < 𝑥2 + 𝑦 + 1 2

⟹ −4𝑦 < 0 or 𝑦 > 0

Thus, the upper half of the z-plane corresponds to the interior of the circle 𝑤 = 1.
2-70 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

EXERCISE
2𝑧+3
1. Show that the transformation 𝑤 = maps the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 = 0 onto the
𝑧−4
straight line 4𝑢 + 3 = 0.
𝑖𝜋
2. Consider the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑒 4 𝑧 and hence determine the region in the w-plane
corresponding to the triangular region bounded by the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 in
the z-plane.
1
Ans: x = 0 maps into v = −u; y = 0 maps into v = u; x + y = 1 maps into v =
2
3. Determine the region of w-plane into which the first quadrant of plane is mapped by the
transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 .
Ans: First quadrant of z − plane is mapped into the upper half on the w − plane
4. Find the image of the triangle with vertices at 𝑖, 1 + 𝑖, 1 − 𝑖 in the z-plane under the
transformation 𝑤 = 3𝑧 + 4 − 2𝑖.
Ans: A triangle with vertices 4, −1 , 7,1 and 7, −3
5. Consider the transformation 𝑤 = 2𝑧 and determine the region 𝐷′ of the w-plane into
which the triangular region D enclosed by the lines 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 in the z-plane
is mapped under this transformation.
[Ans: A triangular region bounded by lines 𝑢 = 0, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2]
6. Find the image of the circle 𝑧 = 2 under the transformation 𝑤 = 𝑧 + 3 + 2𝑖.
2 2
Ans: u − 3 + 𝑣−2 =4
1
7. Find the image of the following curves under the mapping 𝑤 = : (i) the line 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 1 =
𝑧
0 (ii) the circle 𝑧 − 3 = 5.
3 5
[Ans (i) 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 − 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 0 (ii) 𝑤 + = ]
16 16
2 2 1
8. Show that the image of the hyperbola 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 under the transformation 𝑤 = is the
𝑧
lemniscate 𝜚 2 = cos 2𝜙, where 𝑤 = 𝜚 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 .
9. Show that the map of the real axis of the z-plane on the w-plane by the transformation
1
𝑤= is a circle and find its centre and radius.
𝑧+𝑖
1 1
[Ans: 0, − ; ]
2 2
𝑖−𝑖𝑧
10. Under the transformation 𝑤 = , find the map of the circle 𝑧 = 1.
1+𝑧

[Ans: maps into real axis of w-plane]

11. Find the bilinear transformation which maps:
(i) the points 𝑧 = 1, −𝑖, −1 into the points 𝑤 = 𝑖, 0, −𝑖;
(ii) the points 𝑧 = 1, 𝑖, −1 into the points 𝑤 = 0,1, ∞
(iii) the points 𝑧 = 0, −𝑖, −1 into points 𝑤 = 𝑖, 1,0
𝑧+𝑖 𝑖(1−𝑧) 𝑖(1+𝑧)
[Ans: (a) 𝑤 = (b) 𝑤 = (c) 𝑤 = ]
𝑧−𝑖 1+𝑧 1−𝑧
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-71

4.5 Solution of Bessel’s Equation:

The differential equation
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥2 2
+𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 𝑦 = 0 … … … … . . 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
is called Bessel’s equation of order 𝑛.
The particular solutions of (1) are called Bessel functions of order 𝑛. The differential equation
(1) can be put in the form
𝑑 2 𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2
2
+ + 𝑦 = 0,
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
which is of the form:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+𝑃 𝑥 + 𝑄 𝑥 𝑦 = 0,
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 2 −𝑛 2
where 𝑃 𝑥 = and 𝑄 𝑥 = which are not analytic at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥 𝑥2

Hence, the point 𝑥 = 0 is a singular point of (1).

But 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 2 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 are analytic at 𝑥 = 0 . Hence the point 𝑥 = 0 is a
regular singular point of (1).
So, by Frobenius method, the solution of (1) can be expressed as
𝑦 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑚 +1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑚 +2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 𝑚 +3 + ⋯ ….
i.e.
∞

𝑦= 𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 … … … … … … 2
𝑟=0
Hence,
∞
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟−1 ,
𝑑𝑥
𝑟=0
∞
𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 1 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟−2 … … … . . (3)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑟=0

Using (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain

∞ ∞ ∞

𝑥2 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 1 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟−2 + 𝑥 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟−1 + (𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 ) 𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 = 0
𝑟=0 𝑟=0 𝑟=0
or,
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 1 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟+2 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 = 0
𝑟=0 𝑟=0 𝑟=0 𝑟=0
or,
∞ ∞

𝑎𝑟 { 𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 1 + 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 𝑛2 }𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟+2
𝑟=0 𝑟=0
=0
or,
∞ ∞

𝑎𝑟 𝑚 + 𝑟 − 𝑛 𝑚 + 𝑟 + 𝑛 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟+2
𝑟=0 𝑟=0
= 0 … … … … … … (4)
Equating the coefficient of the lowest power of x (i.e. the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑚 ) to zero, we obtain
2-72 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑎0 𝑚 − 𝑛 (𝑚 + 𝑛) = 0
⇒ 𝑚 − 𝑛 (𝑚 + 𝑛) = 0 (∵ 𝑎0 ≠ 0)
⇒ 𝑚 = −𝑛, 𝑛
Equating the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑚 +1 to zero, we obtain
𝑎1 𝑚 + 1 − 𝑛 𝑚 + 1 + 𝑛 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎1 = 0 [∵ 𝑚 + 1 − 𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑚 + 1 + 𝑛 ≠ 0 for 𝑚 = 𝑛, −𝑛]
Equating the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑚 +𝑟+2 to zero, we obtain the recurrence relation
𝑎𝑟+2 𝑚 + 𝑟 + 2 − 𝑛 𝑚 + 𝑟 + 2 + 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑟 = 0
i.e.
𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑟+2 = − ;𝑟
𝑚+𝑟+2−𝑛 𝑚+𝑟+2+𝑛
= 0,1,2,3 … … .. 4
Putting 𝑟 = 1,3,5, … …, we get 𝑎3 = 𝑎5 = 𝑎7 = 0 = ⋯ … = 0.

Putting 𝑟 = 0,2,4, … … …. we get

1 1
𝑎2 = − 𝑎0 = − 𝑎
𝑚 + 2 − 𝑛 (𝑚 + 2 + 𝑛) 𝑚 + 2 2 − 𝑛2 0

1
𝑎4 = − 𝑎
𝑚+4−𝑛 𝑚+4+𝑛 2
1 1
= ⋅ 𝑎
2
𝑚+4 −𝑛 2 𝑚 + 2 2 − 𝑛2 0
… ..
… ..
From (2), we have therefore
𝑦
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 +2
= 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 + 0 𝑥 𝑚 +1 −
𝑚 + 2 2 − 𝑛2
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 +4
+ + ⋯ ..
𝑚 + 4 2 − 𝑛2 𝑚 + 2 2 − 𝑛2
i.e.
𝑦
𝑥2
= 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑚 1 −
𝑚 + 2 2 − 𝑛2
𝑥4
+ … …… 5
𝑚 + 4 2 − 𝑛2 𝑚 + 2 2 − 𝑛2
Depending on the nature of 𝑛, we get different types of solutions.

Case I: When 𝑛 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is not an integer.

In this case, we get two independent solutions for 𝑚 = 𝑛 and 𝑚 = −𝑛.

For 𝑚 = 𝑛, we get
𝑥2 𝑥4
𝑦1 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 1 − + − ⋯..
2 2𝑛 + 2 2 ∙ 4 2𝑛 + 2 2𝑛 + 4
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-73

𝑥2 𝑥4
= 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 1 + −1 1
+ −1 2
22 1 ! 𝑛 + 1 24 2 ! 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 2

+ ⋯.

∞
𝑛 𝑟
𝑥 2𝑟
= 𝑎0 𝑥 −1
22𝑟 𝑟 ! 𝑛 + 1 𝑛 + 2 …. 𝑛 + 𝑟
𝑟=0
∞
𝑟
𝑛
−1 𝑛+1
= 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑟 … … . . 6
𝑟=0
22𝑟 𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟+1

Replacing 𝑛 by – 𝑛, the second independent solution corresponding to 𝑚 = −𝑛 is given by

∞
𝑟
−𝑛
−1 −𝑛 + 1
𝑦2 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑟 … … … . . 7
𝑟=0
22𝑟 𝑟! –𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1

The complete solution of (1) is therefore

𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 𝑦2
Since 𝑎0 is an arbitrary constant, we can choose it as
1
𝑎0 =
2𝑛 𝑛 + 1
Thus, (6) takes the form
∞
𝑥𝑛 −1 𝑟
𝑛+1
𝑦1 = 𝑥 2𝑟
2𝑛 𝑛 + 1 22𝑟 𝑟! 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1
𝑟=0
i.e.
∞ 𝑟𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
−1
𝑦1 = 2 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ,
𝑟=0
𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟+1

which is called Bessel function of first kind of order 𝑛.

The corresponding solution for 𝑚 = −𝑛 will be
∞ 𝑥 −𝑛+2𝑟
𝑟
−1
𝑦2 = 𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = 2 ,
𝑟=0
𝑟! −𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1
which is called Bessel function of first kind of order – 𝑛.
Hence, the complete solution of (1) will be
𝑦 = 𝐴𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 ,
where A, B are the arbitrary constants.
Case II When 𝑛 = 0, the Bessel’s equation (1) takes the form
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 + + 𝑥𝑦 = 0, … … … … … … … … 8
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
which is called Bessel’s function of order zero.
Thus, the two roots of the indicial equation are equal, each= 0.
2-74 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Putting 𝑛 = 0 and assuming 𝑎0 = 1, we obtain from (5)

𝑦
𝑥2 𝑥4
= 𝑥𝑚 1 − +
𝑚+2 2 𝑚+2 2 𝑚+4 2
6
𝑥
− +⋯ ,
𝑚+2 2 𝑚+4 4 𝑚+6 2
which is a solution when 𝑚 = 0.
The first solution is , therefore, given by
𝑥 2𝑟
∞ 𝑟
−1
𝐽0 𝑥 = 2 , since 𝑟 + 1 = 𝑟!,
𝑟! 2
𝑟=0

which is the Bessel function of first kind of order zero.

The second independent solution is given by
𝜕𝑦 𝑥2 𝑥4
= 𝑥 𝑚 log 𝑥 1 − + − ⋯..
𝜕𝑚 𝑚 =0 𝑚+2 2 𝑚+2 2 𝑚+4 2
2 𝑥2
+ 𝑥𝑚
𝑚+2 𝑚+2 2
2 2 𝑥4
− + +⋯
𝑚+2 𝑚+4 𝑚+2 2 𝑚+4 2 𝑚 =0

𝑥2 1 1 1 1 1
= 𝐽0 𝑥 log 𝑥 + − 1 + 𝑥4 + 2 2 2 1 + + 𝑥6 − ⋯ …
22 22 ∙ 42 2 2 ∙4 ∙6 2 3
𝑥 2 1 1 𝑥 4 1 1 1 𝑥 6
= 𝐽0 𝑥 log 𝑥 + − 2
1+ + 2
1+ + −⋯.
2 2! 2 2 3! 2 3 2
∞
−1 𝑟+1 1 1 1 𝑥 2𝑟
= 𝐽0 𝑥 log 𝑥 + 1 + + + ⋯….+ + ⋯…
𝑟! 2 2 3 𝑟 2
𝑟=1

= 𝑌0 𝑥 ,
where 𝑌0 (𝑥) is called Bessel function of second kind of order zero or Neumann function.
Thus, the complete solution of the Bessel’s equation (8) of order zero is given by
𝑦 = 𝐴𝐽0 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑌0 𝑥 .
Case III When 𝑛 is an integer, the solution 𝑦2 fails to give a solution for positive values of 𝑛
and 𝑦1 fails to give a solution for negative values.
Let 𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) be a solution of (1) when 𝑛 is an integer.
Then,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
= 𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛 + 𝑢 𝐽𝑛′ and = 𝑢′′ 𝐽𝑛 + 2𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑢 𝐽𝑛′′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

Hence, the equation (1) becomes

𝑥 2 𝑢′′ 𝐽𝑛 + 2𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑢𝐽𝑛′′ + 𝑥 𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛 + 𝑢 𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 𝑢𝐽𝑛 = 0
or,
𝑢 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ + 𝑥𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 𝐽𝑛 + 𝑥 2 𝑢′′ 𝐽𝑛 + 2𝑥 2 𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑥𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛
= 0….. 9
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-75

Since, 𝑦 = 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) is a solution of (1), we have

𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 𝐽𝑛 = 0
∴ (9) reduces to
𝑥 2 𝑢′′ 𝐽𝑛 + 2𝑥 2 𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛′ + 𝑥𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛 = 0
On dividing each term by 𝑥 2 𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛 , we obtain
𝑢′′ 𝐽𝑛′ 1
′
+ 2 + = 0.
𝑢 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
or,
𝑑
log 𝑢′ + 2 log 𝐽𝑛 + log 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥
On integrating, we obtain
log 𝑥𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛2 = log 𝐵,
which gives
𝑥𝑢′ 𝐽𝑛2 = 𝐵
or,
𝐵 𝑑𝑥
𝑢′ = ⇒𝑢=𝐵 +𝐴
𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2
Thus,
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
𝑥 𝐽𝑛2
or,
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑌𝑛 𝑥 ,
𝑑𝑥
which is the complete solution of (1), where 𝑌𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) is called the Bessel function
𝑥 𝐽 𝑛2
of the second kind of order 𝑛 or Neumann function.
Note: We know that
∞ 𝑟 𝑥 −𝑛+2𝑟
−1
𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = 2
𝑟=0
𝑟! −𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1

Let us replace – 𝑛 + 𝑟 by 𝑘, where 𝑘 has the same property as 𝑟 has. Hence, the variation of 𝑘
will also take from 0 to ∞. Therefore
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘
𝑘+𝑛 ∞ 𝑘 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑘
−1 −1
𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = 2 = −1 𝑛 2
𝑘=0
𝑘+𝑛 ! 𝑘+1 𝑘=0
𝑘! 𝑛+𝑘+1
i.e.
𝑛
𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = −1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 .
4.6 Recurrence Formulae for 𝑱𝒏 (𝒙)
The following recurrence relations connect the Bessel functions of different order, and are
helpful in solving boundary value problems and in establishing the various properties of the
Bessel functions:
𝒅
I. 𝒙𝒏 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒙𝒏 𝑱𝒏−𝟏 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Proof: Since
2-76 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

∞ 𝑟𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
−1
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 2
𝑟=0
𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟+1
∞ ∞
𝑛 𝑛
−1 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟 −1 𝑟 𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑟
∴ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 =
𝑟=0
𝑟! 2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1 𝑟=0
2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟+1
or,
∞
𝑑 𝑛 −1 𝑟 (2𝑛 + 2𝑟)𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑟−1
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 + 𝑟) 𝑛 + 𝑟
𝑟=0

∞ 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟−1 𝑛
−1 (𝑥 )
= 2
𝑟=0
𝑟! 𝑛 + 𝑟
∞ 𝑥 𝑛−1+2𝑟
𝑟
−1
= 𝑥𝑛 2 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 .
𝑟=0
𝑟! 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑟 + 1
𝑑 −𝑛 −𝑛
II. 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Proof: Since
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟𝑟 ∞
−1 −1 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 2 =
𝑟=0
𝑟! ( 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1 𝑟=0
2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑟! ( 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1
∞
−𝑛
−1 𝑟 𝑥 2𝑟
∴ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑟=0
2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑟! ( 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1
∞
𝑟
𝑑 −𝑛 −1 (2𝑟)𝑥 2𝑟−1
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)! ( 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1
𝑟=0
∞
−1 𝑟 𝑥 2𝑟−1
=
𝑟=0
2𝑛+2𝑟−1 (𝑟 − 1)! ( 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1
∞
𝑟−1 𝑛+1+2(𝑟−1) −𝑛
−1 𝑥 𝑥
=−
𝑟=0
𝑟−1 ! 2𝑛+1+2(𝑟−1) ( 𝑛+1+𝑟−1+1

∞ 𝑥 𝑛+1+2(𝑟−1)
𝑟−1
−1
= −𝑥 −𝑛 2
𝑟=0
𝑟−1 ! 𝑛+1+𝑟−1+1

∞𝑥 𝑛+1+2𝑘 𝑘
−1
= −𝑥 −𝑛 2 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
𝑘=0
𝑘! 𝑛 + 1 + 𝑘 + 1

Note: In particular, when 𝑛 = 0, we have

𝑑
𝐽 𝑥 = −𝐽1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0
i.e. 𝐽0′ 𝑥 = −𝐽1 𝑥 .
𝑛
III. 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 .
𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-77

𝑛
IV. 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 .
𝑥

V. 2𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 .

2𝑛
VI. 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 −1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 .
𝑥

Proof: From the recurrence relation I, we have

𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
or,
𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
On dividing each term by 𝑥 𝑛 , we obtain
𝑛
𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑛
i.e.
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 … … … … … . 𝐈𝐈𝐈
𝑥
From the recurrence relation II, we have
𝑑 −𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
or,
−𝑛𝑥 −𝑛−1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
On dividing each term by 𝑥 −𝑛 ,we obtain
𝑛
− 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = −𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥
i.e.
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … … … . 𝐈𝐕
𝑥
Adding the recurrence relations III and IV, we obtain

2𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … … … . 𝐕

Subtracting the recurrence relation IV from III, we obtain

2𝑛
𝐽 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … … . 𝐕𝐈
𝑥 𝑛

4.7 Values of 𝑱+𝟏 (𝒙) and 𝑱−𝟏 (𝒙)

𝟐 𝟐

We know that
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
𝑟 ∞
−1 −1 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 2 =
𝑟=0
𝑟! 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1 𝑟=0
𝑟! 2𝑛+2𝑟 𝑛 + 𝑟 + 1

−1 0 𝑥 𝑛 −1 1 𝑥 𝑛+2 −1 2 𝑥 𝑛+4
= + + + ⋯…
2𝑛 0 ! 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛+2 1 ! 𝑛 + 2 2𝑛+4 2 ! 𝑛 + 3
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+2 𝑥 𝑛+4
= − + − ⋯……… 1
2𝑛 𝑛 + 1 2𝑛+2 𝑛+2 2𝑛+4 2 𝑛+3
2-78 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

1
Putting 𝑛 = in (1), we obtain
2
1 1 1
𝑥2 𝑥 2+2 𝑥 2+4
𝐽1 𝑥 = − + 1 − ⋯ … ..
1 3 1 5 5 3 1
2
22 22+2 22+4 2 ∙ ∙ 𝜋
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
𝑥2 𝑥 2+2 𝑥 2+4
= 1 − 1 + 1 − ⋯ ..
1 3 1 5 3 1
22 𝜋 22+2 ∙ 𝜋 22+4 ∙ ∙ 𝜋
2 2 2 2 2 2

2 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
= − + − ⋯…
𝜋𝑥 1! 3! 5!

2
= sin 𝑥
𝜋𝑥
1
Putting 𝑛 = − in (1), we obtain
2
1 1 1
𝑥 −2 𝑥 −2+2 𝑥 −2+4
𝐽−1 𝑥 = 1
− 1
+ − ⋯ … … ..
1 3 1 5
2
2−2 2−2−2 2−2+4 (2)
2 2 2
1 1 1
𝑥 −2 𝑥 −2+2 𝑥 −2+4
= 1 − 1 + 1 − ⋯ … … ….
1 3 1
2−2 𝜋 2−2 2 𝜋 2−2+4 2 ∙ 𝜋
2 2 2
1
𝑥 −2 𝑥2 𝑥4
= 1 1− + −⋯.
2 24
2−2 𝜋

2 𝑥2 𝑥4 2
= 1− + − ⋯.. = cos 𝑥 .
𝜋𝑥 2! 4! 𝜋𝑥

Example 4.10 Show that

𝟐 𝟑−𝒙𝟐 𝟑
a. 𝐉𝟓 𝐱 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟐
𝝅𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙

𝟒𝟖 𝟖 𝟐𝟒
b. 𝑱𝟒 𝒙 = − 𝑱𝟏 𝒙 + 𝟏 − 𝑱𝟎 𝒙 .
𝒙𝟑 𝒙 𝒙𝟐

Solution: From the recurrence relation IV, we have

2𝑛
𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 … … … … … . 1
𝑥 𝑛
1
a. Putting 𝑛 = in (1), we obtain
2

1
𝐽3 𝑥 = 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽 1 𝑥
2 𝑥 2 −
2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-79

1 2 2
= sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥

2 1
= sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 … … … … 2
𝜋𝑥 𝑥

3
Putting 𝑛 = in (1), we obtain
2

3
𝐽5 𝑥 = 𝐽3 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥
2 𝑥 2 2

3 2 1 2
= sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 From 2
𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑥 𝜋𝑥

2 3 3
= sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
𝜋𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥

2 3 − 𝑥2 3
= sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝜋𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥

b. Putting 𝑛 = 1 in (1), we obtain

2
𝐽2 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 … … … … … … … … … . . 3
𝑥 1
Putting 𝑛 = 2 in (1), we obtain
4
𝐽3 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥
𝑥 2
4 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥 From 3
𝑥 𝑥 1
8 4
= 2
− 1 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 … … … … … … … 4
𝑥 𝑥
Putting 𝑛 = 3 in (1), we obtain
6
𝐽4 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽2 𝑥
𝑥 3
6 8 4 2
= 2
− 1 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽0 (𝑥) − 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 [From 3 & (4)]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
48 8 24
= − 𝐽1 𝑥 + 1 − 𝐽 𝑥 .
𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥2 0
Example 4.11 Prove that
𝐝
i. 𝒙𝑱𝒏 𝒙 𝑱𝒏+𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒙 𝑱𝟐𝒏 𝒙 − 𝑱𝟐𝒏+𝟏 𝒙
𝐝𝐱
2-80 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝒅 𝒏 𝟐 𝒏+𝟏 𝟐
ii. 𝑱𝟐𝒏 𝒙 + 𝑱𝟐𝒏+𝟏 𝒙 =𝟐 𝑱 𝒙 − 𝑱𝒏+𝟏 𝒙 .
𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝒏 𝒙

Solution:
d 𝑑
i. 𝑥𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝑛 +1 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
dx 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑛+1 𝑑 −𝑛
= 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 … … … . 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
But
𝑑 𝑛 𝑑 𝑛+1
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
and
𝑑 −𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
∴ From (1), we have
𝑑
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2
= 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
2
= 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑 2 ′
ii. 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 2𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 + 2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ………. 2
𝑑𝑥

But
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … . . 3
𝑥 𝑛
and
𝑛 ′
𝑛+1
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 =− 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 … … . . 4
𝑥 𝑥 𝑛+1
Using (3) and (4) in (2), we obtain
𝑑 2 2
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 2𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 2𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
2𝑛 2 2 𝑛+1 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 − 2𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 2𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑛 𝑥
𝑛 2 𝑛+1 2
=2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽 𝑥 .
𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 +1

2
Example 4.12 Prove that 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐽2 𝑥 + 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝑐.
𝑥

Solution: We know that

𝑑 −𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
i.e.
𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 … … … … … … 1
Also,
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-81

𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐼 𝐼𝐼

= 𝑥2 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 … … 2
From (1), we have
𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 −2 𝐽2 𝑥 … … … … … … … . . 3

Using (3) in (2), we obtain

𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −𝑥 −2 𝐽2 𝑥 − 2𝑥 −𝑥 −2 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐

= −𝐽2 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 −1 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 … … … … . 4
From (1),
𝐽1 (𝑥)
𝑥 −1 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 −1 𝐽1 𝑥 = − + 𝑐 … … … … … (5)
𝑥
Using (5) in (4), we obtain
𝐽1 (𝑥)
𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝐽2 𝑥 − 2 +𝑐
𝑥
i.e.
2
𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐽2 𝑥 + 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝑐.
𝑥
1
Example 4.13 Prove that 𝑥 𝐽02 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝐽02 𝑥 + 𝐽12 𝑥 + 𝑐.
2

Solution:
𝑥 𝐽02 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥2
0 − 2𝐽0 𝑥 𝐽0′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2
𝐼𝐼 𝐼
𝑥2 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 𝐽0′ 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
2 0
𝑥2 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 −𝐽1 (𝑥) 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
2 0
𝑥2 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽0 𝑥 {𝑥 2 𝐽1 (𝑥)}𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
2 0
𝑥2 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 𝑥 𝐽0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 … … … 1
2 0
But,
𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
gives
𝑑
𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝑥𝐽0 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ From (1), we have
𝑥2 2 𝑑
𝑥 𝐽02 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
2 0 𝑑𝑥
2-82 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑥2 2 𝑥𝐽1 𝑥 2
= 𝐽0 𝑥 + +𝑐
2 2
𝑥2 2
= 𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽12 𝑥 + 𝑐.
2 0
Example 4.14 Prove that 4 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥 .
Solution: We have from the recurrence relation
2𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … … . 1
i.e.
′ ′
2𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
or,
′ ′
4𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 2𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 2𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ………… 2
From (1),
′
2 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
and
′
2𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥
∴ From (2),
4𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 −2 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥
= 𝐽𝑛 −2 𝑥 − 2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 +2 𝑥 .
Example 4.15 Prove that 4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 3𝐽0′ 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 = 0.
Solution: We know that 𝐽0′ 𝑥 = −𝐽1 𝑥
i.e.
𝐽0′′ 𝑥 = −𝐽1′ 𝑥 … … … … … … … . . 1
From the recurrence relation, we have
2𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … … … . 2
i.e.
2𝐽1′ 𝑥 = 𝐽0 𝑥 − 𝐽2 𝑥
or,
1
𝐽1′ 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽2 𝑥
2 0
or,
1
−𝐽0′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽2 𝑥 From 1
2 0
or,
1 ′
𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽2′ 𝑥
2 0
or,
4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 = −2 𝐽0′ 𝑥 − 𝐽2′ 𝑥
or,
4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 2𝐽0′ 𝑥 − 2𝐽2′ 𝑥 = 0 … … … … … 3
From (2), we have
2𝐽2′ 𝑥 = 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥 … … … … … … … … . 4
Using (4) in (3), we obtain
4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 2𝐽0′ 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥 =0
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-83

or,
4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 2𝐽0′ 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 = 0
or,
4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 2𝐽0′ 𝑥 + −𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 = 0
or,
4𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 3𝐽0′ 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 = 0. ∵ −𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝐽0′ 𝑥
4 2
Example 4.16 Prove that 𝐽2′ 𝑥 = 1 − 𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝐽0 𝑥 .
𝑥2 𝑥

Solution: We know that

𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
or,
𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
or,
𝑛
𝐽 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑛
or,
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 … … … … (1)
𝑥
Let us put 𝑛 = 2 in (1) to obtain
2
𝐽2′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽2 𝑥 + 𝐽1 𝑥 … … … … … 2
𝑥
Also,
𝑑 −𝑛
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
or,
−𝑛𝑥 −𝑛−1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = −𝑥 −𝑛 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
or,
𝑛
− 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = −𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥
or,
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … . . (3)
𝑥 𝑛
From (1) & (3), we have
2𝑛
𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 𝑛
or,
2𝑛
𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑥 𝑛
∴ for 𝑛 = 1, we obtain
2
𝐽2 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 … … … … … . (4)
𝑥 1
Using (4) in (2), we obtain
2 2
𝐽2′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥 + 𝐽1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 1
4 2
= − 2 𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝐽0 𝑥 + 𝐽1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
2-84 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

4 2
= 1− 2
𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝐽0 𝑥 .
𝑥 𝑥
2
Example 4.17 Prove that 𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+5 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 4 𝐽𝑛+4 𝑥 .
𝑥
2𝑛
Solution: We know that 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛−1 (𝑥)
𝑥

Let 𝑛 be replaced by (𝑛 + 4) to obtain

2 𝑛+4
𝐽𝑛+4 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛+5 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥
𝑥
i.e.
2
𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+5 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 4 𝐽𝑛+4 𝑥 .
𝑥
Example 4.18 Prove that 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝑛2 − 𝑛 − 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, ….
𝑛
Solution: We know that 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … … … … … . 1
𝑥
𝑛 𝑛 ′
𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = − 2
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
or,
′
𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = −𝑛𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑛 ′
𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = −𝑛𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥
′
𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = −𝑛𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑛2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑛𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ………. 2
Also,
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑥
gives
′
𝑛+1
𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 =− 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 … … … … … (3)
𝑥
Using (3) in (2), we obtain
𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥
= −𝑛𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑛2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑛𝑥 𝐽𝑛+𝑥 𝑥
𝑛+1
− 𝑥2 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
𝑥
= −𝑛𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑛2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑛𝑥 𝐽𝑛+𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑛 + 1 𝑥𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
− 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥

= 𝑛2 − 𝑛 − 𝑥 2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … …
4.8 Generating Function for 𝑱𝒏 (𝒙)
𝑥 1
𝑧−
The function 𝑒 2 𝑧 is called a generating function of 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 .
It can be proved that
𝒙 𝟏
𝒛− 𝒏=∞
(i) 𝒆𝟐 𝒛 = 𝒏=−∞ 𝒛𝒏 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 . i.e. 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 is the coefficient of 𝑧 𝑛 in the expansion of
𝑥 1
𝑧−
𝑒 2 𝑧 .
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-85

𝒙 𝟏
𝒛− 𝒏=∞ 𝒏
(ii) 𝒆𝟐 𝒛 = 𝒏=−∞ −𝟏 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 𝒛−𝒏 . i.e. −1 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) is the coefficient of 𝑧 −𝑛 in the
𝑥 1
𝑧−
expansion of 𝑒 2 𝑧 .
𝒙 𝟏 𝒙𝒛 𝒙 𝒙𝒛 𝒙
𝒛−𝒛 −
Proof: 𝒆 𝟐 =𝒆 𝟐 𝟐𝒛 = 𝒆 𝟐 𝒆− 𝟐𝒛
𝑥𝑧 1 𝑥𝑧 1 𝑥 3
2 1 𝑥𝑧 𝑛 1 𝑥𝑧 𝑛+1
= 1+ + + + ⋯..+ + + ⋯..
2 2! 2 3! 2𝑧 𝑛! 2 𝑛+1 ! 2
𝑥 1 𝑥 2 1 𝑥 3 1 𝑥 𝑛
× 1− + − + ⋯ . + −1 𝑛
2𝑧 2! 2𝑧 3! 2𝑧 𝑛! 2𝑧
𝑛+1
1 𝑥 𝑛+1
+ −1 +⋯
𝑛 + 1 ! 2𝑧
𝑥 1 𝑥 21 𝑥 3 3 1 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛 1 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑛+1
= 1− 𝑧+ 𝑧2 +
𝑧 + ⋯.+ 𝑧 + 𝑧 + ⋯.
2 2! 2 3! 2 𝑛! 2 𝑛+1 ! 2
𝑥 1 𝑥 2 1 1 𝑥 3 1 1 𝑥 𝑛 1
× 1− 𝑧+ − +⋯.+ −1 𝑛
2 2! 2 𝑧 2 3! 2 𝑧 3 𝑛! 2 𝑧𝑛
1 𝑛 +1
𝑥 𝑛+1 1
+ −1 +⋯.
𝑛+1 ! 2 𝑧 𝑛+1

(i) Hence the coefficient of 𝑧 𝑛

1 𝑥 𝑛 1 𝑥 𝑛+2 1 𝑥 𝑛+4
= − + − ⋯…
𝑛! 2 𝑛+1 ! 2 𝑛 + 2 ! 2! 2
∞ 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟 ∞ 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
−1 −1
= 2 = 2 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟 ! 𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟+1
𝑟=0 𝑟=0

1 𝑥 𝑛 1 𝑥 𝑛+2 1 𝑥 𝑛+4
(ii) The coefficient of 𝑧 −𝑛 = − − − + − − ⋯ ..
𝑛! 2 𝑛+1 ! 2 𝑛+2 ! 2

𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
∞ 𝑟 𝑛
−1 −1
= 2
𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟 !
𝑟=0

∞ 𝑟 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑟
−1
= −1 𝑛 2 = −1 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 .
𝑟=0
𝑟! 𝑛+𝑟+1

Example 4.19 Show that

1 𝜋
a. 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = cos(𝑛𝜃 − 𝑥 sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃; 𝑛 being an integer
𝜋 0

1 𝜋
b. 𝐽0 𝑥 = cos(𝑥 cos 𝜙) 𝑑𝜙
𝜋 0

c. 𝐽02 + 2𝐽12 + 2𝐽22 + 2𝐽32 + ⋯ … … … . = 1.

Solution:
a. We know that
𝑥 1
𝑧−
𝑒2 𝑧
= 𝐽0 𝑥 + 𝑧 𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝑧 2 𝐽2 𝑥 + 𝑧 3 𝐽3 𝑥 + ⋯ . +𝑧 −1 𝐽−1 𝑥
+ 𝑧 −2 𝐽2 𝑥 + 𝑧 −3 𝐽−3 𝑥 + ⋯.
Since
𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = −1 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ,
2-86 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

hence
𝑥
𝑧−
1 1 1 1
𝑒2 𝑧 = 𝐽0 𝑥 + 𝐽1 𝑧 − + 𝐽2 𝑧 2 − 2 + 𝐽3 𝑧 3 − 3 + ⋯ … . 1
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
Let us now put 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃, so that
1
𝑧 𝑝 = cos 𝑝𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑝𝜃 and = cos 𝑝𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑝𝜃,
𝑧𝑝
giving
1 1
𝑧𝑝 +
𝑝
= 2 cos 𝑝𝜃 , 𝑧 𝑝 − 𝑝 = 2 𝑖 sin 𝑝𝜃
𝑧 𝑧
Substituting these in (1), we obtain
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 sin 𝜃
= 𝐽0 + 2 𝐽2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝐽4 cos 4𝜃 + ⋯
+ 2𝑖 𝐽1 sin 𝜃 + 𝐽3 sin 3𝜃 + ⋯ .
i.e.
cos 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sin 𝜃
= 𝐽0 + 2 𝐽2 cos 2θ + J4 cos 4θ
+ 2i j1 sin θ + J3 sin 3θ + ⋯
⇒ cos 𝑥 sin 𝜃 = 𝐽0 + 2 𝐽2 cos 2𝜃 + 𝐽4 cos 4𝜃 … … … … 3
sin 𝑥 sin 𝜃 = 2 𝐽1 sin 𝜃 + 𝐽3 sin 3𝜃 + ⋯ . … … … … . 4
The relations (3) and (4) are known as Jacobi’s series.
Multiplying both the sides of (3) by cos 𝑛𝜃 and both the sides of (4) by sin 𝑛𝜃 and integrating
each of the resulting expressions between 0 and 𝜋, we obtain
𝜋
1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 , n is even or zero
cos 𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
𝜋 0 0, n is odd
and
𝜋
1 0, n is even or zero
sin 𝑥 sin 𝜃 sin 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
𝜋 0
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 , n is odd.
In general, if 𝑛 is a positive integer,
𝜋
1
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝑛𝜃 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝜃 sin 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0
𝜋
1
= cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0
𝜋
b. Changing 𝜃 to − 𝜙 in (3), we obtain
2

cos 𝑥 cos 𝜙 = 𝐽0 + 2𝐽2 cos 𝜋 − 2𝜙 + 2𝐽4 cos 2𝜋 − 4𝜙 + ⋯ ..

= 𝐽0 − 2𝐽2 cos 2𝜙 + 2 𝐽4 cos 4𝜙 − ⋯ … …
Integrating both the sides w.r.t. 𝜙 from 0 to 𝜋, we get
𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑥 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐽0 𝑥 − 2𝐽2 cos 2𝜙 + 2𝐽4 cos 4𝜙 − ⋯ … 𝑑𝜙
0 0
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-87

𝜋
sin 2𝜙 sin 4𝜙
= 𝐽0 𝑥 𝜙 − 2𝐽2 + 2𝐽4
2 4 0

= 𝐽0 𝑥 𝜋
𝜋
1
⇒ 𝐽0 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙
𝜋 0

c. Squaring (3) and (4) and integrating w.r.t. 𝜙 from 0 to 𝜋 and noting that 𝑚, 𝑥 being integers
𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑚𝜃 cos 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = sin 𝑚𝜃 sin 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0 𝑚≠𝑛
0 0
and
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
cos 2 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = sin2 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ,
0 0 2
we obtain
2 2
𝜋 2
𝜋
𝐽0 𝑥 𝜋 + 4 𝐽2 𝑥 + 4 𝐽4 𝑥 + ⋯….
𝜋
2 2
= cos2 𝑥 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 … … … 5
0
and
𝜋
2
𝜋 2
𝜋
4 𝐽1 𝑥 + 4 𝐽3 𝑥 + ⋯..= sin2 (𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 … … … 6
2 2 0

Adding (5) & (6), we obtain

𝜋
𝜋 𝐽02 + 2 𝐽12 +2 𝐽22 + 2𝐽32 +⋯… = 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋
0

⇒ 𝐽02 + 2 𝐽12 + 2 𝐽22 + 2𝐽32 + ⋯ … . = 1.

1. P.T. 𝟒𝑱′′𝒏 𝒙 = 𝑱𝒏−𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐𝑱𝒏 𝒙 + 𝑱𝒏+𝟐 𝒙

Solution: 2𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 −1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … . 1

Diff w. r. t. 𝑥
′ ′
2𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
Multiply by 2
′ ′
4𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 2𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 2𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 ………………. 2

Put 𝑛 = 𝑛 − 1 in equation 1

2𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 −1+1 𝑥

2𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥

Put 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1 in equation 1

2𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛+1−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 +1+1 𝑥

2𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥
2-88 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

∴ Equation 2 becomes

4𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥

= 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 2𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥

2. P.T. 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 is an even function if 𝒏 is even and 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 is an odd function if 𝒏 is odd.

Where 𝒏 is an integer
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
−1 𝑚 2
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 =
𝑚! 𝑛+𝑚 !
𝑚 =0
𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −𝑥
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
−1 𝑚 −
𝐽𝑛 −𝑥 = 2
𝑚! 𝑛+𝑚 !
𝑚 =0

Case 1: If 𝑛 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 [𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 + 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛]

−𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
=
2 2
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
−1 𝑚 2
𝐽𝑛 −𝑥 =
𝑚! 𝑛+𝑚 !
𝑚 =0

= 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 [∴ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛]

Case 2: If 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 [𝑂𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑]

−𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚 −𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
=
2 2
∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
−1 𝑚 −
𝐽𝑛 −𝑥 = 2
𝑚! 𝑛+𝑚 !
𝑚 =0

= −𝐽𝑛 𝑥 [∴ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑]

𝟐
3. P. T. 𝑱− 𝟏 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟐 𝝅𝒙

𝑑
Solution: 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑛≠−
2
1 1
𝑛−1=− ⟹𝑛 =− +1
2 2
−1 + 2 1
𝑛= =
2 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-89

1
Put 𝑛 =
2
𝑑 1/2 1
𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝐽1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2
−1

𝑑
𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽 1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
−
2

𝑑 2
𝑥 sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽 1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝜋𝑥 −
2

2 𝑑
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽 1 𝑥
𝜋 𝑑𝑥 −
2

2
cos 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽 1 𝑥
𝜋 −
2

2
∴ cos 𝑥 = 𝐽 1 𝑥
𝜋𝑥 −
2

𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
4. P.T. 𝑱− 𝟑 𝒙 = − + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝟐 𝝅𝒙 𝒙

Solution: 2𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥

𝑥 𝐽𝑛 −1 𝑥 = 2𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥

Divide by 𝑥
2𝑛
𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑛
Compare
3
𝑛−1 =−
2
3 −3 + 2 1
𝑛 =− +1= =−
2 2 2
1
Put 𝑛 = −
2
1
2 −
∴𝐽 𝑥 = 2 𝐽 𝑥 −𝐽 𝑥
1 1 1
−
2
−1 𝑥 −
2
− +1
2

1
𝐽 3 𝑥 =− 𝐽 1 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥
−
2 𝑥 −2 2
2-90 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

1 2 2
= − cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥

2 cos 𝑥 2
= − − sin 𝑥
𝜋𝑥 𝑥 𝜋𝑥

2 cos 𝑥
𝐽 3 𝑥 =− + sin 𝑥
−
2 𝜋𝑥 𝑥

𝒅
5. P.T. 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 ⋅ 𝑱𝒏+𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒙 𝑱𝟐𝒏 𝒙 − 𝑱𝟐𝒏+𝟏 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝑑
L. H. S. = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
′
= 𝑥 1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥

Derivative is not required, thus remove it

′
= 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 × 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 × 𝐽𝑛 𝑥

→ for 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥

Choose 1 formula as we require 𝑛 + 1 in ans

′
→ for 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥

𝟏. 𝒙 𝑱′𝒏 𝒙 = +𝒏 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝑱𝒏+𝟏 𝒙
Put 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1

𝑥 𝐽𝑛′ +1 𝑥 = 𝑛 + 1 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 +2 𝑥

𝟐. 𝒙 𝑱′𝒏 𝒙 = −𝒏 𝑱𝒏 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝑱𝒏−𝟏 𝒙

Put 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1

𝑥 𝐽𝑛′ +1 𝑥 = − 𝑛 + 1 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥

Thus take 2 changed formula

= 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
+ − 𝑛 + 1 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
2
= 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
+ −𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥
2
= 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑛 + 1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
2
+ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-91

2
= 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑛 + 1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
2
+ 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
2
= 1 + 𝑛 − 𝑛 − 1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
2
= 0 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
2
= 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝟏 𝟓 𝟏
6. P.T. 𝟎
𝒙𝟐 𝑱𝟑 𝒂𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑱𝟓 𝒂
𝟐 𝒂 𝟐

1 5
Solution: 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 0
𝑥2 𝐽3 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Put 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑥 = ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥=0 1 ← original
𝑡=0 𝑎 ← for 𝑡 limits
5
𝑎
𝑡 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝐽3 𝑎 ×
0 𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 5/2
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 5/2
𝐽3 𝑡
0 𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑎
1 1
= 5/2
⋅ 𝑡 5/2 𝐽3 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 0 2
𝑎
11 5
= 5/2 ⋅ +𝑡 +2 𝐽5 𝑡
𝑎 𝑎 2 0

1 1 5/2
= ⋅ 𝑎 𝐽5 𝑎
𝑎5/2 𝑎 2

1
= 𝐽5 𝑎
𝑎 2
−𝟐𝑱𝟏 𝒙
7. P.T. 𝑱𝟑 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = − 𝑱𝟐 𝒙
𝒙+

Solution: 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
To balance = 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
By parts rule
𝑑
𝑢 ⋅ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
= 𝑥2 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2-92 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

= 𝑥 2 −𝑥 −2 𝐽2 𝑥 − 2𝑥 −𝑥 −2 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 2−2 𝐽2 𝑥 − 2 −𝑥 1−2 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 0 𝐽2 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 −1 𝐽2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝐽2 𝑥 + 2 −𝑥 −1 𝐽1 𝑥

−2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
= − 𝐽2 𝑥
𝑥
𝟒 𝟖
8. P.T. 𝑱𝟓 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = −𝑱𝟒 𝒙 − 𝑱𝟑 𝒙 − 𝑱𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒙 𝒙𝟐

Solution: 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = 𝐽5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 4 𝑥 −4 𝐽5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 4
= 𝑥4 𝑥 −4 𝐽5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ⋅ 𝑥 −4 𝐽5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 4 −𝑥 −4 𝐽4 𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 ⋅ −𝑥 −4 𝐽4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝐽4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 3 𝑥 −4 𝐽4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝐽4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 3 ⋅ 𝑥 −1 𝑥 −3 𝐽4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝐽4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 −3 𝐽4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2
= −𝐽4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 −3 𝐽4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 −3 𝐽4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

= −𝐽4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 −𝑥 −3 𝐽3 𝑥 − 2𝑥 1 −𝑥 −3 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝐽4 𝑥 + 4 −𝑥 −1 𝐽3 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 −2 𝐽3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4
= −𝐽4 𝑥 − 𝐽 𝑥 + 8 −𝑥 −2 𝐽2 𝑥
𝑥 3
4 8
= −𝐽4 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥 − 2 𝐽2 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥

EXERCISE 4.3
1. Prove that
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-93

2 sin 𝑥
a. 𝐽3 𝑥 = − cos 𝑥
2 𝜋𝑥 2

b. 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝐽−1 𝑥 tan 𝑥
2 2

2 cos 𝑥
c. 𝐽−3 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 +
2 𝜋𝑥 𝑥

2 3 3−𝑥 2
d. 𝐽−5 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
2 𝜋𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
2 2
2
e. 𝐽1 𝑥 + 𝐽−1 𝑥 = .
2 2 𝜋𝑥

2. Show by use of recurrence formulae that

1
a. 𝐽0′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽2 𝑥 − 𝐽0 𝑥
2

1
b. 𝐽1′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽2 (𝑥)
𝑥

c. 4 𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 3𝐽0′ 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 = 0
𝑑
d. 𝑥 𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽0 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
e. 𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑛
f. 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = − 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
2

𝑑 2 𝑥 2 2
g. 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−1 − 𝐽𝑛+1
𝑑𝑥 2𝑛

𝑑 2 𝑛 𝑛+1 2
h. 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 =2 𝐽𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝐽 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑛+1

3. Prove that
1 2𝜋
a. 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 sin 𝜃 − 𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0

b. cos 𝑥 = 𝐽0 − 2𝐽2 + 2𝐽4 − ⋯ … ..

c. sin 𝑥 = 2𝐽1 − 2𝐽3 + 2𝐽5 − ⋯ … …

d. cos(𝑥 cos 𝜃) = 𝐽0 − 2𝐽2 cos 2𝜃 + 2 𝐽4 cos 4𝜃 − ⋯ …

sin(𝑥 cos 𝜃) = 2𝐽1 cos 𝜃 − 2𝐽3 cos 3𝜃 + 2 𝐽5 cos 5𝜃 − ⋯ …

𝜋 𝜋
2 2
e. 𝐽0 𝑥 = 2 cos(𝑥 sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 = 2 cos(𝑥 cos 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃.
𝜋 0 𝜋 0

4.9 Orthogonality of Bessel Function

2-94 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

The concept of orthogonality is one of the most important concepts to be used in applied
mathematics. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are piecewise continuous functions in the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , then
the inner product of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), denoted as < 𝑓, 𝑔 >, is defined as
𝑏
< 𝑓, 𝑔 >= 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑎

The interval (𝑎, 𝑏) is known as the fundamental interval.

Two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are said to be orthogonal on the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if their inner product is
zero i.e., if
𝑏
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 .
𝑎

An infinite sequence of functions 𝜙1 𝑥 , 𝜙2 𝑥 , 𝜙3 𝑥 , … … … . . , 𝜙𝑛 𝑥 , … …. is said to be

orthogonal on the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if these functions are mutually orthogonal i.e.,
𝑏
𝜙𝑚 𝑥 𝜙𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 for 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛.
𝑎

Statement of the orthogonality of the Bessel function

If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 0, then
𝑏 0, 𝛼≠𝛽
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1 2
𝐽 𝛼 , 𝛼=𝛽.
𝑎
2 𝑛+1
The above property can be proved in the following manner:
Let 𝑢 = 𝐽𝑛 (𝛼𝑥) and 𝜗 = 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽𝑥) be the solutions of the Bessel’s equations
𝑥 2 𝑢′′ + 𝑥𝑢′ + 𝛼 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 𝑢 = 0 … … … … … … … … 1
𝑥 2 𝑣 ′′ + 𝑥𝑣 ′ + 𝛽 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑛2 𝑣 = 0 … … … … … … … … 2
𝑣 𝑢
Multiplying (1) by and (2) by and subtracting, we obtain
𝑥 𝑥

𝑥 𝑢′′ 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 ′′ + 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑢𝑣 ′ + 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 𝑥𝑢𝑣 = 0
or,
𝑑
𝑥 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 ′ = 𝛽 2 − 𝛼 2 𝑥𝑢𝑣.
𝑑𝑥
Integrating both the sides from 0 to 1, we obtain
1
1
𝛽2 − 𝛼 2 𝑥𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 ′ 0 = 𝑢′ 𝑣 − 𝑢𝑣 ′ 𝑥=1
0
Now,
𝑢 = 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 ⇒ 𝑢′ = 𝛼𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼𝑥
𝑣 = 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 ′ = 𝛽𝐽𝑛′ 𝛽𝑥
1
∴ 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
= 𝛼𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 − 𝛽𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛′ 𝛽𝑥 𝑥=1
or,
1
𝛼𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 − 𝛽𝐽𝑛 𝛼 𝐽𝑛′ (𝛽)
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = … … … . . (3)
0 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-95

Case I When 𝛼 ≠ 𝛽.
Since 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 0, hence 𝐽𝑛 𝛼 = 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 = 0.
From (3), we have therefore
1
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0.
0

Case II When 𝛼 = 𝛽 .
Here 𝛼 can be treated as a root of 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 0 and 𝛽 any other variable tending to 𝛼. Hence
𝐽𝑛 𝛼 = 0 and
1
𝛼𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 0
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim from 3
0 𝛽 →𝛼 𝛽2 − 𝛼 2 0
𝛼𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 𝐽𝑛′ 𝛽
= lim By L′ Hospital′ s rule
𝛽 →𝛼 2𝛽
𝛼𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 1
= = 𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 2
…………… 4
2𝛼 2
By the recurrence relation, we have therefore
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑥
i.e.
𝑛
𝐽𝑛′ 𝛼 = 𝐽𝑛 𝛼 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝛼 = −𝐽𝑛 +1 𝛼 ∵ 𝐽𝑛 𝛼 = 0
𝛼
∴ From (4), we have
1
1 2
1 2
𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝐽𝑛+1 𝛼 = 𝐽 𝛼 if α = β .
0 2 2 𝑛+1
Fourier Bessel Expansion:
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function having finite number of oscillations in the interval 0, 𝑎 , then
we can write
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝐽𝑛 𝛼1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝐽𝑛 𝛼2 𝑥 + ⋯ . . +𝑐𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 + ⋯ . . . , (1)
where 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … … … 𝛼𝑛 are the positive roots of 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 0.
If we multiply both the sides of (1) by 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥) and integrate from 0 to 𝛼 , then all the
integrals on the right hand side of (1) will vanish except the term in 𝑐𝑛 . This gives
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝐽𝑛2 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 0
2 1
𝑎 2
= 𝑐𝑛 𝐽 𝑎 𝛼𝑛 ∵ 𝑥 𝐽2𝑛 𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑛+1 0
1
= 𝐽′𝑛 𝛼 2
; 𝛼 being the root of 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 0
2
𝑎
2
⇒ 𝑐𝑛 = 2 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 … … … 2
𝑎2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑎 𝛼𝑛 0

The expansion on (1) along with (2) is called the Fourier Bessel expansion of 𝑓 𝑥 .
Example 4.20 If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … … . . , 𝛼𝑛 are positive roots of 𝐽0 𝑥 = 0, prove that
2-96 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

∞
1 𝐽0 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥)
= .
2 𝛼𝑛 𝐽1 (𝛼𝑛 )
𝑛=1
Solution: As we know if
∞

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 , … … … … … … . 1
𝑛=1
then
𝑎
2
𝑐𝑛 = 2 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑎 𝛼𝑛 0

Taking 𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑛 = 0, we get

1 1
2 2 𝑥 𝐽1 𝛼𝑛 𝑥
𝑐𝑛 = 2 𝑥 𝐽0 𝛼𝑖 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝐽1 𝛼𝑛 0 𝐽1 𝛼𝑛 𝛼𝑛 0

2
=
𝛼𝑛 𝐽1 (𝛼𝑛 )
From (1), we have therefore
∞
2
1= 𝐽 (𝛼 𝑥)
𝛼𝑛 𝐽1 (𝛼𝑛 ) 0 𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
1 𝐽0 𝛼𝑛 𝑥
⇒ = .
2 𝛼𝑛 𝐽1 𝛼𝑛
𝑛=1

Example 4.21 Show that the Fourier-Bessel series in 𝐽2 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥) for 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 ,
where 𝛼𝑛 𝑎 are positive roots of 𝐽2 𝑥 = 0, is
∞
2 2
𝐽2 𝛼𝑛 𝑥
𝑥 = 2𝑎 .
𝑎 𝛼𝑛 𝐽3 𝛼𝑛 𝑎
𝑛=1

Solution: Let the Fourier-Bessel series representing 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 be given by

∞
2
𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝐽2 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 … … … … … … . . (1)
𝑛=1

Multiplying both the sides by 𝑥 𝐽2 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥) and integrating w.r.t. 𝑥 between the limits 0 to 𝑎, we
obtain
𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 3 𝐽2 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝐽22 (𝛼𝑛 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0 0
or,
𝑎
𝑥 3 𝐽3 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 𝑎2 2
= 𝑐𝑛 ∙ ∙𝐽 𝛼 𝑎
𝛼𝑛 0
2 3 𝑛
or,
𝑎3 𝐽3 (𝛼𝑛 𝑎) 𝑐𝑛 𝑎2 𝐽32 (𝛼𝑛 𝑎)
=
𝛼𝑛 2
2𝑎2 1
∴ 𝑐𝑛 = ∙
𝑎 𝛼𝑛 𝐽3 (𝛼𝑛 𝑎)
From (1), we have therefore
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-97

∞
2 2
𝐽2 𝛼𝑛 𝑥
𝑥 = 2𝑎 .
𝑎 𝛼𝑛 𝐽3 𝛼𝑛 𝑎
𝑛=1

𝟎<𝑥<𝑎
1. Expand 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟎<𝑥<1
∞

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑖 𝐽𝑛 𝜆: 𝑥
𝑖=1

𝑛=0
∞

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑖 𝐽0 𝜆𝑖𝑥
𝑖=1
𝑎
2
𝐶𝑖 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝐽𝑛2+1 𝜆𝑖𝑎 0
𝑎
2
= 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑥 ⋅ 𝐽0 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝐽12 𝜆𝑖𝑎 0

𝑎=1
1
2
= 2 𝑥 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 𝐽0 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑗1 𝜆𝑖 0

1
2 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥
= 2 +𝑥 +1
𝑗1 𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖 0

2 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖
= 1
𝐽12 𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖

2
=
𝜆𝑖 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖
∞
2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐽0 𝜆𝑖𝑥
𝜆𝑖 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖
𝑖=1
∞
𝑱𝟑 𝟐𝝀𝒊
𝟐. 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 𝒊𝒏 𝟎, 𝟐 𝒂𝒔 𝟒𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 = 𝟖 𝑱𝟏 𝝀𝒊𝒙
𝝀𝟐𝟏 𝑱𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝝀𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
∞

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑖 𝐽𝑛 𝜆𝑖𝑥
𝑖=1

𝑛=1
2-98 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑖 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥
𝑖=1
𝑎
2
𝐶𝑖 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝐽𝑛2+1 𝜆𝑖𝑎 0

2
2
𝐶𝑖 = 2 𝑥 ⋅ 4𝑥 − 𝑥 3 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 0

2
1
= 2 4 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 0

2
1
= 2 4 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑥 2 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 0

2 2
1 𝑑
= 2 4 − 𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 4 − 𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝐽1 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 0 0 𝑑𝑥
2
1 𝐽2 𝜆𝑖𝑥
= 2 − −2𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 0 𝜆𝑖
2
1 2
= 2 𝑥 3 𝐽2 𝜆𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖 0

2
1 𝐽3 𝜆𝑖𝑥
= 2 𝑥3
𝜆𝑖 𝐽2 2𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖 0

1 𝐽3 𝜆𝑖2
= 8
𝜆𝑖 𝐽22
2𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖
∞
8 𝐽3 𝜆𝑖2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝜆𝑖𝑥
𝜆𝑖 2 𝐽22 2𝜆𝑖 1
𝑖=1

𝟐
3. P.T. 𝑱𝟏 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝟐 𝝅𝒙

∞ 𝑥 𝑛+2𝑚
𝑚
−1
𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 2
𝑚 =0
𝑚+1 𝑛+𝑚+1
1
Put 𝑛 =
2
1
𝑥 +2𝑚
∞ 2
𝑚
−1 2
𝐽1 𝑥 =
2 𝑚+1 3
𝑚 =0 𝑚+
2
𝑚 = 0, 1, 2
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-99

1 1
𝑥 1/2 𝑥 2+2
0 𝑥 2+4
−1 −1 1 −1 2
𝐽1 𝑥 = 2 + 2 + 2
2 3 5 7
1 2 3
2 2 2
1 1
𝑥 1/2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 4
1⋅
= 2 − 2 2 + 2 2
1 1 3 1 1 5 3 1 1
1⋅ 1⋅ ⋅ 2⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥 1/2
𝑥 3 /4 𝑥 4 /16
= 2 1− +
1 1 3/2 15/2
2 2
1 1
𝑥 2 /22 𝑥2 2 𝑥4 2
= 1− × + × ………
1 4 3 16 15
𝜋
2
𝑥
2
2 𝑥2 𝑥4
= 1− + …………….
𝜋 6 120

2 𝑥 1 𝑥2 𝑥4
= ⋅ × 𝑥 1 − + ……………..
𝜋 𝑥 3! 5!

2 1 𝑥3 𝑥5
= ⋅ 𝑥− + …………….
𝜋 𝑥 3! 5!

2
= sin 𝑥
𝜋𝑥

𝟐 𝟑−𝒙𝟐 𝟑
4. Show That 𝑱𝟓 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝟐
𝝅𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙

2𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝐽𝑛 −1 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥

𝑥 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 2𝑛 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥

Divide by 𝑥
2𝑛
𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 … … … … 1
𝑥 𝑛
5 5 3
Put 𝑛 + 1 = ⟹ 𝑛 = −1 ⟹ 𝑛 =
2 2 2
3
2
𝐽 3 𝑥 = 2 𝐽3 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥
2
+1 𝑥 2 2
−1

3
𝐽5 𝑥 = 𝐽3 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥 … … … … … . 2
2 𝑥 2 2
2-100 | CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

3 3 1
Put 𝑛 + 1 = ⟹ 𝑛 = − 1 ⟹ 𝑛 = … … . 𝑖𝑛 1
2 2 2
2 1/2
𝐽1 𝑥 = 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥
2
+1 𝑥 2 2
−1

1
𝐽3 𝑥 = 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽 1 𝑥
2 𝑥 2 −
2

∴ 2 becomes
3 1
𝐽5 𝑥 = 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽 1 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥
2 𝑥 𝑥 2 −
2 2

3 3
= 𝐽 1 𝑥 − 𝐽 1 𝑥 − 𝐽1 𝑥
𝑥2 2 𝑥 −2 2

3 3
= 2
− 1 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽 1 𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑥 −2

3 − 𝑥2 2 3 2
= 2
sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑥 𝜋𝑥

2 3 − 𝑥2 3
= 2
sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
𝜋𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

5. Prove That 𝑱𝟑 𝒙 + 𝟑 𝑱′𝟎 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝑱′′′

𝟎 𝒙 =𝟎

From example 1
2 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛 −1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 … … … … . . 1
4 𝐽𝑛′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 2 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥 … … … . 2
Diff. w. r. t. 𝑥
′ ′
4 𝐽𝑛′′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 2 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥
Multiply by 2
′ ′
8 𝐽𝑛′′′ 𝑥 = 2 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 − 4 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 + 2 𝐽𝑛+2 𝑥 ………… 3
Put 𝑛 = 𝑛 − 2 in (1)
′
2 𝐽𝑛−2 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−3 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥
Put 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 𝑖𝑛 1
′
2 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥
∴ 8 𝐽𝑛′′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−3 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 4 𝐽𝑛′ 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥
= 𝐽𝑛−3 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 2 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 +1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛 +1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥
= 𝐽𝑛 −3 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 − 2 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 + 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛 +3 𝑥
8 𝐽𝑛′′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽𝑛−3 𝑥 − 3 𝐽𝑛−1 𝑥 + 3 𝐽𝑛+1 𝑥 − 𝐽𝑛+3 𝑥
 CALCULUS OF COMPLEX FUNCTIONS | 2-101

𝑛=0
8 𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 = 𝐽−3 𝑥 − 3 𝐽−1 𝑥 + 3 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥
𝑛
𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = −1 𝐽𝑛 𝑥
1
𝐽−1 𝑥 = −1 𝐽1 𝑥 = −𝐽1 𝑥
3
𝐽−3 𝑥 = −1 𝐽3 𝑥 = −𝐽3 𝑥
8 𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 = −𝐽3 𝑥 + 3 𝐽1 𝑥 + 3 𝐽1 𝑥 − 𝐽3 𝑥
= −2 𝐽3 𝑥 + 6 𝐽1 𝑥
Divide by 2
4 𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 = −𝐽3 𝑥 + 3 𝐽1 𝑥

4 𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 − 3 𝐽1 𝑥 = 0
4 𝐽0′′′ 𝑥 + 𝐽3 𝑥 + 3 𝐽0′ 𝑥 = 0

∵ 𝐽1 𝑥 = −𝐽0′ 𝑥

EXERCISE 4.4
1. If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 … … … … … , 𝛼𝑛 , … … are the positive roots of 𝐽1 𝑥 = 0, prove that
1 ∞ 𝐽2 𝛼 𝑛 𝑥
(i) 𝑥 2 = + 4 𝑛=1 𝛼 2 𝐽 𝛼
2 𝑛 0 𝑛

1 ∞ 𝐽0 𝛼 𝑛 𝑥
(ii) − 64 𝑛=1 𝛼 2 𝐽 𝛼 = 1 − 𝑥2 2.
3 𝑛 0 𝑛

2. If 𝑎 is the root of the equation 𝐽0 𝑥 = 0, show that

1 1
(i) 0 1
𝐽 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎
𝑎
(ii) 0 1
𝐽 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1

3. Expand 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 over the interval 0 < 𝑥 < 3 in terms of the functions 𝐽0 𝛼𝑛 𝑥 ,where 𝛼𝑛
are determined by 𝐽0 3𝛼 = 0.
2 ∞ 𝐽0 𝛼 𝑛 𝑥
[Ans: 1 = 𝑛=1 𝛼 𝐽 3𝛼 ]
3 𝑛 1 𝑛