Quantitative Reasoning 2

Introduction
Quantitative reasoning (QR) is the use of math to analyse and interpret numerical information.
It’s often used to make decisions in real life.

• These are all my personal experiences you can freely disagree with these.
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Chatgpt and other chatbots.
 Week No: 1
Introduce the importance of logic:
Logic plays a vital role in human reasoning, decision-making, and various fields like
philosophy, mathematics, computer science, and everyday life. It enables rational
thinking, critical problem-solving, effective communication, and informed decision-
making. Logic is essential for evaluating evidence, assessing claims, and navigating
complex situations, making it a crucial skill for personal and professional success.
Example:

Premise 1 (All A are B)

Premise 2 (X is A)
Conclusion (X is B)

In this case:

Premise 1: All even numbers are divisible by 2.

Premise 2: The number 14 is even.
Conclusion: Therefore, 14 is divisible by 2.

The logical structure ensures the conclusion logically follows from the premises, making
it a valid and sound argument.
Inductive Reasoning:
Inductive reasoning is a logical process that involves drawing general conclusions from
specific observations. Unlike deductive reasoning, which guarantees certainty, inductive
conclusions are probable but not absolute. It is widely used in science, business,
medicine, weather forecasting, and everyday decision-making.

Examples

Everyday life: Noticing a pattern and assuming a likely cause (e.g., allergic reactions).

Science: Observing experimental trends to form hypotheses.

Business: Linking advertising to increased sales.

Medicine: Identifying effective treatments through repeated observations.

Weather forecasting: Using past weather patterns to predict future conditions.

Deductive Reasoning :

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 Deductive reasoning is a type of logical
reasoning that involves drawing a specific conclusion from one or more general
premises. It’s a top-down approach, where you start with a general statement and apply
it to a specific situation to arrive at a certain conclusion.

Here’s the general structure of deductive reasoning:

Deductive reasoning is a type of logical reasoning that involves drawing a specific
conclusion from one or more general premises. It's a top-down approach, where you
start with a general statement and apply it to a specific situation to arrive at a certain
conclusion.

1. Premise 1: A general statement or rule (All A are B)

2. Premise 2: A specific observation or fact (X is A)

3. Conclusion: A specific conclusion that logically follows (X is B)

Example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is human.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Deductive reasoning is useful for:

- Evaluating arguments
- Making predictions
- Solving problems
- Identifying patterns

It’s an essential skill in various fields, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and
critical thinking.

Abductive Reasoning:
Making an educated guess or hypothesis based on incomplete
or limited information to find the best explanation for a set of observations or facts.

Example:

Observation: Your garden is flooded.

Hypothesis: It might have rained overnight.

Introduction to logic:

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 Logic are principles or rules focusing on a statement to check valid or non valid for
making decisions.

Logic is the systematic study of the form of arguments, focusing on the principles of valid
reasoning and inference. It is a foundational discipline in philosophy, mathematics, computer
science, and linguistics, providing tools to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.
Logic helps us analyze the structure of statements and arguments, ensuring clarity and
consistency in thought.

Structure of logic:

1. Propositions:

- A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true or false. For example, “The sky
is blue” is a proposition because it can be evaluated as true or false.

2. Arguments:

- An argument consists of one or more premises (statements offered as reasons) and a

conclusion (the statement the premises are intended to support). For example:

- Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

- Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

- Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

3. Validity and Soundness:

- An argument is **valid** if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. That is, if
the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

- An argument is **sound** if it is valid and all its premises are true.

4. Logical Connectives:

(Operators)

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 - These are used to combine propositions:

-Conjunction (AND, ∧):

“P and Q” is true only if both P and Q are true.

Disjunction (OR, ∨):

“P or Q” is true if at least one of P or Q is true.

Negation (NOT, ¬):

“Not P” is true if P is false.

-Implication (IF...THEN, →):

“If P, then Q” is false only if P is true and Q is false.

Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF, ↔):

“P if and only if Q” is true if P and Q have the same truth value.

Examples of logical Operator

1: Conjunction (AND, ∧)

“I will go to the store **and** buy groceries.”

Truth Table:

|P |Q |P∧Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | False |

| False | True | False |

| False | False | False |

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2. Disjunction (OR, ∨);

“You can have tea **or** coffee with breakfast.”

Truth Table:

|P |Q |P∨Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | True |

| False | True | True |

| False | False | False |

3. Negation (NOT, ¬)

“I did **not** forget to call you.”

-Truth Table:

|P | ¬P |

| True | False |

| False | True |

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 4.Implication (IF...THEN, →)

- **Example**: “**If** you study hard, **then** you will pass the exam.”

- **Truth Table**:

|P |Q |P→Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | False |

| False | True | True |

| False | False | True |

5. Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF, ↔)

- **Example**: “You will get a bonus **if and only if** you meet the sales target.”

Truth Table:

|P |Q |P↔Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | False |

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 | False | True | False |

| False | False | True |

6. Exclusive OR (XOR, ⊕)

- **Example**: “You can either take the bus **or** drive to work, but not both.”

- **Truth Table**:

|P |Q |P⊕Q|

| True | True | False |

| True | False | True |

| False | True | True |

| False | False | False |

These examples and truth tables illustrate how logical connectives are used in daily life and
how their truth values are determined.

Types of Logic:

1. Inductive logic
2. Deductive logic
3. Abductive logic

1. Inductive Logic

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 Inductive logic is a system of reasoning that involves making general conclusions based on
specific observations.

Inductive logic is a powerful tool for reasoning in situations where certainty is unattainable
but probability and likelihood can guide decisions and conclusions. It is the backbone of
empirical research and practical problem-solving.

Examples:

• You notice that someone always orders a cappuccino at 11 AM at the cafe, so you
conclude that they always come at that time and order that drink.

• You notice that your mom likes dark chocolate, but doesn’t like it with coconut flakes,
so you buy her dark chocolate with different fillings.

• You notice that Joe gets a stomachache after eating pears, so you conclude that
eating pears might cause his stomachache.

2. Deductive logic
“A type of reasoning that involves drawing a specific,
certain, and absolute conclusion from one or more general premises using logical
rules, moving from general to specific.”

Deductive logic is a branch of logic that uses general ideas to reach specific
conclusions. It’s also known as deductive reasoning.

Examples:

• “All men are mortals. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a mortal” .

• “If plants convert sunlight into energy, then plants can photosynthesize” .

3. Abductive logic
A type of reasoning that involves making an educated guess or hypothesis
to explain a set of observations or facts, seeking the most plausible explanation.
Abductive logic is a method of reasoning that uses logic to find the most likely explanation
for a set of observations.
Examples:
• Hearing birdsong

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 If you hear birdsong outside, you might conclude that a bird is nearby.
• Missing TV
If you find your TV missing, you might conclude that someone broke in and stole it.
• Abandoned soup
If you see an abandoned bowl of hot soup, you might conclude that the owner will
return soon.
• White swan
If you see a white swan, you might conclude that it is likely from a region where white
swans are common.

Good Luck 👍 First Week is Done

Practice Questions
(of first week)

Logic (General)
1. Define the following terms:
- Proposition
- Argument
- Validity
- Soundness

2. Identify whether the following statements are **true** or **false**:

- All valid arguments are sound.
- If an argument is invalid, its conclusion must be false.
- A sound argument guarantees that its conclusion is true.

3.Construct a truth table for the following logical expression:

\[
(P \lor Q) \land \lnot R
\]

4. Translate the following statements into symbolic logic:

- “If it rains, then the ground will be wet.”
- “Either John will go to the party, or Mary will go, but not both.”

Deductive Logic
1. Determine whether the following arguments are **valid** or **invalid**:
- Premise 1: All birds can fly.
Premise 2: A penguin is a bird.
Conclusion: Therefore, a penguin can fly.
- Premise 1: If it is sunny, then I will go to the park.

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 Premise 2: It is sunny.
Conclusion: Therefore, I will go to the park.

2. Identify the logical form of the following argument:

- Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

3. Construct a deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion that is **valid** but
**unsound**.

4. Explain the difference between **deductive validity** and **deductive soundness**.

Inductive Logic
1. Determine whether the following arguments are **strong** or **weak**:
- Premise: Every swan I have seen is white.
Conclusion: Therefore, all swans are white.
- Premise: The sun has risen every morning for the past 10,000 years.
Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.

2. Provide an example of an inductive argument that is **strong but not cogent**.

3. Explain the difference between **inductive strength** and **inductive cogency**.

4. Identify whether the following reasoning is **inductive** or **deductive**:

- “Most cats I have met are friendly. Therefore, the next cat I meet will likely be friendly.”

Abductive Logic
1. Provide an example of abductive reasoning in everyday life.

2. Identify the best explanation for the following observation using abductive reasoning:
- Observation: The grass is wet.
Possible Explanations:
- It rained last night.
- The sprinklers were turned on.
- A dog peed on the grass.

2. Explain the difference between **abductive reasoning** and **inductive reasoning**.

4. Construct an abductive argument to explain the following observation:

- Observation: The car won’t start.

Logical Equivalent Statement:

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Two statements with the same truth value in all situations.
Explanation:
Two statements are logically equivalent if they have the same truth value in all possible
situations, meaning that they convey the same information and can be used interchangeably in
logical arguments.

Example:

- “Not all students are attending the party” is logically equivalent to “Some students are
not attending the party”.

- “It is not raining” is logically equivalent to “It is dry”.

- “All cats are mammals” is logically equivalent to “No cats are non-mammals”.
- “If it is sunny, then we will go to the beach” is logically equivalent to “If we don’t go to
the beach, then it is not sunny”.

Week No:2
Propositions:
A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true (T)
or false (F), but not both. Propositions are the building blocks of logical.

Explanation:

- Declarative: Propositions are statements that declare or assert

something.
- True or False: Propositions have a truth value, which is either true
(T) or false (F).
- Unambiguous: Propositions should be clear and unambiguous.

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Examples of Propositions:

1. The sky is blue. (True)

2. 2 + 2 = 5. (False)

3. London is the capital of England. (True)

4. Please read carefully! (it’s not a proposition because it’s can’t be either True or false)

Types of Propositions:

- Simple Proposition: A single statement with a truth value.

Example: “The sun rises in the east.”

- Compound Proposition: A statement made up of two or more simple propositions.

Example: “It is sunny and warm today.”

- Conditional Proposition: A statement that depends on a condition.

Example: “If it rains, then the streets will be wet.”

Arguments:
An argument is a set of statements where one statement (the
conclusion) is supported by one or more other statements (the premises).

Premises:

- Support the conclusion

- Provide evidence or given information
- Introduced by “because”, “since”, or “as”

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Conclusion:

- Logically follows from premises

- Inferred information or decision
- Introduced by “therefore”, “thus”, or “hence”

Valid Argument:

A valid argument is one where:

1. The conclusion logically follows from the premises.

2. The premises provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.

Example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is human.

Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Invalid Argument:

An invalid argument is one where:

- The conclusion does not logically follow from the premises.

- The premises do not provide sufficient evidence for the
conclusion.

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Example:

- Premise 1: All cats are animals.

- Premise 2: Dogs are animals.
- Conclusion: Dogs are cats.

Logical Connectives:

Logical connectives are words or symbols used to connect and combine propositions
(statements) in logical arguments.

Common Logical Connectives:

- Conjunction (∧): And

- *Disjunction (∨): Or
- *Negation (¬): Not
- *Implication (→): If-then
- *Equivalence (⇔): If and only if

‫ان کی ڈیٹیل پہلے ہو چکی ہے‬

Law of Connectives:

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Proportional equivalent
Two proportions p and q are said to be proportionally equivalent, denoted by p ≡
q, if and only if they have the same truth value for all possible combinations of
truth values of their component parts.

Properties:

1. Reflexivity: p ≡ p (a proposition is equivalent to itself)

2. Symmetry: if p ≡ q, then q ≡ p (equivalence is a two-way relation)

3. Transitivity: if p ≡ q and q ≡ r, then p ≡ r (equivalence is transitive)

Examples:

1. p: “It is raining” and q: “It is not not raining” are propositionally equivalent, as
they have the same truth value.

2. p: “x > 5” and q: "x ≥ 6" are propositionally equivalent, as they have the same
truth value for all values of x.

3.Commutative Equivalence

P: “x ∧ y” (x and y)

Q: “y ∧ x” (y and x)

These two propositions are equivalent, as the order of the conjunction does not
change the truth value.

Introduce logical fallacies

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can make an argument or statement
invalid, misleading, or false. They can be intentional or unintentional and are
often used in debates, discussions, and arguments to persuade or deceive others.

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Types with Examples:

1. Attacking the person instead of addressing the argument.

Example: “You’re not an expert, so your opinion doesn’t count.”

2. Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.

Example: “You want to improve education? So, you think we should just
eliminate all exams?”

3. Assuming something is true because an authority figure says so.

Example: “Dr. Smith says this diet is the best, so it must be right.”

4. Presenting only two extreme options when more exist.

Example: “Either we ban all cars or the planet is doomed.”

5. The conclusion is assumed in the premise.

Example: “The Bible is true because it says so.”

6. Believing something is true because many people believe it.

Example: “Everyone’s using this app, so it must be the best.”

7. Making a broad conclusion from a small sample.

Example: “I met two rude French people, so all French people must be rude.”

8. Assuming that because one event follows another, the first caused the second.

Example: “I wore lucky socks, and my team won, so the socks must be lucky.”

9. Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention.

Example: “We shouldn’t worry about the environment now, let’s focus on the
economy.”

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10. Using emotions rather than logic to persuade.

Example: “Think of the children! We must help them!”

Predicate

Definition:

A predicate is a statement or expression or function that assigns a property or

attribute to a subject, or describes a relationship between subjects.

Predicate are property of Proportion.

Examples:

1. “The sky is blue.” (Here, “is blue” is a predicate assigning a property to the
subject “sky”.)

2. “John loves Mary.” (Here, “loves” is a predicate describing a relationship

between the subjects “John” and “Mary”.)

. Quantify

The symbols or words that represent quantity.

Quantification in logic is a way to describe how many things a statement is talking

about. We use quantifiers to say whether something is true for all things, some
things, or at least one thing.

There are two main types of quantifiers in logic:

1. Universal Quantifier (∀) – “For All”

- The *universal quantifier* means *”for all”*. It tells us that a statement is true for
everything in a group.

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- We use it when we say something is true for every element or thing in a certain
category.

Example:

- “All birds can fly.”

- In logic: ∀ x (Bird(x) → CanFly(x))

- Meaning: For every x, if x is a bird, then x can fly.

Agr abhi bi samjh ni i tu...:

- “Every bird can fly” means that *all* birds are included,
not just some of them.

1. Existential Quantifier (∃) – “There Exists”

- The existential quantifier means ”there exists”. It tells us that at least one thing in
a group has a certain property.

- We use it when we want to say that something is true for *at least one item in a
category.

Example:

- “There is a person who can speak French.”

- In logic: ∃ x (Person(x) CanSpeakFrench(x))

Meaning: There is at least one x (a person) who can speak French.

Venn diagram
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Venn diagrams are a powerful tool for visualizing and
understanding relationships between sets.

Common Set Operations in Venn Diagrams

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Union (A ∪ B): Represents all elements that belong to Set A, Set B, or both. This
includes the entire area covered by the two circles.

Intersection (A ∩ B): Represents elements that belong to both Set A and Set B.
This is the overlapping region of the two circles.

Complement (A’): Represents elements that do not belong to Set A. This is the
area outside the circle for Set A but within the universal set.

Week no 2 is ended

Practice Questions
Propositions and Arguments

Q1. Identify the proposition and conclusion in the following argument: “If it
is sunny, then the beach will be crowded. It is sunny. Therefore, the beach
will be crowded.”

Q2. Determine whether the following argument is valid or invalid: “All cats
are mammals. Some mammals are carnivores. Therefore, all cats are
carnivores.”

Q3. What is the proposition in the following statement: “The capital of

France is Paris”?

Q4. Identify the type of argument (deductive or inductive) in the following

statement: “All observed swans are white, therefore all swans are white.”

Q5. Determine whether the following argument is sound or unsound: “All

humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”

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Logical Connectives and Truth Tables

Q1. Construct a truth table for the proposition: “p → q” (p implies q).

Q2. Determine the truth value of the proposition: “p ∧ q” (p and q) when p is

false and q is true.

Q3. What is the logical connective in the following statement: “It is sunny
and warm outside”?

Q4. Construct a truth table for the proposition: “p ∨ q” (p or q).

Q5. Determine the truth value of the proposition: “p → q” (p implies q) when

p is true and q is false.

Propositional Equivalence

Q1. Show that the propositions “p ∧ q” and “q ∧ p” are equivalent using a

truth table.

Q2. Determine whether the propositions “p ∨ q” and “q ∨ p” are equivalent.

Q3. What is the difference between propositional equivalence and logical

equivalence?

Q4. Show that the propositions “p → q” and “¬p ∨ q” are equivalent using a
truth table.

Q5. Determine whether the propositions “p ∧ q” and “p → q” are equivalent.

Logical Fallacies:

Q1. Identify the logical fallacy in the following argument: “Most people
believe in astrology, therefore it must be true.”

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Q2. What is the difference between a straw man fallacy and a red herring
fallacy?

Q3. Identify the logical fallacy in the following argument: “The new policy
will not work because it was proposed by a politician I dislike.”

Q4. What is the difference between an ad hominem attack and a personal

attack?

Q5. Identify the logical fallacy in the following argument: “We should not
invest in renewable energy because it is expensive.”

Venn Diagrams

1. Draw a Venn diagram to represent the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}.

2. Use a Venn diagram to determine the intersection of the sets A = {1, 2, 3}

and B = {2, 3, 4}.

3. Draw a Venn diagram to represent the sets A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}, and
C = {3, 4, 5}.

4. Use a Venn diagram to determine the union of the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B
= {2, 3, 4}.

5. Draw a Venn diagram to represent the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.

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