Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Computer Science
Development Life Cycle
Contents
Program Development Life Cycle

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 Program Development Life Cycle
Your notes
Analysis
What is the analysis stage of the program development
life cycle?
The analysis stage of the program development life cycle is to precisely understand the
problem the program is intended to solve

What role does abstraction play in the analysis?

Abstraction is the act of removing unimportant details from the problem to focus on
important elements such as:
Core functionality
Requirements
An example of abstraction would be the London underground train route map; travellers
do not need to know the geographical layout of the routes, only that getting on at stop A
will eventually transport you to stop B

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 Your notes

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Core functionality
Using abstraction helps to identify the fundamental components of what the program Your notes
is going to solve
Before tackling a problem, it needs to be clearly understood by everyone working on it
The overall goal of the solution needs to be agreed as well as any constraints such as
limited resources or requiring a platform specific solution

Requirements
To create a solution, a requirements document is created to define the problem and
break it down into clear, manageable, understandable parts by using abstraction and
decomposition
A requirements document labels each requirement, gives it a description as well as
success criteria which state how we know when the requirement has been achieved

Design
What is the design stage of the program development
life cycle?
The design stage of the program development life cycle involves using techniques to
come up with a blueprint for a solution
Ways the design of a solution to a problem can be presented include:
Structure diagrams
Flowchart
Pseudocode

Coding
What is the coding stage of the program development
life cycle?
Developers begin programming modules in a suitable programming language that
works together to provide an overall solution to the problem
As each developer programs, they perform iterative testing
Iterative testing is where each module is tested and debugged thoroughly to make
sure it interacts correctly with other modules and accepts data without crashing or
causing any errors
Developers may need to retest modules as new modules are created and changed to
make sure they continue to interact correctly and do not cause errors

Testing

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What is the testing stage of the program development
life cycle? Your notes
Once the overall program or set of programs is created, they are run many times using
varying sets of test data
This ensures the program or programs work as intended as outlined in the initial
requirements specification and design and rejects any invalid data that is input
Examples of test data include alphanumeric sequences to test password validation
routines

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 Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Computer Science
Computer Sub-Systems
Contents
Computer Sub-Systems
Problem Decomposition

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 Computer Sub-Systems
Your notes
Computer Sub-Systems
What is a sub-system?
A sub-system is a smaller part of a computer system that works together with other
sub-systems to create fully functional computer system
A car is a great example of using sub-systems
A car will only function if its sub-systems all work together, they are:
Engine
Breaks
Wheels etc.
Sub-systems can be further broken down into even smaller sub-systems such as:
Engine - spark plugs, sensors, pistons
In computers, there are five main sub-systems:

Central Memory Storage Input devices Output devices

Processing
Unit (CPU)

Executes Stores data & Stores data and Allows a user to Displays
instructions instructions software enter information or
temporarily for permanently information creates a
the CPU (RAM) (HDD, SSD) (keyboard, physical output
mouse) (monitor, printer)

Computer sub-systems can be further broken down into smaller sub-systems such as:
CPU - control unit, registers & arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

Advantages of sub-systems
Can help troubleshoot problems in a computer system
The ability to isolate a sub-system makes it easier to identify and fix issues, as each
sub-system can be examined separately
Developing software relies on the use of different sub-systems to ensure they operate
efficiently
Gives developers and designers a clear picture of how sub-systems help build complex
systems

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 Problem Decomposition
Your notes
Problem Decomposition
What is decomposition?
Decomposition is the process of breaking down a large problem into a set of smaller
problems
Benefits of decomposition are:
Smaller problems are easier to solve
Each smaller problem can be solved independently of the others
Smaller problems can be tested independently
Smaller problems can be combined to produce a solution to the full problem
Modern computer games are a good example of using decomposition to break down
the complexity of the problem into more manageable 'chunks'
Creating an entire game at once would be challenging and inefficient, so it could be
decomposed into:
Levels - Levels can be designed/created/tested/ independently of other levels
Characters - The mechanics of characters in the game can be designed and
created by a separate team
Landscape - The art team can work on the visual aspects of the game without
needing to understand how the game is programmed
Once all of the smaller problems are completed, joined together a complex game has
been created

Inputs, processes, outputs and storage

Decomposing a problem requires developers to think about four component parts:
Inputs: data entered into the system
Processes: subroutines and algorithms that turn inputs and stored data into outputs
Outputs: data that is produced by the system, such as information on a screen or
printed information
Storage: data that is stored on a physical device, such as on a hard drive or in
memory whilst the program is running

Example - Area of a rectangle program

Inputs Width of the rectangle
Height of the rectangle

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Processes Width x height
Your notes
Outputs Calculated area of the rectangle

Storage Memory: width, height and area stored temporarily

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 Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Computer Science
Algorithms
Contents
Designing Algorithms
Explaining Algorithms

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 Designing Algorithms
Your notes
What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is precise set of rules or instructions to solve a specific problem or task
There are three main ways to design an algorithm
Structure diagrams
Flowchart
Pseudocode

Structure Diagrams
What is a structure diagram?
Structure diagrams show hierarchical top-down design in a visual form
Each problem is divided into sub-problems and each sub-problem divided into further
sub-problems
At each level the problem is broken down into more detailed tasks that can be
implemented using a single subroutine

an example of a structure diagram for a mobile application could be:

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 Your notes

Flowcharts
What is a flowchart?
Flowcharts are a visual tool that uses shapes to represent different functions to
describe an algorithm
Flowcharts show the data that is input and output, the processes that take place and
any decisions or repetition
Lines are used to show the flow of control

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Example
Flowchart Your notes

The casino would like the algorithm refined so that the user also enters their first name
and this is used to greet the user when they access the site

Flowchart

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 Your notes

Pseudocode
What is pseudocode?

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 Pseudocode is a text-based tool that uses short English words/statements to
describe an algorithm
Your notes
Pseudocode is more structured than writing sentences in English but is very flexible

Example
A casino would like a program that asks users to enter an age, if they are 18 or over they
can enter the site, if not then they are given a suitable message

Pseudocode

INPUT Age
IF Age >= 18
THEN
OUTPUT "Welcome to the site"
ELSE
OUTPUT "Sorry, this site is for users 18 and over"
ENDIF

The casino would like the algorithm refined so that the user also enters their first name
and this is used to greet the user when they access the site

Pseudocode

INPUT FName
INPUT Age
IF Age >= 18
THEN
OUTPUT "Welcome to the site", FName
ELSE
OUTPUT "Sorry, this site is for users 18 and over"
ENDIF

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 Explaining Algorithms
Your notes
Explaining Algorithms
How do you explain an algorithm?
A well designed algorithm should be able to be interpreted by a new user and they
should be able to explain what it does
Algorithms can be written using flowcharts, pseudocode or high-level programming
language code such as Python
The purpose of an algorithm is to solve a problem, if a user does not know the goal of the
algorithm, then following the algorithm instructions should make its purpose clear
If the algorithm is complex then additional ways to understand the problem could be:
Look for comments in the code
Consider the context of where the algorithm is being used
Test the algorithm with different inputs
Look at the following algorithm, can you explain what it does?

Pseudocode

Count ← 1
Number ← 0
Total ← 0
REPEAT
INPUT Number
Total ← Total + Number
Count ← Count + 1
UNTIL Count > 10
OUTPUT Total

The purpose of the algorithm is to add ten user-entered numbers together and output
the total
The processes are:
initializing three variables (Count, Number, Total)
inputting a user number
adding to two variables (Total, Count)
repeating nine more times
outputting the final Total value

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Worked Example
The pseudocode algorithm shown has been written by a teacher to enter marks for Your notes
the students in her class and then to apply some simple processing.
Count ← 0

REPEAT
INPUT Score[Count]

IF Score[Count] >= 70 THEN

Grade[Count] ← "A"
ELSE
IF Score[Count] >= 60 THEN
Grade[Count] ← "B"
ELSE
IF Score[Count] >= 50 THEN
Grade[Count] ← "C"
ELSE
IF Score[Count] >= 40 THEN
Grade[Count] ← "D"
ELSE
IF Score[Count] >= 30 THEN
Grade[Count] ← "E"
ELSE
Grade[Count] ← "F"
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF

Count ← Count + 1
UNTIL Count = 30

Describe what happens in this algorithm.

[3]
Answer
Any 3 of:
Inputted marks are stored in the array Score[] [1]
Marks are then checked against a range of boundaries [1]
A matching grade is assigned to each mark that has been input [1]
The grade is then stored in the array Grade[] [1]
At the same index as the inputted mark [1]
The algorithm finishes after 30 marks have been input [1]

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 Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Computer Science
Standard Methods of a Solution
Contents
Linear Search & Bubble Sort
Other Standard Methods of a Solution

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 Linear Search & Bubble Sort
Your notes
Linear Search
What is a searching algorithm?
Searching algorithms are precise step-by-step instructions that a computer can follow
to efficiently locate specific data in massive datasets

What is a linear search?

A linear search starts with the first value in a dataset and checks every value one at a
time until all values have been checked
A linear search can be performed even if the values are not in order

How do you perform a linear search?

Step Instruction

1 Check the first value

2 IF it is the value you are looking for

STOP!

3 ELSE move to the next value and check

4 REPEAT UNTIL you have checked all values and not found the value you are looking
for

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You will not be asked to perform a linear search on a dataset in the exam, you will be
expected to understand how to do it and know the advantages and disadvantages of
performing it

A linear search in Pseudocode

// Declare variables
DECLARE data : ARRAY[1:5] OF INTEGER
DECLARE target : INTEGER
DECLARE found : BOOLEAN

// Assign values to the array and target

data ← [5, 2, 8, 1, 9]

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target ← 11
found ← FALSE // Start with the assumption that the target is not found
Your notes
// Loop through each element in the array
FOR index ← 1 TO 5
// Check if the current element matches the target
IF data[index] = target THEN
found ← TRUE
OUTPUT "Target found"
ENDIF
NEXT index

// After the loop, check if the target was never found

IF found = FALSE THEN
OUTPUT "Target not found"
ENDIF

A linear search in Python code

# Identify the dataset to search, the target value and set the initial flag
data = [5, 2, 8, 1, 9]
target = 11
found = False

# Loop through each element in the data

for index in range(0, len(data)): # loop to go through all elements
# Check if the current element matches the target
if data[index] == target:
# If found, output message
found = True
print("Target found")
break # Exit the loop if the target is found

# If the target is not found, output a message

if not found:
print("Target not found")

Bubble Sort
What is a sorting algorithm?
Sorting algorithms are precise step-by-step instructions that a computer can follow
to efficiently sort data in massive datasets

What is a bubble sort?

A bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm that starts at the beginning of a dataset and
checks values in 'pairs' and swaps them if they are not in the correct order
One full run of comparisons from beginning to end is called a 'pass', a bubble sort may
require multiple 'passes' to sort the dataset
The algorithm is finished when there are no more swaps to make

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How do you perform a bubble sort?
Your notes
Step Instruction

1 Compare the first two values in the dataset

2 IF they are in the wrong order...

Swap them

3 Compare the next two values

4 REPEAT step 2 & 3 until you reach the end of the dataset (pass 1)

5 IF you have made any swaps...

REPEAT from the start (pass 2,3,4...)

6 ELSE you have not made any swaps...

STOP! the list is in the correct order

Example
Perform a bubble sort on the following dataset

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 5 2 4 1 6 3
Your notes
Step Instruction

1 Compare the first two values in the dataset

5 2 4 1 6 3

2 IF they are in the wrong order...

Swap them

2 5 4 1 6 3

3 Compare the next two values

2 5 4 1 6 3

4 REPEAT step 2 & 3 until you reach the end of the dataset
5 & 4 SWAP!

2 4 5 1 6 3

5 & 1 SWAP!

2 4 1 5 6 3

5 & 6 NO SWAP!

2 4 1 5 6 3

6 & 3 SWAP!

2 4 1 5 3 6

End of pass 1

5 IF you have made any swaps...

REPEAT from the start
End of pass 2 (swaps made)

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 2 1 4 3 5 6
Your notes
End of pass 3 (swaps made)

1 2 3 4 5 6

End of pass 4 (no swaps)

1 2 3 4 5 6

6 ELSE you have not made any swaps...

STOP! the list is in the correct order

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In the exam you do not have to show every swap that takes place in a bubble sort. You
can show the outcome of a bubble sort at the end of each pass. If you have the
outcome of each pass correct then a bubble sort has been implemented correctly
and all marks will be given!

A bubble sort in Pseudocode

// Declare the array

DECLARE nums : ARRAY[1:11] OF INTEGER
nums ← [66, 7, 69, 50, 42, 80, 71, 321, 67, 8, 39]

// Store the length of the array

DECLARE numlength : INTEGER
numlength ← 11

// Set a flag to check if any swaps are made

DECLARE swaps : BOOLEAN
swaps ← TRUE

// Repeat the loop while swaps are being made

WHILE swaps = TRUE
swaps ← FALSE

// Loop through the array from the start to the second-last unsorted element
FOR y ← 1 TO numlength - 1
// If the current number is greater than the next number, swap them
IF nums[y] > nums[y + 1] THEN
DECLARE temp : INTEGER
temp ← nums[y]
nums[y] ← nums[y + 1]

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 nums[y + 1] ← temp

swaps ← TRUE // A swap was made Your notes

ENDIF
NEXT y

// Decrease the range as the last value is now sorted

numlength ← numlength - 1
ENDWHILE

// Output the sorted array

FOR i ← 1 TO 11
OUTPUT nums[i]
NEXT i

A bubble sort in Python code

# Unsorted dataset
nums = [66, 7, 69, 50, 42, 80, 71, 321, 67, 8, 39]

# Count the length of the dataset

numlength = len(nums)

# Set a flag to initiate the loop

swaps = True

while swaps: # While any swap is made, continue

swaps = False
# Loop through the dataset
for y in range(numlength - 1): # Compare adjacent elements
if nums[y] > nums[y + 1]: # If the first number is bigger
# Swap the numbers using a temporary variable
nums[y], nums[y + 1] = nums[y + 1], nums[y]
swaps = True # Mark that a swap was made

# Each iteration confirms that the last element is in place

numlength -= 1

# Print the sorted list

print(nums)

Worked Example
A program uses a file to store a list of words.

A sample of this data is shown

Milk Eggs Bananas Cheese Potatoes Grapes

Show the stages of a bubble sort when applied to data shown [2]

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How to answer this question
We need to sort the values in to alphabetical order from A-Z Your notes
You CAN use the first letter of each word to simplify the process
Answer
E, B, C, M, G, P (pass 1)
B, C, E, G, M, P (pass 2)

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 Other Standard Methods of a Solution
Your notes
Totalling & Counting
What is totalling?
Totalling is keeping a running total of values entered into the algorithm
An example may be totalling a receipt for purchases made at a shop
In the example below, the total starts at 0 and adds up the user inputted value for each
item in the list

Pseudocode

Total ← 0
FOR Count ← 1 TO ReceiptLength
INPUT ItemValue
Total ← Total + itemValue
NEXT Count
OUTPUT Total

What is counting?
Counting is when a count is incremented or decremented by a fixed value, usually 1,
each time it iterates
Counting keeps track of the number of times an action has been performed
Many algorithms use counting, including the linear search to track which element is
currently being considered
In the example below, the count is incremented and each pass number is output until
fifty outputs have been produced

Pseudocode

Count ← 0
DO
OUTPUT “Pass number”, Count
Count ← Count + 1
UNTIL Count >= 50

In the example below, the count is decremented from fifty until the count reaches zero.
An output is produced for each pass

Pseudocode

Count ← 50
DO
OUTPUT “Pass number”, Count

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 Count ← Count - 1
UNTIL Count <= 0
Your notes

Maximum, Minimum & Average

Finding the largest (max), smallest (min) and average (mean) values in a list are frequently
used method in algorithms
Examples could include:
Calculating the maximum and minimum student grades or scores in a game
Calculating the average grade of students in a class test
In the example below, in a list of student test scores, the highest, lowest and average
scores are calculated and displayed to the screen

Pseudocode

Total ← 0
Scores ← [25, 11, 84, 91, 27]

Highest ← max(Scores)
Lowest ← min(Scores)

# Loop through the scores in the list (indexing starts from 0)

FOR Count ← 0 TO LENGTH(Scores) - 1
# Add score to total
Total ← Total + Scores[Count]
NEXT Count

# Calculate average
Average ← Total / LENGTH(Scores)

OUTPUT "The highest score is:", Highest

OUTPUT "The lowest score is:", Lowest
OUTPUT "The average score is:", Average

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 Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Computer Science
Validation & Verification
Contents
Validation & Verification
Suitable Test Data
Trace Tables

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 Validation & Verification
Your notes
Validation
What is validation?
Validation is an automated process where a computer checks if a user input is sensible
and meets the program's requirements.
There are six categories of validation which can be carried out on fields and data types,
these are
Range check
Length check
Type check
Presence check
Format check
Check digit
There can be occasions where more than one type of validation will be used on a field
An example of this could be a password field which could have a length, presence and
type check on it

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 Your notes

Range check
Ensures the data entered as a number falls within a particular range

Pseudocode Ensures a percentage number is between 0-100 inclusive

OUTPUT “Enter a number between 0 and 100”

REPEAT
INPUT Number
IF Number < 0 OR Number > 100
THEN
OUTPUT “Number is not between 0 and 100, please try again”
ENDIF
UNTIL Number >= 0 AND Number <= 100

Python Ensures a user's age has been entered and falls between the digits of 0-110
inclusive

age = int(input("Enter your age"))

while age < 0 or age > 110:
age = int(input("Enter your age, ensure it is between 0-110"))

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Length check
Checks the length of a string Your notes

Pseudocode Ensures a pin number can only contain 4 digits

OUTPUT “Please enter your 4 digit bank PIN number”

REPEAT
INPUT Pin
IF LENGTH(Pin) <> 4
THEN
OUTPUT “Your pin number must be four characters in length, please try again”
ENDIF
UNTIL LENGTH(Pin) ← 4

Python Ensures a password is 8 characters or more

password_length = len(password)
while password_length < 8:
password = input("Enter a password which is 8 or more characters")

Type check
Check the data type of a field

Pseudocode Ensures an age should be entered as an integer (whole number)

OUTPUT “Enter an integer number”

REPEAT
INPUT Number
IF Number <> DIV(Number, 1)
THEN
OUTPUT “Not a whole number, please try again”
ENDIF
UNTIL Number ← DIV(Number , 1)

Python Ensures an age should be entered as an integer (whole number)

age = input("Enter your age")

while age.isdigit() == False:
print("enter a number")
age = input("Enter your age as a number")

Presence check
Looks to see if any data has been entered in a field

Pseudocode Ensures username and password are both entered

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OUTPUT “Enter your username”
REPEAT
INPUT Username Your notes
IF Username = “”
THEN
OUTPUT “No username entered, please try again”
ENDIF
UNTIL Username <> “”

Python Ensures when registering for a website the name field is not left blank

name = input("Enter your name")

while name == "":
name = input("You must enter your name here")

Format check
Ensures that the data has been entered in the correct format
Format checks are done using pattern matching and string handling

Pseudocode Ensures a six digit ID number is entered against the format "XX9999"
where X is an uppercase alphabetical letter and 9999 is a four digit
number

INPUT IDNumber

IF LENGTH(IDNumber) <> 6
THEN
OUTPUT "ID number must be 6 characters long"
END IF

ValidChars ← "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ"

FirstChar ← SUBSTRING(IDNumber, 1, 1)
ValidChar ← False
Index ← 1

WHILE Index <= LENGTH(ValidChars) AND ValidChar = False DO

IF FirstChar = ValidChars[Index]
THEN
ValidChar ← True
ENDIF
Index ← Index + 1
ENDWHILE

IF ValidChar = False
THEN
OUTPUT "First character is not a valid uppercase alphabetical character"
ENDIF

SecondChar ← SUBSTRING(IDNumber, 2, 2)
ValidChar ← False
Index ← 1

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WHILE Index <= LENGTH(ValidChars) AND ValidChar = False DO
IF SecondChar = ValidChars[Index] Your notes
THEN
ValidChar ← True
ENDIF
Index ← Index + 1
ENDWHILE

IF ValidChar = False
THEN
OUTPUT "Second character is not a valid uppercase alphabetical character"
ENDIF

Digits ← INT(SUBSTRING(IDNumber, 3, 6))

IF Digits < 0000 OR Digits > 9999

THEN
OUTPUT "Digits invalid. Enter four valid digits in the range 0000-9999"
ENDIF

Explanation

The first two characters are checked against a list of approved characters
The first character is compared one at a time to each valid character in the ValidChars
array
If it finds a match it stops looping and sets ValidChar to True
The second character is then compared one at a time to each valid character in the
ValidChars array
If it finds a match then it also stops looping and sets ValidChar to True
Casting is used on the digits to turn the digit characters into numbers
Once the digits are considered a proper integer they can be checked to see if they
are in the appropriate range of 0-9999
If any of these checks fail then an appropriate message is output

Python Ensures an email contains a '@' and ' full stop (.) which follows the format
"[email protected]"

email = input("Enter your email address")

while "@" not in email or "." not in email:
email = input("Please enter a valid email address")

Check digits
Check digits are numerical values that are the final digit of a larger code such as a
barcode or an International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

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 They are calculated by applying an algorithm to the code and are then attached to the
overall code
Your notes
Verification
What is verification?
Verification is the act of checking data is accurate when entered into a system
Mistakes such as creating a new account and entering a password incorrectly mean
being locked out of the account immediately
Verification methods include:
double entry checking
visual checks

Double entry checking

Double entry checking involves entering the data twice in separate input boxes and
then comparing the data to ensure they both match
If they do not, an error message is shown

Pseudocode

REPEAT
OUTPUT “Enter your password”
INPUT Password
OUTPUT “Please confirm your password”
INPUT ConfirmPassword
IF Password <> ConfirmPassword
THEN
OUTPUT “Passwords do not match, please try again”
ENDIF
UNTIL Password ← ConfirmPassword

Visual checks
Visual checks involve the user visually checking the data on the screen
A popup or message then asks if the data is correct before proceeding
If it isn’t the user then enters the data again

Pseudocode

REPEAT
OUTPUT “Enter your name”
INPUT Name
OUTPUT “Your name is: “, Name, “. Is this correct? (y/n)”
INPUT Answer
UNTIL Answer ← “y”

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 Your notes
Worked Example
Describe the purpose of validation and verification checks during data entry. Include
an example for each.
[4]
Answers
Validation check
[1] for description:
To test if the data entered is possible / reasonable / sensible
A range check tests that data entered fits within specified values
[1] for example:
Range / length / type / presence / format
Verification check
[1] for description:
To test if the data input is the same as the data that was intended to be input
A double entry check expects each item of data to be entered twice and
compares both entries to check they are the same
[1] for example:
Visual / double entry

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 Suitable Test Data
Your notes
Suitable Test Data
What is suitable test data?
Suitable test data is specially chosen to test the functionality of a program or design
Developers or test-users would pick a selection of test data from the following
categories
Normal
Abnormal
Extreme
Boundary
The results would be compared to the expected results to check if the
algorithm/program works as intended
Each category is explained within the context of a simple Python program below,
comments have been added to help explain the processes

Python

# Ask for user's name

name = input("What is your name? ")

# Ask for user's age

age = int(input("How old are you? "))

# Check if age is between 12 and 18

if age >= 12 and age <= 18:
print("Welcome, " + name + "! Your age is accepted.")
else:
print("Sorry, " + name + ". Your age is not accepted.")

Normal data
Normal test data is data that should be accepted in the program
An example would be a user entering their age as 16 into the age field of the program

Abnormal data
Abnormal test data is data that is the wrong data type
An example would be a user entering their age as "F" into the age field of the program

Extreme data

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 Extreme test data is the maximum and minimum values of normal data that are
accepted by the system
Your notes
An example would be a user entering their age as 18 or 12 into the age field of the
program

Boundary data
Boundary test data is similar to extreme data except that the values on either side of the
maximum and minimum values are tested
The largest and smallest acceptable value is tested as well as the largest and smallest
unacceptable value
An example would be a user entering their age as 11 or 19 into the age field of the program

Selecting suitable test data

Type of Test Input Expected Output

Normal 14 Accepted

Normal 16 Accepted

Extreme 12 Accepted

Extreme 18 Accepted

Abnormal H Rejected

Abnormal @ Rejected

Boundary 11 Rejected

Boundary 19 Rejected

Worked Example
A programmer has written an algorithm to check that prices are less than $10.00
These values are used as test data: 10.00 9.99 ten
State why each value was chosen as test data.
[3]
Answers

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10.00 is boundary or abnormal data and should be rejected as it is out of range [1]
9.99 is boundary, extreme and normal data and should be accepted as it is within the Your notes
normal range [1]
Ten is abnormal data and should be rejected as it is the wrong value type [1]

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 Trace Tables
Your notes
Trace Tables
What is a trace table?
A trace table is used to test algorithms and programs for logic errors that appear when
an algorithm or program executes
Trace tables can be used with flowcharts, pseudocode or program code
A trace table can be used to:
Discover the purpose of an algorithm by showing output data and intermediary
steps
Record the state of the algorithm at each step or iteration
Each stage of the algorithm is executed step by step.
Inputs, outputs, variables and processes can be checked for the correct value when the
stage is completed

Trace table walkthrough

Below is a flowchart to determine the highest number of ten user-entered numbers
The algorithm prompts the user to enter the first number which automatically becomes
the highest number entered
The user is then prompted to enter nine more numbers.
If a new number is higher than an older number then it is replaced
Once all ten numbers are entered, the algorithm outputs which number was the highest
Example test data to be used is: 4, 3, 7, 1, 8, 3, 6, 9, 12, 10

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 Your notes

Trace table: Highest number

Count Highest Number Output

1 Enter ten numbers

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 4 Enter your first number
Your notes
2 3 Enter your next number

3 7 7

4 1

5 8 8

6 3

7 6

8 9 9

9 12 12

10 10 12 is your highest number

Worked Example
The flowchart represents an algorithm. The algorithm will terminate if –1 is entered.

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 Your notes

Complete the trace table for the input data: 50, 75, 99, 28, 82, 150, –1, 672, 80
[4]

Value Diff1 Diff2 Output

Answer
[1] for each correct column

Value Diff1 Diff2 Output

50 50 0 Accept: Extreme

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75 25 25 Accept: Normal

99 1 49 Accept: Normal Your notes

28 Reject: Abnormal

82 18 32 Accept: Normal

150 Reject: Abnormal

-1

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 Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Computer Science
Identifying Errors
Contents
Identifying Errors
Writing & Amending Algorithms

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 Identifying Errors
Your notes
Identifying errors
Designing algorithms is a skill that must be developed and when designing algorithms,
mistakes and issues will occur
Trace tables can also help to find any kind of error in a program or algorithm
There are three main categories of errors that when designing algorithms a programmer
must be able to identify & fix, they are:
Syntax errors
Logic errors
Runtime errors

Syntax Errors
What is a syntax error?
A syntax error is an error that breaks the grammatical rules of a programming language
and stops it from running
Examples of syntax errors are:
Typos and spelling errors
Missing or extra brackets or quotes
Misplaced or missing semicolons
Invalid variable or function names
Incorrect use of operators
Incorrectly nested loops & blocks of code

Python code - with syntax errors

def generate_username(first_name, last_name)

username = f"{first_name[0]}{last_name[0]}{last_name[:3]}"
return username

def main():
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Prompts the user for personal information and displays a suggested username
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
first_name = imput("Enter your first name: ")
last_name = input("Enter your last name: ")
usdrname = generate_username(first_name, last_name)
print(f"Here's a suggested username: {username}")

# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Main program

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# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
main
Your notes
Python code - without syntax errors

def generate_username(first_name, last_name):

username = f"{first_name[0]}{last_name[0]}{last_name[:3]}"
return username

def main():
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Prompts the user for personal information and displays a suggested username
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
first_name = input("Enter your first name: ")
last_name = input("Enter your last name: ")
username = generate_username(first_name, last_name)
print(f"Here's a suggested username: {username}")

# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
# Main program
# ------------------------------------------------------------------------
main()

Syntax errors

1. Missing semicolon def generate_username(first_name, last_name)

2. Incorrectly spelt function name first_name = imput("Enter your first name: ")
3. Typo in variable name usdrname = generate_username(first_name, last_name)
4. Missing parenthesis main

Logic Errors
What is a logic error?
A logic error is where incorrect code is used that causes the program to run, but
produces an incorrect output or result
Logic errors can be difficult to identify by the person who wrote the program, so one
method of finding them is to use 'Trace Tables'
Examples of logic errors are:
Incorrect use of operators (< and >)
Logical operator confusion (AND for OR)
Looping one extra time
Indexing arrays incorrectly (arrays indexing starts from 0)
Using variables before they are assigned

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 Infinite loops
Python code
Your notes
def calculate_area(length, width):
###
Calculates the area of a rectangle
Inputs:
length (float): The length of the rectangle (positive value)
width (float): The width of the rectangle (positive value)
Returns:
float: The calculated area of the rectangle
Raises:
ValueError: If either length or width is non-positive
###
if length < 0 or width < 0:
raise ValueError("Length and width must be positive values.")
area = length * width
return area

def main():
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
Prompts the user for rectangle dimensions and prints the calculated area
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
try:
length = float(input("Enter the length of the rectangle: "))
width = float(input("Enter the width of the rectangle: "))
# Call the area calculation function
area = calculate_area(length, width)
print(f"The area of the rectangle is approximately {area:.2f} square units.")
except ValueError as error:
print(f"Error: {error}")

# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Main program
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
main()

Logic errors
Test Test Expected outcome Actual outcome Changes
number data needed? (Y/N)

1 Length "The area of the "The area of the N

=5 rectangle is rectangle is
approximately 25 approximately 25.00
Width = square units." square units."
5

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 2 Length "Length and width "The area of the Y
= 10 must be positive rectangle is should not
Your notes
values." approximately 0.00 accept 0 input
Width = square units." as not positive
0

Logic error located on line if length < 0 or width < 0:

Logic error identified in expression < 0, should be <= 0 so that 0 is not accepted as valid
input for length or width

Runtime Errors
What is a runtime error?
A runtime error is where an error causes a program to crash
Examples of runtime errors are:
Dividing a number by 0
Index out of the range of an array
Unable to read or write a drive

Python code

def calculate_area(length, width):

"""
Calculates the area of a rectangle
Inputs:
length (float): The length of the rectangle (positive value)
width (float): The width of the rectangle (positive value)
Returns:
float: The calculated area of the rectangle
Raises:
ValueError: If either length or width is non-positive
"""
if length < 0 or width < 0:
raise ValueError("Length and width must be positive values.")
area = length * width
return area

def main():
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
Prompts the user for rectangle dimensions and prints the calculated area
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------
try:
length = float(input("Enter the length of the rectangle: "))
width = float(input("Enter the width of the rectangle: "))
# Call the area calculation function
area = calculate_area(length, width)
print(f"The area of the rectangle is approximately {area:.2f} square units.")
except ValueError as error:
print(f"Error: {error}")

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 # -----------------------------------------------------------------------
# Main program
# ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Your notes
main()

Runtime errors
Test Test Expected outcome Actual outcome Changes
number data needed? (Y/N)

1 Length "The area of the "The area of the N

= 10 rectangle is rectangle is
approximately 100 approximately 100.00
Width = square units." square units."
10

2 Length "Program could not Program crashed Y

= "abc" convert string to float, should give error
try again" message and
Width = ask user to enter
0 again

Runtime error located in

try:
length = float(input("Enter the length of the rectangle: "))
width = float(input("Enter the width of the rectangle: "))
# Call the area calculation function
area = calculate_area(length, width)
print(f"The area of the rectangle is approximately {area:.2f} square units.")
except ValueError as error:
print(f"Error: {error}")

Runtime error identified as missing iteration (while loop) so program does not ask user
to enter width and height again
Corrected code now includes a while loop
while True:
try:
length = float(input("Enter the length of the rectangle: "))
width = float(input("Enter the width of the rectangle: "))
# Call the area calculation function
area = calculate_area(length, width)
print(f"The area of the rectangle is approximately {area:.2f} square units.")
break # Exit the loop if successful
except ValueError as error:
print(f"Error: {error}")
print("Please enter positive values for length and width.")

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 Writing & Amending Algorithms
Your notes
Algorithmic Thinking
What is algorithmic thinking?
Algorithmic thinking is the process of creating step-by-step instructions in order to
produce a solution to a problem
Algorithmic thinking requires the use of abstraction and decomposition to identify each
individual step
Once each step has been identified, a precise set of rules (algorithm) can be created
and the problem will be solved
An example of algorithmic thinking is following a recipe, if the recipe is followed
precisely it should lead to the desired outcome
A set of traffic lights is an example of how algorithmic thinking can lead to solutions
being automated

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Writing algorithms in an exam can be challenging and time consuming. It's important
to allocate your time carefully to not spend too little or too long writing an algorithm
You will likely make mistakes and rewrite your algorithm a few times. Use scrap paper
or the back of your exam paper if possible to sketch out your ideas before
committing to your answer. This will make your answer clearer, neater and easier to
read, follow and understand
You may wish to chunk your algorithm into parts initially, for example, “This part will
enter the grades”, “this part will calculate the total”, and “This part will allocate
grades”. You can then put the whole algorithm together in order later
Make a plan before you start answering the question and writing your algorithm. A plan
can be simple but allows you to order your thoughts, for example:
Part 1: Declare and initialise variables
Part 2: Allocate marks for each subject
Part 3: Allocate grades for each student's subject
Part 4: Include a loop
Part 5: Output all necessary data
Pseudocode does not have a syntax, therefore you can write an algorithm in any way
which is easily understandable. Caution is advised to stick to IGCSE specification
standards to ensure your answer is consistent and easy for examiners to follow

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Be sure to use variable names and data provided in the question as given. Failure to do
so will lose you marks
Your notes
Remember to comment on your code. It helps both you and the examiner understand
your answer and also awards marks in the mark scheme!

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