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DBMS Short Notes

A database is an organized electronic collection of data, while a Database Management System (DBMS) is software that facilitates data interaction and administration. Various database languages, such as DCL, DDL, DML, and DQL, serve different functions in managing data, and relational databases organize data into tables with unique keys. Key concepts include normalization to reduce redundancy, various types of joins to combine data from tables, and indexing to enhance data retrieval speed.

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15 views6 pages

DBMS Short Notes

A database is an organized electronic collection of data, while a Database Management System (DBMS) is software that facilitates data interaction and administration. Various database languages, such as DCL, DDL, DML, and DQL, serve different functions in managing data, and relational databases organize data into tables with unique keys. Key concepts include normalization to reduce redundancy, various types of joins to combine data from tables, and indexing to enhance data retrieval speed.

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srisevitha.narahari
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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What are Databases?

A database is an organized collection of data stored and


accessed electronically from a computer system in
computing.

What is DBMS?
The database management system (DBMS) is the software
that interacts with end-users, applications, and the
database itself to capture and analyse the data.
The DBMS software additionally encompasses the core
facilities provided to administer the database.

Database Languages
 Data control language (DCL): It controls access to
data. It consists of commands GRANT, REVOKE.
 Data definition language (DDL): It is used to define
database schema. It consists of SQL commands
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, etc.
 Data manipulation language (DML): It is used to
perform tasks like inserting, deleting, updating data
occurrences. It consists of commands INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, etc.
 Data query language (DQL): It allows searching for
information and computing derived information. It
consists of commands SELECT.

Relational Databases
A relational database is a database based on the relational
model of data.

The relational model organizes data into one or more


tables (or "relations") of columns and rows, with a unique
key identifying each row. Rows are also called records or
tuples. Columns are also called attributes.

Relational Algebra
Relational Algebra is considered a procedural query
language. It has a group of operators that work on relations
or tables. It takes relations as an input and also gives
relation as an output.

Operators in Relational Algebra

 Projection (π) - It is used to retrieve data from a


column of a table.
 Selection (σ) - It is used to select the required
tuple/row from the table.
 Cross Product (X) - The cross product of two relations
with X and Y rows will have X*Y rows.
 Union (U) - It eliminates the duplicate tuples and
selects the tuples which have appeared at least once
in any table.
 Set difference (-) - If there are two tables A and B then
A-B means all the tuples which are present in A but
not in B.
 Rename (ρ) - It is used to rename the attributes of a
relation. ρ(A/B)(R) will rename the attribute ‘B’ of
relation R by ‘A’.
 Natural Join (⋈) - If there are two relations A and B
then Natural join between A and B will show the set of
all the tuples in which they have the equal common
attribute.
 Conditional Join - The only difference between Natural
Join and Conditional Join is in natural join the attributes
must be equal by default but in conditional join, we
can specify the conditions like greater than, less than,
etc.

then the output of A ⋂ B will be the set of tuples that


 Intersection (⋂) - If there are two relations A and B

are common in both A and B.

Keys in DBMS
 Candidate Key - It is the minimal set of attributes that
can identify a tuple uniquely. A candidate key must
have a unique value in each row. A candidate key
can't have a NULL value in any row.
 Super Key - Any number of attributes added to a
candidate key will be a super key.
 Primary Key - A Primary Key is a set of attributes that
can uniquely identify the tuples. It is one of the
candidate keys which is most suitable to identify a
tuple. The value of the primary key in any row can't be
null. There can be only one primary key in a table.
 Alternate Key - All other candidate keys except the
primary key are called Alternate Key.
 Foreign Key - It is the set of attributes that establishes
a relationship between two tables.
 Unique Key - It also identifies a tuple of a relation
uniquely. A table can have more than one unique key.

Normalization
Database Normalization is a technique that is used to
reduce redundancy or duplicate data from the database
and store the data logically. The main aim of Normalization
is any of the operations like insertion, deletion, and the
update of the data does not cause any anomalies.

Normal Forms
 First Normal Form (1NF) - A relation is considered to
be in the first normal form if it doesn’t contain any
multivalued attribute.
 Second Normal Form (2NF) - For a relation to be in
2NF, no non-prime attribute should be functionally
dependent on any partial candidate key or any proper
subset of the candidate key. There should be no
partial dependency. It must be in 1NF.
 Third Normal Form (3NF) - For a table to be in 3NF,
there should be no transitive dependency for non-
prime attributes and it must be in 2NF. Transitive
dependency means indirect dependency like X→Y (Y is
dependent on X) and Y→Z so X→Z.
 Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) - For a relation to be
in BCNF it must be in 3NF. For every non-trivial
functional dependency X→Y, X is a super key and for
every trivial functional dependency X→Y, Y is a subset
of X (Y⊆X). This form is stronger than 3NF.

Denormalization
Denormalization is a technique used to improve the
performance of a normalized database by adding some
redundant data.

Database Joins
Joins are used in relational databases to combine data from
multiple tables based on a common column between them.
A foreign key may be used to reference a row in another
table and join can be done based on those columns.

 Cross Join - CROSS JOIN returns the cartesian product


of rows from the tables in the join. It combines each
row of the first table with each row of the second
table.
 INNER JOIN - The INNER JOIN produces the output by
combining those rows which have matching column
values. Those rows from the two tables are combined
and selected in the joined table which has the same
value for the common column.
 LEFT OUTER JOIN - The LEFT OUTER JOIN which is also
called LEFT JOIN returns all the rows from the left table
‘A’ and the matching rows from the right table ‘B’ in
the join.
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN - The RIGHT OUTER JOIN which is
also called RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows from the
right table ‘B’ and the matching rows from the left
table ‘A’ in the join.
 FULL OUTER JOIN - A FULL OUTER JOINS combines the
effect of applying both left and right outer joins. The
output of FULL OUTER JOIN contains all the rows from
both Table ‘A’ and Table ‘B’.

Database indexing
A database index is a data structure that improves the
speed of data retrieval operations on a database table at
the cost of additional writes and the use of more storage
space to maintain the extra copy of data. It enhances the
speed of accessing the data by minimizing the disk access
required each time when a query is processed.

 Primary Index - In this type of indexing, the primary


key of the database table is used to create the index.
As the primary key contains unique values, it makes
the searching very efficient and overall enhances the
performance.
 Clustered Index - The clustered index can be used in
the case of the ordered data file. The index is created
on the record which is not unique in the data file by
grouping those which have similar characteristics. The
index key points to every block in which data can be
found related to that index value.
 Secondary Index -The Secondary index can be used to
access the data which are not stored in the ordered
form in the data file. The secondary index can be
created on attributes other than the primary key.
B and B+ Tree
B Tree is a self-balancing tree data structure. B-tree is used
for implementing multilevel indexing. Every node of the B-
tree stores the key-value along with the data pointer
pointing to the block in the disk file containing that key.

A B+ tree is similar to a B-tree, the only difference is that


their leaves are linked at the bottom. Unlike B-tree, the
nodes of the B+ tree do not store keys along with the
pointers to the disk block. The internal nodes contain only
keys and the leaf nodes contain the keys along with the
data pointers. This property makes searching faster in B+
Tree.

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