Quantitative Reasoning 2

Introduction
Quantitative reasoning (QR) is the use of math to analyse and interpret numerical information.
It’s often used to make decisions in real life.

 These are all my personal experiences you can freely disagree with these.
 I tried my best to make these notes more accurate, efficient, easier and shorter.
 For this i have use Open AI, Gemini Advance, Google AI, Deep seek,Llama of meta,
Chatgpt and other chatbots.
 Week No: 1
Introduce the importance of logic:
Logic plays a vital role in human reasoning, decision-making, and various fields like
philosophy, mathematics, computer science, and everyday life. It enables rational
thinking, critical problem-solving, effective communication, and informed decision-
making. Logic is essential for evaluating evidence, assessing claims, and navigating
complex situations, making it a crucial skill for personal and professional success.
Example:

Premise 1 (All A are B)

Premise 2 (X is A)
Conclusion (X is B)

In this case:

Premise 1: All even numbers are divisible by 2.

Premise 2: The number 14 is even.
Conclusion: Therefore, 14 is divisible by 2.

The logical structure ensures the conclusion logically follows from the premises, making
it a valid and sound argument.
Inductive Reasoning:
Inductive reasoning is a logical process that involves drawing general conclusions from
specific observations. Unlike deductive reasoning, which guarantees certainty, inductive
conclusions are probable but not absolute. It is widely used in science, business,
medicine, weather forecasting, and everyday decision-making.

Examples

Everyday life: Noticing a pattern and assuming a likely cause (e.g., allergic reactions).

Science: Observing experimental trends to form hypotheses.

Business: Linking advertising to increased sales.

Medicine: Identifying effective treatments through repeated observations.

Weather forecasting: Using past weather patterns to predict future conditions.

Deductive Reasoning :

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 Deductive reasoning is a type of logical
reasoning that involves drawing a specific conclusion from one or more general
premises. It’s a top-down approach, where you start with a general statement and apply
it to a specific situation to arrive at a certain conclusion.

Here’s the general structure of deductive reasoning:

Deductive reasoning is a type of logical reasoning that involves drawing a specific
conclusion from one or more general premises. It's a top-down approach, where you
start with a general statement and apply it to a specific situation to arrive at a certain
conclusion.

1. Premise 1: A general statement or rule (All A are B)

2. Premise 2: A specific observation or fact (X is A)

3. Conclusion: A specific conclusion that logically follows (X is B)

Example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is human.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Deductive reasoning is useful for:

- Evaluating arguments
- Making predictions
- Solving problems
- Identifying patterns

It’s an essential skill in various fields, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and
critical thinking.

Abductive Reasoning:
Making an educated guess or hypothesis based on incomplete
or limited information to find the best explanation for a set of observations or facts.

Example:

Observation: Your garden is flooded.

Hypothesis: It might have rained overnight.

Introduction to logic:

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 Logic are principles or rules focusing on a statement to check valid or non valid for
making decisions.

Logic is the systematic study of the form of arguments, focusing on the principles of valid
reasoning and inference. It is a foundational discipline in philosophy, mathematics, computer
science, and linguistics, providing tools to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning.
Logic helps us analyze the structure of statements and arguments, ensuring clarity and
consistency in thought.

Structure of logic:

1. Propositions:

- A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true or false. For example, “The sky
is blue” is a proposition because it can be evaluated as true or false.

2. Arguments:

- An argument consists of one or more premises (statements offered as reasons) and a

conclusion (the statement the premises are intended to support). For example:

- Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

- Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

- Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

3. Validity and Soundness:

- An argument is **valid** if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. That is, if
the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

- An argument is **sound** if it is valid and all its premises are true.

4. Logical Connectives:

(Operators)

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 - These are used to combine propositions:

-Conjunction (AND, ∧):

“P and Q” is true only if both P and Q are true.

Disjunction (OR, ∨):

“P or Q” is true if at least one of P or Q is true.

Negation (NOT, ¬):

“Not P” is true if P is false.

-Implication (IF...THEN, →):

“If P, then Q” is false only if P is true and Q is false.

Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF, ↔):

“P if and only if Q” is true if P and Q have the same truth value.

Examples of logical Operator

1: Conjunction (AND, ∧)

“I will go to the store **and** buy groceries.”

Truth Table:

|P |Q |P∧Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | False |

| False | True | False |

| False | False | False |

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2. Disjunction (OR, ∨);

“You can have tea **or** coffee with breakfast.”

Truth Table:

|P |Q |P∨Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | True |

| False | True | True |

| False | False | False |

3. Negation (NOT, ¬)

“I did **not** forget to call you.”

-Truth Table:

|P | ¬P |

| True | False |

| False | True |

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 4.Implication (IF...THEN, →)

- **Example**: “**If** you study hard, **then** you will pass the exam.”

- **Truth Table**:

|P |Q |P→Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | False |

| False | True | True |

| False | False | True |

5. Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF, ↔)

- **Example**: “You will get a bonus **if and only if** you meet the sales target.”

Truth Table:

|P |Q |P↔Q|

| True | True | True |

| True | False | False |

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 | False | True | False |

| False | False | True |

6. Exclusive OR (XOR, ⊕)

- **Example**: “You can either take the bus **or** drive to work, but not both.”

- **Truth Table**:

|P |Q |P⊕Q|

| True | True | False |

| True | False | True |

| False | True | True |

| False | False | False |

These examples and truth tables illustrate how logical connectives are used in daily life and
how their truth values are determined.

Types of Logic:

1. Inductive logic
2. Deductive logic
3. Abductive logic

1. Inductive Logic

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 Inductive logic is a system of reasoning that involves making general conclusions based on
specific observations.

Inductive logic is a powerful tool for reasoning in situations where certainty is unattainable
but probability and likelihood can guide decisions and conclusions. It is the backbone of
empirical research and practical problem-solving.

Examples:

 You notice that someone always orders a cappuccino at 11 AM at the cafe, so you
conclude that they always come at that time and order that drink.

 You notice that your mom likes dark chocolate, but doesn’t like it with coconut flakes,
so you buy her dark chocolate with different fillings.

 You notice that Joe gets a stomachache after eating pears, so you conclude that
eating pears might cause his stomachache.

2. Deductive logic
“A type of reasoning that involves drawing a specific,
certain, and absolute conclusion from one or more general premises using logical
rules, moving from general to specific.”

Deductive logic is a branch of logic that uses general ideas to reach specific
conclusions. It’s also known as deductive reasoning.

Examples:

 “All men are mortals. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a mortal” .

 “If plants convert sunlight into energy, then plants can photosynthesize” .

3. Abductive logic
A type of reasoning that involves making an educated guess or hypothesis
to explain a set of observations or facts, seeking the most plausible explanation.
Abductive logic is a method of reasoning that uses logic to find the most likely explanation
for a set of observations.
Examples:
 Hearing birdsong

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 If you hear birdsong outside, you might conclude that a bird is nearby.
 Missing TV
If you find your TV missing, you might conclude that someone broke in and stole it.
 Abandoned soup
If you see an abandoned bowl of hot soup, you might conclude that the owner will
return soon.
 White swan
If you see a white swan, you might conclude that it is likely from a region where white
swans are common.

Good Luck 👍 First Week is Done

Practice Questions
(of first week)

Logic (General)
1. Define the following terms:
- Proposition
- Argument
- Validity
- Soundness

2. Identify whether the following statements are **true** or **false**:

- All valid arguments are sound.
- If an argument is invalid, its conclusion must be false.
- A sound argument guarantees that its conclusion is true.

3.Construct a truth table for the following logical expression:

\[
(P \lor Q) \land \lnot R
\]

4. Translate the following statements into symbolic logic:

- “If it rains, then the ground will be wet.”
- “Either John will go to the party, or Mary will go, but not both.”

Deductive Logic
1. Determine whether the following arguments are **valid** or **invalid**:
- Premise 1: All birds can fly.
Premise 2: A penguin is a bird.
Conclusion: Therefore, a penguin can fly.
- Premise 1: If it is sunny, then I will go to the park.

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 Premise 2: It is sunny.
Conclusion: Therefore, I will go to the park.

2. Identify the logical form of the following argument:

- Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

3. Construct a deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion that is **valid** but
**unsound**.

4. Explain the difference between **deductive validity** and **deductive soundness**.

Inductive Logic
1. Determine whether the following arguments are **strong** or **weak**:
- Premise: Every swan I have seen is white.
Conclusion: Therefore, all swans are white.
- Premise: The sun has risen every morning for the past 10,000 years.
Conclusion: Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.

2. Provide an example of an inductive argument that is **strong but not cogent**.

3. Explain the difference between **inductive strength** and **inductive cogency**.

4. Identify whether the following reasoning is **inductive** or **deductive**:

- “Most cats I have met are friendly. Therefore, the next cat I meet will likely be friendly.”

Abductive Logic
1. Provide an example of abductive reasoning in everyday life.

2. Identify the best explanation for the following observation using abductive reasoning:
- Observation: The grass is wet.
Possible Explanations:
- It rained last night.
- The sprinklers were turned on.
- A dog peed on the grass.

2. Explain the difference between **abductive reasoning** and **inductive reasoning**.

4. Construct an abductive argument to explain the following observation:

- Observation: The car won’t start.

Logical Equivalent Statement:

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Two statements with the same truth value in all situations.
Explanation:
Two statements are logically equivalent if they have the same truth value in all possible
situations, meaning that they convey the same information and can be used interchangeably in
logical arguments.

Example:

- “Not all students are attending the party” is logically equivalent to “Some students are
not attending the party”.

- “It is not raining” is logically equivalent to “It is dry”.

- “All cats are mammals” is logically equivalent to “No cats are non-mammals”.
- “If it is sunny, then we will go to the beach” is logically equivalent to “If we don’t go to
the beach, then it is not sunny”.

Week No:2
Propositions:
A proposition is a declarative statement that is either true (T)
or false (F), but not both. Propositions are the building blocks of logical.

Explanation:

- Declarative: Propositions are statements that declare or assert

something.
- True or False: Propositions have a truth value, which is either true
(T) or false (F).
- Unambiguous: Propositions should be clear and unambiguous.

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Examples of Propositions:

1. The sky is blue. (True)

2. 2 + 2 = 5. (False)

3. London is the capital of England. (True)

4. Please read carefully! (it’s not a proposition because it’s can’t be either True or false)

Types of Propositions:

- Simple Proposition: A single statement with a truth value.

Example: “The sun rises in the east.”

- Compound Proposition: A statement made up of two or more simple propositions.

Example: “It is sunny and warm today.”

- Conditional Proposition: A statement that depends on a condition.

Example: “If it rains, then the streets will be wet.”

Arguments:
An argument is a set of statements where one statement (the
conclusion) is supported by one or more other statements (the premises).

Premises:

- Support the conclusion

- Provide evidence or given information
- Introduced by “because”, “since”, or “as”

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Conclusion:

- Logically follows from premises

- Inferred information or decision
- Introduced by “therefore”, “thus”, or “hence”

Valid Argument:

A valid argument is one where:

1. The conclusion logically follows from the premises.

2. The premises provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.

Example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is human.

Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Invalid Argument:

An invalid argument is one where:

- The conclusion does not logically follow from the premises.

- The premises do not provide sufficient evidence for the
conclusion.

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Example:

- Premise 1: All cats are animals.

- Premise 2: Dogs are animals.
- Conclusion: Dogs are cats.

Logical Connectives:

Logical connectives are words or symbols used to connect and combine propositions
(statements) in logical arguments.

Common Logical Connectives:

- Conjunction (∧): And

- *Disjunction (∨): Or
- *Negation (¬): Not
- *Implication (→): If-then
- *Equivalence (⇔): If and only if

‫ان کی ڈیٹیل پہلے ہو چکی ہے‬

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