Unit 1

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share

resources and information. These devices can include computers, servers,
printers, and other hardware. Networks allow for the efficient exchange of
data, enabling various applications such as email, file sharing, and internet
browsing.
Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks
 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are
connected together to enable communication and data exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can
include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other
devices.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data
is transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include
TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical
arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network topologies
include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
 Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to
take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider.
Service Provider Networks include Wireless Communications, Data
Carriers, etc.
 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned
to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices
and enable communication between them.
 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to
translate human-readable domain names (such as www.google.com)
into IP addresses that computers can understand.
 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and
control incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to
protect networks from unauthorized access and other security threats.
What do Computer Networks do?
Computer networks first developed in 1950 for military and defense purpose.
At that time they are mainly used to send data through telephone lines and
had limited use in business or science.
Today computer networks are essential for businesses also. Modern networks
offer more than just connecting devices. They play a key role in helping
businesses adapt to the digital world and succeed. These networks have
become more flexible, automated, and secure, making them even more
important in today’s business environment.
Modern computer networks can:
 Work Virtually: The physical network can be divided into smaller virtual
networks. In these virtual networks, devices are connected and can send
data through multiple physical routes. For example, many business
networks use the internet this way.
 Connect on a Large Scale: Modern networks link many smaller, spread-
out networks into one big, powerful system. Automation and monitoring
tools help manage and adjust the network as needed, allowing it to grow
or shrink based on demand.
 Adapt Quickly: Many networks are controlled by software, so changes
can be made quickly through a digital dashboard. This allows traffic to be
managed easily.
 Keep Data Secure: Built-in security features like encryption and access
control protect data. Additional protections like antivirus software,
firewalls, and malware protection can be added to strengthen network
security.

Goals of Networks
Different goals of networks
A network is a connection between two or multiple devices to transfer
data or information with utmost security. To achieve this security, the
following goals of the network can be considered –

 Enable Communication
The primary goal of a network is to establish communication between
the sender and the receiver. This communication can be in the form of
 audio, video, or text. The network ensures that communication is
established efficiently between the sender and receiver.

 Enable data sharing

In today’s digital world, data is like a new currency. Networking enables
sharing of data and information between different entities in an
organization or outside the organization. Networks ensure that the data
is shared reliably and quickly so that people can access the received
information in real-time.

 Ensure Security
With the rise in data requirements, there is a need to secure this data.
Networks provide security of data from unethical and unauthorized
access. It uses various security measures like encryption, firewalls, data
access points, etc. to safeguard the data from cyber-attacks.

 Sharing resources
Networking helps in sharing resources with more than one device. Like a
printer can be shared by 4 or more computers. This makes it more
economical.

 Performance
The performance of a network is very important for an organization. A
properly designed network gives high performance and increases
productivity. Let’s discuss a few ways in which networking improves
performance.

 Remote access
By networking, people can access and work remotely using the same
applications and information. Thus increasing the productivity of the
workforce by giving them flexibility in their work routine.

 Bandwidth Optimization
Networking manages the bandwidth effectively so that the most needed
applications receive priority in network traffic. This minimizes the
congestion in a network.

 Security
 Networking improves the performance of an organization by providing it
with security. It ensures that the network is protected from
unauthorized access and cyber threats.

 Reliability
Networks ensure reliability so that users can depend on systems for any
data loss and critical services.

Applications of Computer Network

There are multiple applications of computer networks including: There are
multiple applications of computer networks including:
 Business applications: Computer networks are often used by businesses
to ensure impact communication, to share resources, and to allow their
employees to access the whole system and applications from remote
locations.
 Educational applications: Online networks are widely employed in
educational institutions allowing students to access educational
possibilities, share knowledge, and collaborate with their professors.
 Healthcare applications: The healthcare sector has benefited a lot from
the computer networks, which are used to store and share patient
details thus allowing healthcare providers to provide more personalized
treatment.
 Entertainment applications: Besides that with computer networks, you
can entertain yourself with online games, streaming movies and music,
or utilization of social media.
 Military applications: Military networks are often closed and not used
for general communication, which ensures the safety of military
information.
 Scientific applications: Scientific research heavily depends on computer
networks because they will help establish collaboration among
researchers and facilitate the sharing of data and information.
 Transportation applications: Computer networks are used to monitor a
transit system in various ways, by managing the traffic, tracking vehicles
as well as even improving efficiency in transportation.
  Banking and finance applications: The banks and finance sector are the
biggest users of computer networks to carry out transactional
processing, information sharing, and the provision of secure access to
financial services.

Types of Computer Networks(according to size)

There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network
designed to connect devices within a short range, typically around one person.
It allows your personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and
wearables, to communicate and share data with each other. PAN offers a
network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing
communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy
maintenance and very low cost. This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as
technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA,
etc.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
Types of PAN
 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are
created by simply utilising wireless technologies such as WiFi and
Bluetooth. It is a low-range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is
constructed using a USB.
Advantages of PAN
 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network
ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
 Low network coverage area/range.
 Limited to relatively low data rates.
  Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Applications of PAN
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that
connects computers through a common communication path, contained
within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more
computers connected over a server. The two important technologies involved
in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission
speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are
networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Advantages of a LAN
 Privacy: LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body
controls it, giving it a privacy.
 High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed(around 100 mbps) and data
transfer rate comparatively to WAN.
 Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of
communications transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin
cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.
 Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation,
expansion and maintenance and LAN installation is relatively easy to use,
good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
 The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because
there is special software required to make a server.
 Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers,
cables are costly.
 LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well
as Internet history of each and every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the
users are violated
 LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
 Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be
accessed by an unauthorized user, can cause a serious data security
threat.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer
network that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network
covers a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings
within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from
1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance
cost and moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools,
colleges, buildings, etc.
Campus Area Network (CAN)
Advantages of CAN
 Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area
Network (LAN) so data transfer rate between systems is little bit fast
than Internet.
 Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by
continuous monitoring, tracking and limiting access. To protect network
from unauthorized access firewall is placed between network and
internet.
 Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well
by providing fast data transfer rate with multi-departmental network
access. It can be enabled wirelessly, where wiring and cabling costs can
be managed. So to work with in a campus using CAN is cost-effective in
view of performance

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of
computer network that connects computers over a geographical distance
through a shared communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.
This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range
from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain
and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns,
cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple buildings, etc.

Advantages of MAN
 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-
100 Mbps.
 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
 It support to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of
dual bus architecture.
 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed
internet to all the users.
 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network,
making it easier to monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design
and maintain.
  This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set
up fiber optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not
restrained to a single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also
be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up
technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with very high
maintenance and very high cost. The most common example of WAN is the
Internet.

Advantages of WAN
 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of
organisation to transmit data quickly and cheaply.
  The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access
to data provided by WAN.
 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of
work can be minimised.
 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very
easily and allows to exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection
point.
 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large
distances and high number of connected system within the network.

Transmission Technology
Transmission is actually the process of sending and propagating analog or
signals of digital information. Transmission technology generally refers to
physical layer protocol duties like modulation, demodulation, line coding, and
many more. It might also include higher-level protocol duties such as digitizing
analog signals, data compression, etc.
Types of Transmission Technology :
Transmission media is basically divided into two categories: Broadcast
Networks, Point-to-Point Networks. These are explained as following below.
1. Broadcast Networks :
Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial networks. It is basically a
group of radio stations, television stations, or any other electronic media
outlets that simply generate agreement to air, or broadcast, content generally
from a centralized source. Broadcasting is simply a method of transferring
messages to all the recipients simultaneously.
In this network, a message that is sent by a node is received by all the other
nodes connected to the network and share a common medium of
communication. Broadcast networks also avoid procedures of complex routing
of switched network by simply confirming and ensuring that each transmission
of nodes is basically received by all the other nodes in the network. This is the
reason why the broadcast network has single communications channel.
In this network, each receiving station just receives all signals that are sent by
transmitters. Even routing of signals is highly affected passively. These
networks generally have single communication that is shared by all machines
present on the network. Short messages also are known as packets that are
sent by any of the machines present are received by all of the others present
over there. Some of the systems of broadcast also support transmission to
subset of machines also known as multicasting. It just links, in contrast,
communication channel that is basically shared by all of machines in network.

Advantages of Broadcast Networks –

 In this network, packets are generally transmitted and received by all of
computers.
 It allows multicasting in the network.
 It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as required.
 It ensures better utilization of all resources available.

Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks –

 It cannot accommodate huge number of devices.
 It doesn’t allow personalization of message.
2. Point-to-Point Networks :
Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is type of private data
connection that is connecting securely two or more locations for private data
services. It might also be configured to usually carry voice, internet, and data
services together all over same point-to-point network. It simply refers to type
of communication connection among two endpoints or nodes of
communication. It is connection among pairs of machines. Transmission from
point-to-point with one sender and receiver is commonly known as
unicasting.
This network is generally used for two locations that are required to securely
send data that is very sensitive and confidential among each of locations. A
point-to-point or P2P (Data Link) also gives or provides path from one point
that is fixed to other point being fixed. It is very closed network data transport
service that does not travel through public Internet. This network includes
various connections among individual pairs of machine. A packet present on
these types of networks might be needed to go through intermediate
computers before they reach desired or destination computer. The packets
also need to follow multiple routes of different length sizes.
Therefore, routing algorithms are very essential and important in point-to-
point connection. This network is generally available in range of bandwidth
speeds along with point-to-point T1, point-to-point Ethernet, or many more.

Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks –

 It increases productivity.
 It generally uses leased lines so that speeds are guaranteed.
 It provides better security so that data can be transferred securely with
confidence.
Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks –
 With this network, we can only connect two sites.
  It is very expensive for distant locations.

Network Architecture
Network architecture generally refers to the design of a computer network or
communications network. It simply describes the allocation task between all of
the computers in the network. It is simply a way in which all network devices
and services are organized and managed to connect clients like laptops,
tablets, servers, etc., and also how tasks are allocated to computers.
It is defined as the physical and logical design of software, hardware, protocols,
and media of data transmission. In this article, we are going to discuss Network
Architecture in detail along with its type, the skills required to become a
network architect, and many more.
What is a Computer Network Architect?
A computer network architect sets up the computer and communication
systems for a company. “Network architecture” means the rules, tools, and
software that help people in the company stay connected without any
problems.
Network Architect vs Network Administrator vs Network Engineer
 Network Administrator: They take care of a network that’s already set
up. They handle day-to-day tasks like fixing problems, adding users, and
making sure everything runs smoothly.
 Network Engineer: They’re like the builders and fixers. They create
networks based on designs, make changes when needed,
and troubleshoot any issues that pop up.
 Network Architect: They’re the big planners. They design how a network
should look and work. They create the blueprint that the engineers
follow to build the network
Types of Network Architecture
Computer networks can be classified based on architecture into two primary
types:
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture
  Client/Server Architecture

What is Peer-to-Peer Architecture?

In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally represent computer
system. These peers are connected to each other with help of Internet. Files
might be shared directly without requirement of central server among these
systems on the network. It can be said that each of computers on P2P network
usually becomes file server even as client also.
In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into various
computational nodes that contain the same and equivalent capabilities,
abilities, and responsibilities. In this network, tasks are allocated at each and
every device available on network. This network is very essential and
important for small environments, usually up to at least 10 computers. There is
also no separate division as clients and servers. Each and every computer in
this network are treated same and equally and might send even receive
message directly. This P2P network is generally useful in various fields such as
business, education, military, etc.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 P2P network is less costly and cheaper. It is affordable.
 P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers that
are connected in network communication in an efficient and well-
mannered with each other.
 It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup
is less painless and computer manages itself. This is because of built-in
support in modern operating systems.
 Security is one of major issues in this type of network.
 If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of
resources might become major problem.
 Performance, security, and access can also become major problem with
an increase in number of computers on this network.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Architecture
 It is more difficult to manage security policies consistently.
 Each peer demands individual care and control.
 As the network expands in size, it may become inefficient.

What is Client/Server Architecture?

CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one of
centralized and powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to
which many of personal computers that are less powerful or workstations
(commonly known as clients) are connected. It is type of system where clients
are connected to server to just share or use resources. These servers are
generally considered as heart of system. This type of network is more stable
and scalable as compared to P2P network. In this architecture, system is
generally decomposed into client and server processor or processes.
Advantages of Client/Server Architecture
 A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to
provide resources to many users that request them.
 It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates. This is
because data is generally stored in centralized manner on server.
 The server usually controls resources and data security.
 This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
 If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
 It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server
with more memory as well as need for many networking devices such as
hubs, routers, switches, etc.
 Cost of NOS being provided is very high.
Disadvantages of Client/Server Architecture
 If the server fails, clients may lose access to services.
 Setting up servers requires a higher investment in hardware and
software.
 Managing servers requires skilled personnel.

What Does a Computer Network Architect Do?

A computer network architect is responsible for designing and building
communication networks for organizations. Their main tasks include:
 Designing, Modeling, Testing, and Troubleshooting Networks: This
involves creating plans for networks, testing them out, and solving any
problems that arise.
 Testing and Inspecting Existing Networks: You’ll need to examine
current networks to ensure they’re working correctly and identify any
issues that need fixing.
 Upgrading Networks (Hardware and Software): Keeping networks up-
to-date by improving both the physical equipment and the software they
run on.
 Analyzing and Fixing Security Weaknesses: Identifying and resolving any
vulnerabilities in networks to keep them safe from cyber threats.
 Developing Technical Documentation: Creating detailed guides and
instructions for building and maintaining networks.
 Installing and Maintaining Hardware Components: Setting up and
looking after the physical parts of networks, like routers, cables, and
adapters.

Design issues for the layers:

Computer networks are the lifelines of our digital era, supporting the flow of
information, data, and communication across a wide range of devices and in an
increasingly linked world. However, the complicated web of interconnected
networks that enables our daily interactions and global connectedness is
anything from simple. To ensure the seamless operation and scalability of
computer networks, one must delve into the intricacies of design issues that
span the layers of these intricate systems.
The design issues in computer network layers are not mere technical details;
they are the foundation upon which the reliability, security, and efficiency of
our digital interactions are built. In this comprehensive exploration, we will
dissect the critical challenges that network architects and engineers must
address to craft networks that function smoothly and adapt to the ever-
evolving landscape of technology. In this read, we will look into the problems
that might occur while designing the network.
1. Reliability
Reliability is a cornerstone design issue in computer networks. Networks are
composed of various components, and some of these components may be
inherently unreliable, leading to potential data loss during transmission.
Ensuring that data is transferred without distortion or corruption is
paramount. Robust error detection and correction mechanisms are essential for
preserving data integrity, especially in the face of unreliable communication
channels.
2. Addressing
Addressing is a fundamental aspect of network layers. In a network, numerous
processes run on multiple machines, and each layer requires a mechanism to
identify both senders and receivers accurately. Effectively assigning and
managing addresses helps facilitate efficient communication, ensuring that
data reaches its intended destination.
3. Error Control
The inherent imperfections in physical communication circuits necessitate
error control as a vital design issue. To safeguard data integrity, error-detecting
and error-correcting codes are employed. However, it's imperative that both
the sending and receiving ends reach a consensus on the specific error
detection and correction codes to be used, ensuring effective data packet
protection.
4. Flow Control
Maintaining an equilibrium between data senders and receivers is essential to
prevent data loss due to speed mismatches. A fast sender transmitting data to
a slower receiver necessitates the implementation of a flow control
mechanism. Several approaches are used, such as increasing buffer sizes at
receivers or slowing down the fast sender. Additionally, the network should
handle processes that cannot accommodate arbitrarily long messages by
disassembling, transmitting, and reassembling messages as required.
5. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing
Efficient data transmission on a network often involves transmitting data
separately on the transmission medium. Setting up separate connections for
every pair of communicating processes is neither practical nor cost-effective.
To address this challenge, multiplexing is employed at the sender's end,
allowing data from multiple sources to be combined into a single transmission
stream. De-multiplexing is then performed at the receiver's end to separate
and direct the data to the appropriate recipients.
6. Scalability
As networks expand in size and complexity, new challenges inevitably arise.
Scalability is crucial to ensuring that networks can continue to function
effectively as they grow. The network's design should accommodate increasing
sizes, reducing the risk of congestion and compatibility issues when new
technologies are introduced. Scalability is a cornerstone for ensuring the
network's long-term viability.
7. Routing
Routing is a critical function within the network layer. When multiple paths
exist between a source and destination, the network must select the most
optimal route for data transmission. Various routing algorithms are utilized to
make this determination, with the aim of minimizing cost and time, thereby
ensuring efficient and reliable data transfer.
8. Confidentiality and Integrity
The security of a network is critical. Confidentiality methods are critical for
protecting against risks like eavesdropping and preventing unauthorized
parties from accessing sensitive data. Data integrity is also crucial since it
protects against tampering and unauthorized changes to messages during
transmission.
9. Network management:
Network management includes monitoring and maintaining the health and
performance of different network components such as routers, switches, and
servers. Device configuration, fault detection, performance analysis, and
security monitoring all need network management tools and protocols.
Effective network administration is critical for detecting and resolving
problems in real time, optimizing resource utilization, and maintaining a
positive user experience.
10. Load Balancing:
In scenarios where a network has multiple servers or paths to handle incoming
traffic, load balancing becomes critical. The challenge is to distribute network
traffic evenly across these resources to prevent overloads and optimize
resource utilization. Load balancing can be achieved through hardware or
software solutions, and it may require advanced algorithms to make intelligent
decisions based on factors like server health and current traffic loads.
11. Network Topology Design:
The choice of network topology can significantly impact the network's
performance, scalability, and fault tolerance. Designing the right topology for a
given scenario involves considering factors such as cost, reliability, ease of
expansion, and fault tolerance. For example, a star topology might be suitable
for a small office network, while a mesh or hybrid topology could be preferred
for a large-scale data center.
12. Energy Efficiency:
With increasing concerns about energy consumption and its environmental
impact, designing energy-efficient networks is essential. This includes using
energy-efficient hardware, optimizing network protocols, and implementing
strategies for turning off or reducing power to unused network components
during periods of low demand. Energy-efficient network design helps reduce
operational costs and minimizes the carbon footprint.
13. Mobile and Wireless Networks:
As the use of mobile devices and wireless connections continues to grow,
designing networks that provide seamless connectivity as users move between
different access points is a challenge. This involves implementing mobility
management protocols, handover procedures, and efficient spectrum
management to prevent interference and optimize wireless performance.

OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains
how different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was
developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI
Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions and
responsibilities. This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and
technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for data
transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a
reference to understand how network systems function.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model?
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7
layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s
end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physica

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) Model which is a physical and electrical representation
of the system. It consists of various network components such as power plugs,
connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer sends data bits from
one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s).

The physical Layer defines the types of encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s
are encoded in a signal). It is responsible for the communication of the
unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.
Functions Performed by Physical Layer
The Physical Layer is responsible for sending raw data as bits over a physical
medium. It converts data into signals that can travel through wires, fiber
optics, or wireless channels (encoding) and turns these signals back into data
at the receiver (decoding). It ensures signals are transmitted correctly and uses
techniques like modulation to prepare the data for transmission
and demodulation to retrieve it at the other end. This layer also decides how
data flows (one-way, two-way alternately, or simultaneously)
through transmission modes and controls the speed and timing of data
transmission to keep everything running smoothly.
Modes of Transmission Medium
 Simplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, only one device can
transmit the data, and the other device can only receive the data.
o Example- Input from keyboards, monitors, TV broadcasting, Radio
broadcasting, etc.

 Half Duplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, both devices can
send and receive the data but only one at a time not simultaneously.
o Examples- Walkie-Talkie, Railway Track, etc.

 Full-Duplex mode: In this mode, both devices can send and receive the
data simultaneously.
o Examples- Telephone Systems, Chatting applications, etc.
Advantages of the Physical Layer
 It ensures devices can transmit and receive raw data over physical
mediums.
 It provides universal standards for cables, connectors, and signaling,
ensuring compatibility.
 Support for Various Media: Works with wired (e.g., Ethernet) and
wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi) technologies.
Limitations of the Physical Layer
 No Error Handling: Cannot detect or correct errors in data transmission.
 Susceptible to Physical Damage: Cables, connectors, and hardware
failures can disrupt communication.
 No Data Interpretation: It only transmits bits and doesn’t understand or
process the actual data.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open
System Interconnection) network architecture model. It is responsible for the
node-to-node delivery of data within the same local network. Its major role is
to ensure error-free transmission of information. DLL is also responsible for
encoding, decoding, and organizing the outgoing and incoming data.
This is considered the most complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the
underlying complexities of the hardware from the other above layers. In this
article, we will discuss Data Link Layer in Detail along with its functions, and
sub-layers.
Sub-Layers of The Data Link Layer
The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:
Logical Link Control (LLC)
This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data
among applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing
error messages and acknowledgments as well.
Media Access Control (MAC)
MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing
frames, and also controls physical media access. The data link layer receives
the information in the form of packets from the Network layer, it divides
packets into frames and sends those frames bit-by-bit to the underlying
physical layer.
Devices Operating at the Data Link Layer
1.Switch
 A switch is a key device in the Data Link Layer.
 It uses MAC addresses to forward data frames to the correct device
within a network.
 Works in local area networks (LANs) to connect multiple devices.
2. Bridge
 A bridge connects two or more LANs, creating a single, unified network.
  Operates at the Data Link Layer by forwarding frames based on MAC
addresses.
 Used to reduce network traffic and segment a network.
3. Network Interface Card (NIC)
 A NIC is a hardware component in devices like computers and printers.
 Responsible for adding the MAC address to frames and ensuring proper
communication with the network.
 Operates at the Data Link Layer by preparing and sending frames over
the physical medium.
4. Wireless Access Point (WAP)
 A WAP allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network.
 Operates at the Data Link Layer by managing wireless MAC addresses.
 Uses protocols like Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) to communicate with devices.
5. Layer 2 Switches
 These are specialized switches that only operate at Layer 2, unlike multi-
layer switches.
 Responsible for frame forwarding using MAC address tables.
Limitations of Data Link Layer
 Limited Scope: It operates only within a local network and cannot handle
end-to-end communication across different networks.
 Increased Overhead: Adding headers, trailers, and redundant data (for
error correction) increases the size of transmitted data.
 Error Handling Dependency: While it can detect and correct some errors,
it relies on upper layers for handling more complex issues.
 No Routing Capability: The Data Link Layer cannot make routing
decisions. It only ensures delivery within the same network segment.
 Resource Usage: Flow control and error correction mechanisms may
consume extra processing power and memory
Applications of Data Link Layer
  Local Area Networks (LANs): Enables reliable communication between
devices within a local network using protocols like Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).
 Wireless Networks (Wi-Fi): Manages communication between devices in
wireless networks via protocols like IEEE 802.11 hence, handling media
access and error control.
 Switches and MAC Addressing: Facilitates the operation of switches by
using MAC addresses to forward data frames to the correct device
within the network.
 Point-to-Point Connections: Used in protocols like PPP (Point-to-Point
Protocol) to establish and manage direct communication between two
nodes.

Layer 3 – Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the header
by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as
Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
  Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known
as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s
IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default
or manually. For example, when a web application requests a web
server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
 assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports
assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It
also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer
at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus, by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5 – Session Layer
The Session Layer is the 5th layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
model which plays an important role in controlling the dialogues (connections)
between computers. This layer is responsible for setting up, coordinating, and
terminating conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications
at each end. It establishes, manages, and terminates the connections between
the local and remote applications.
 The Session Layer is responsible for establishing active communication
sessions between two devices.
 In the OSI model, the transport layer is not responsible for releasing a
connection. Instead, the session layer is responsible for that. However,
in modern TCP/IP networks, TCP already provides orderly closing of
connections at the transport layer.
  Dialogue Control is also implemented in the Session Layer of the OSI
model but in TCP/IP the dialogue control is implemented in the
Application Layer.
Functions of the Session Layer
1. Session Establishment : It establishes and manages sessions between
communicating parties that cab be connection-oriented or
connectionless. It also maps sessions to transport connections.
2. Communication Synchronization : It ensures reliable connectivity and
recovery by using synchronization bits and checkpoints in data stream.
3. Activity Management : It allow the user to divide data into logical units
called activities. An activity can be processed on its own and each
activity is independent of activities that come before and after it.
4. Dialog Management : It refers to deciding whose turn it is to talk. Some
applications uses a token mechanism for half-duplex mode, where only
one party holds the token to transmit data while other supports full-
duplex mode for simultaneous data transmission.
5. Data Transfer : It manages data exchange between systems.
6. Resynchronization : In this, all the tokens are restored to the positions
that were set during synchronization. The various options for
resynchronization includes set, abandon and restart.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through
some Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here
acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to
create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally
encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that
it can be transmitted.
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format
to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer
are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting
as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
Services Provided by Presentation Layer
Presentation layer plays an important role while communication is taking place
between two devices in a network.
List of services which are provided by the presentation layer are:
 Presentation layer could apply certain sophisticated compression
techniques, so fewer bytes of data are required to represent the
information when it is sent over the network.
  If two or more devices are communicating over an encrypted
connection, then this presentation layer is responsible for adding
encryption on the sender’s end as well as the decoding the encryption
on the receiver’s end so that it can represent the application layer with
unencrypted, readable data.
 This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent over a network,
providing freedom from compatibility problems.
 This presentation layer is also responsible for compressing data it
receives from the application layer before delivering it to the session
layer (which is the 5th layer in the OSI model) and thus improves the
speed as well as the efficiency of communication by minimizing the
amount of the data to be transferred.
 This presentation layer also negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer
also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in the
Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a
user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or control files from a remote computer.
  Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
TCP/IP model
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It
stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core
protocols of the Internet. This model defines how data is transmitted over
networks, ensuring reliable communication between devices. It consists of four
layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the
Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different
aspects of network communication, making it essential for understanding and
working with modern networks.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the
OSI model. In this article, we are going to discuss the TCP/IP model in detail.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which
later became the foundation of the modern internet. It was designed with a
focus on the practical aspects of networking at the time. The lower-level
hardware details and physical transmission medium were largely abstracted
away in favor of higher-level networking protocols.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by
the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end. The TCP/IP model is used in the
context of the real-world internet, where a wide range of physical media and
network technologies are in use. Rather than specifying a particular Physical
Layer, the TCP/IP model allows for flexibility in adapting to different physical
implementations.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the
same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP
model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into
this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same
way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require
network communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and
initiating connection requests. It operates on behalf of the sender to manage
data transmission, while the Network Access layer on the receiver’s end
processes and manages incoming data. In this article, we will focus on its role
from the receiver’s perspective.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by
network access layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this
layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing
are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the
entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP
addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is
the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as
the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to
the number of users.
 ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts
with information about network problems.
 ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for
routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does
this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the
device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend.
When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data,
which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer
assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the
best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all
of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble
them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and
routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it
ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the
Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though
they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way
that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole
transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending
hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts
of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of
establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of three
layers from the OSI model: the Application, Presentation, and Session layers.
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible
for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the
upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main
protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used
by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web
browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination
of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the
browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank
transactions.
 SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to
 maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
 NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the
clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in
situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without
the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your
computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28
PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model that is responsible for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport
layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
 Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is
transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques like error
correction and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost
during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the packet
be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
 Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for
breaking up large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be
transmitted over the network, and then reassembling the data at the
destination. This allows data to be transmitted more efficiently and helps
to avoid overloading the network.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible
for multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network
connection, and then demultiplexing the data at the destination. This
allows multiple devices to share the same network connection and helps
to improve the utilization of the network.
 End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a
connection-oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with each
other end-to-end, without the need for intermediate devices to be
involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a
file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller
segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then
transmit the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in
host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file.
Once the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B
will acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.In this example, the host-to-host
layer is responsible for providing a reliable connection between host A and
host B, breaking the file into smaller segments, and reassembling the segments
at the destination. It is also responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the
data and providing end-to-end communication between the two hosts.
Why TCP/IP Model Does Not Have Physical Layer
The physical layer is not covered by the TCP/IP model because the data link
layer is considered the point at which the interface occurs between the TCP/IP
stock and the underlying network hardware. Also, it is designed to be
independent of the underlying physical media. This allows TCP/IP to be flexible
and adaptable to different types of physical connections, such as Ethernet, Wi-
Fi, fiber optics, or even older technologies like dial-up modems. The physical
layer is typically handled by hardware components and standards specific to
the physical medium being used, like Ethernet cables or radio waves for Wi-Fi.
Advantages of TCP/IP Model
 Interoperability : The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers
and networks to communicate with each other, promoting compatibility
and cooperation among diverse systems.
 Scalability : TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small
and large networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide area
networks (WANs) like the internet.
 Standardization : It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring
that different devices and software can work together without
compatibility issues.
 Flexibility : The model supports various routing protocols, data types,
and communication methods, making it adaptable to different
networking needs.
 Reliability : TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features
that ensure reliable data transfer, even over long distances and through
various network conditions.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
 Complex Configuration : Setting up and managing a TCP/IP network can
be complex, especially for large networks with many devices. This
complexity can lead to configuration errors.
 Security Concerns : TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in
mind. While there are now many security protocols available (such as
SSL/TLS), they have been added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which
can lead to vulnerabilities.
 Inefficiency for Small Networks : For very small networks, the overhead
and complexity of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary and inefficient
compared to simpler networking protocols.
 Limited by Address Space : Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the older
IPv4 system has a limited address space, which can lead to issues with
address exhaustion in larger networks.
 Data Overhead : TCP, the transport protocol, includes a significant
amount of overhead to ensure reliable transmission. This can reduce
efficiency, especially for small data packets or in networks where speed
is crucial.

Functions of OSI Model Layers

The OSI Model has 7 layers, each with a specific function:
1. Physical Layer
o Responsible for bit transmission over a physical medium (cables,
fiber, wireless).
o Deals with hardware components like hubs, repeaters, and
network cables.
2. Data Link Layer
o Handles error detection and correction in data transmission.
o Manages MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
o Example: Ethernet, switches.
 3. Network Layer
o Responsible for routing and addressing packets across networks.
o Uses logical addressing like IP addresses.
o Example: Routers, IPv4/IPv6.
4. Transport Layer
o Ensures reliable or unreliable data delivery (TCP for reliability, UDP
for speed).
o Implements error detection and recovery.
o Example: TCP, UDP.
5. Session Layer
o Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions.
o Manages authentication and session restoration.
o Example: NetBIOS, RPC.
6. Presentation Layer
o Translates data formats between different systems.
o Handles encryption, compression, and encoding.
o Example: SSL/TLS, JPEG, MP3.
7. Application Layer
o Provides network services like email, web browsing, and file
transfer.
o Directly interacts with the user.
o Example: HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

Functions of Layers in TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP Model has four layers, each with specific functions:
1. Network Interface Layer (Link Layer)
o Deals with physical network transmission (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
 o Encapsulates IP packets into frames for transmission.
o Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP, PPP.
2. Internet Layer
o Handles packet routing across networks using IP addressing.
o Ensures packets reach the correct destination via routers.
o Protocols: IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, ARP, RARP.
3. Transport Layer
o Provides communication between devices via TCP (reliable) or
UDP (fast, unreliable).
o Manages error checking, data flow control, and retransmissions.
o Protocols: TCP, UDP.
4. Application Layer
o Includes all end-user applications that use network services.
o Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP, SNMP.

Protocols of TCP/IP Model

Each layer has important protocols that enable communication:
1. Network Interface Layer Protocols
 Ethernet – Wired LAN communication.
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) – Wireless communication.
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) – Used in dial-up and direct connections.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) – Maps IP addresses to MAC
addresses.
2. Internet Layer Protocols
 IP (Internet Protocol) – Provides logical addressing and routing.
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – Error messages and
diagnostics (e.g., ping).
  ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) – Resolves IP addresses to MAC
addresses.
3. Transport Layer Protocols
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Reliable, connection-oriented
communication.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Fast, connectionless communication for
streaming, DNS.
4. Application Layer Protocols
 HTTP/HTTPS – Web browsing.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – File sharing.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) – Email sending.
 DNS (Domain Name System) – Converts domain names into IP
addresses.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) – Assigns IP addresses
dynamically.

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models

TCP/IP Model (Transmission
OSI Model (Open Systems
Aspect Control Protocol/Internet
Interconnection)
Protocol)

ISO (International Organization for

Developed By U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)
Standardization)

Conceptual model for Practical model used for real-world

Purpose
understanding networking networking

Number of Layers 7 Layers 4 Layers

1. Application
2. Presentation
1. Application
3. Session
2. Transport
Layers 4. Transport
3. Internet
5. Network
4. Network Access (Link Layer)
6. Data Link
7. Physical
 TCP/IP Model (Transmission
OSI Model (Open Systems
Aspect Control Protocol/Internet
Interconnection)
Protocol)

Protocol
Protocol-independent (descriptive) Protocol-specific (prescriptive)
Dependency

Approach Follows a vertical approach Follows a horizontal approach

Used for teaching and Used in real-world communication

Usage
standardization (Internet, enterprise networks)

More reliable, designed for real-

Reliability Less reliable than TCP/IP
world communication

More flexible, allows modifications Less flexible, changing protocols is

Flexibility
and updates complex

Handled in Data Link and Transport Managed by TCP in the Transport

Error Handling
layers layer

Supports both connection-oriented

Uses TCP (connection-oriented) and
Connection Type (TCP) and connectionless (UDP)
UDP (connectionless)
transport

Delivery
Ensures delivery of data packets Delivery is not always guaranteed
Guarantee

OSI itself does not define security TCP/IP includes security protocols
Security
protocols like IPSec

Not widely used in real-world Foundation of modern networking

Implementation
networks and the Internet

Used for standardization and Used in real-world networking and

Example Usage
learning Internet communication

Data Transmission Using TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP Model is the foundation of data transmission over the Internet and
other networks. It consists of four layers, each playing a specific role in
ensuring efficient, reliable, and secure communication.

Steps of Data Transmission Using TCP/IP Model

1. Application Layer (Sending Side)
 o User applications (like web browsers, email clients, FTP software)
generate data.
o Protocols like HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS define how data should be
formatted and sent.
o Data is passed to the Transport Layer.
2. Transport Layer
o The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) breaks the data into smaller segments.
o TCP ensures reliable delivery with acknowledgments and
retransmissions.
o UDP is faster but does not guarantee delivery (used for streaming
and VoIP).
o Each segment is assigned a source and destination port number.
o Segments are passed to the Internet Layer.
3. Internet Layer
o The Internet Protocol (IP) assigns a source and destination IP
address to each packet.
o The packet is routed through multiple networks using routers.
o ICMP (for error reporting) and ARP (for MAC address resolution)
assist in transmission.
o Packets are forwarded to the Network Access Layer.
4. Network Access Layer
o Converts packets into frames and then into bits (0s and 1s) for
transmission.
o Uses Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or other network protocols for physical
transmission.
o The data is transmitted over the network medium (wired or
wireless).
Data Transmission Process at the Receiving End
1. Network Access Layer
o Receives the transmitted signals and converts them back into
frames.
o Checks for errors and sends data to the Internet Layer.
2. Internet Layer
o Reassembles packets into the correct order based on IP headers.
o Verifies if the destination IP matches the receiver's address.
o Passes data to the Transport Layer.
3. Transport Layer
o TCP reassembles segments and checks for missing data. If
necessary, it requests retransmission.
o UDP simply delivers data without checking for errors.
o Passes the complete data to the Application Layer.
4. Application Layer
o The receiving application (e.g., web browser, email client)
processes the data.
o The user sees the final output (webpage, email, or file download).

Networking models and applications:

Centralized Systems
Centralized systems are a type of computing architecture where all or most of
the processing and data storage is done on a single central server or a group of
closely connected servers. This central server manages all operations,
resources, and data, acting as the hub through which all client requests are
processed. The clients, or nodes, connected to the central server typically have
minimal processing power and rely on the server for most computational tasks.
Key Characteristics of Centralized Systems
1. Single Point of Control:
 All data processing and management tasks are handled by the
central server.
 Easier to manage and maintain since there is one primary location
for administration.
2. Simplicity:
 Simplified architecture with a clear structure where all operations
are routed through the central node.
 Easy to deploy and manage due to centralized nature.
3. Efficiency:
 Efficient use of resources as the central server can be optimized
for performance.
 Easier to implement security measures and updates centrally.
4. Scalability Issues:
 Limited scalability as the central server can become a bottleneck if
the load increases significantly.
  Adding more clients can strain the server’s resources, leading to
performance degradation.
5. Single Point of Failure:
 If the central server fails, the entire system can become
inoperative.
 High availability and redundancy measures are essential to
mitigate this risk.

Decentralized Systems
Decentralized systems are computing architectures where multiple nodes,
often spread across different locations, share control and processing power
without a single central authority. Each node in a decentralized system
operates independently but collaborates with others to achieve common
goals. This structure enhances fault tolerance, scalability, and resilience
compared to centralized systems.

Key Characteristics of Decentralized Systems:

1. Distributed Control:
 No single point of control or failure.
 Each node operates independently, contributing to the overall
system’s functionality.
2. Fault Tolerance:
  If one node fails, the system can continue to function with the
remaining nodes.
 Enhanced resilience against failures and attacks.
3. Scalability:
 Easier to scale by adding more nodes without overwhelming a
central point.
 Load distribution across multiple nodes improves performance
and resource utilization.
4. Coordination and Communication:
 Nodes must communicate and coordinate to maintain system
integrity and consistency.
 Complex algorithms and protocols often manage this
coordination.
5. Autonomy and Redundancy:
 Each node can operate autonomously, contributing to redundancy
and reducing single points of failure.
 Data and services are often replicated across multiple nodes for
reliability.

Distributed Systems
Distributed systems are computing architectures where multiple independent
nodes or computers work together to achieve a common goal. These nodes
communicate and coordinate with each other over a network, appearing as a
single coherent system to the end user. Distributed systems aim to improve
performance, reliability, scalability, and resource sharing by leveraging the
collective power of interconnected devices.
Key Characteristics of Distributed Systems
1. Geographical Distribution:
 Nodes are spread across different physical locations.
 They communicate via a network, such as a local area network
(LAN) or the internet.
2. Resource Sharing:
 Nodes share resources such as processing power, storage, and
data.
 This enables more efficient utilization of resources.
3. Concurrency:
 Multiple nodes operate concurrently, performing tasks
simultaneously.
 This parallelism enhances the system’s overall performance and
throughput.
4. Scalability:
 Easy to scale by adding more nodes to the system.
 System capacity and performance improve with the addition of
resources.
5. Fault Tolerance:
  Designed to handle failures gracefully.
 Redundancy and replication ensure the system remains
operational even if some nodes fail.
6. Transparency:
 The complexity of the distributed system is hidden from users.
 Users interact with the system as if it were a single entity.

Difference between Centralized, Decentralized and Distributed Systems

Centralized Decentralized
Aspect Distributed Systems
Systems Systems

Single central Multiple

Multiple nodes with
server controls interconnected nodes
Definition independent control,
and manages all working together as a
no central authority.
operations. single system.

Centralized control Distributed control, Shared control, nodes

Control with a single point each node operates collaborate to achieve
of management. independently. common goals.

High risk; if the Reduced risk; failure Reduced risk;

Single Point of central server fails, of one node does designed for fault
Failure the whole system not impact the entire tolerance and
fails. system. redundancy.

Limited scalability, More scalable, can Highly scalable, can

Scalability can become a add nodes add more nodes to
bottleneck. independently. distribute the load.

Central server Resources are

Resource Efficient resource
resources are spread across
Utilization sharing across nodes.
heavily utilized. multiple nodes.

Can be high Generally good, High performance

initially but may performance due to parallel
Performance
degrade with improves with more processing and
increased load. nodes. resource sharing.
 Centralized Decentralized
Aspect Distributed Systems
Systems Systems

Complex, requires
More complex,
Easier to manage coordination and
Management requires managing
centrally. management of many
multiple nodes.
nodes.

Potentially higher
Lower latency, as Can vary, depends
latency due to
Latency operations are on the distance
network
managed centrally. between nodes.
communication.

Centralized system use cases

1. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems:
 Description: Centralized ERP systems manage and integrate core
business processes such as finance, HR, and supply chain in a
single system.
 Benefits: Simplified management, consistent data, and centralized
control over business processes.
2. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems:
 Description: Centralized CRM systems store and manage customer
data, interactions, and sales processes in one location.
 Benefits: Improved customer data consistency, streamlined
customer service, and centralized reporting.
3. Email Servers:
 Description: Centralized email servers manage and store email
communications for an organization.
 Benefits: Centralized email storage, simplified backup and security
measures, and easy management of user accounts.
4. Banking Systems:
  Description: Centralized banking systems manage customer
accounts, transactions, and financial services through a central
server.
 Benefits: Enhanced security, centralized transaction processing,
and consistent financial records.
Decentralized system use cases
1. Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies: Decentralized ledgers that record
transactions across multiple nodes without a central authority.
 Benefits: Enhanced security, transparency, and resistance to fraud
and censorship.
 Examples: Bitcoin, Ethereum.
2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) File Sharing: Networks where users share files
directly with each other without a central server.
 Benefits: Increased resilience, reduced central bottlenecks, and
distributed resource sharing.
 Examples: BitTorrent, Gnutella.
3. Decentralized Finance (DeFi) Platforms: Financial services built on
blockchain technology, offering services like lending, borrowing, and
trading without intermediaries.
 Benefits: Greater accessibility, reduced fees, and increased
transparency.
 Examples: Uniswap, Compound.
4. Mesh Networks: Networks where each node relays data for the
network, providing a decentralized approach to internet connectivity.
 Benefits: Increased network resilience, scalability, and coverage in
remote areas.
 Examples: Community-based Wi-Fi networks, disaster recovery
networks.
Distributed system use cases
1. Cloud Computing Platforms:
  Description: Cloud services provide scalable and flexible
computing resources over the internet.
 Benefits: On-demand resource allocation, high availability, and
fault tolerance.
 Examples: Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, Google
Cloud Platform.
2. Content Delivery Networks (CDNs):
 Description: Networks of distributed servers that deliver web
content based on users’ geographic locations.
 Benefits: Reduced latency, increased content delivery speed, and
load balancing.
 Examples: Akamai, Cloudflare, Amazon CloudFront.
3. Distributed Databases:
 Description: Databases that store data across multiple servers to
improve performance and reliability.
 Benefits: High availability, scalability, and fault tolerance.
 Examples: Google Spanner, Amazon DynamoDB, Apache
Cassandra.
4. Microservices Architectures:
 Description: Architectures where applications are built as a
collection of loosely coupled services.
 Benefits: Improved scalability, easier maintenance, and fault
isolation.
 Examples: Netflix, Uber, Amazon.
What is File Sharing?
File Sharing is a procedure of sharing digital files and resources, such as
documents, computer programs, multimedia such as audio and video,
graphics, photographs and e-books. It is the sharing of resources or data in a
network with varying degrees of access permission, either privately or publicly.
To guarantee availability, confidentiality, and integrity, data must be protected
while being shared. Important steps that may be done to protect files include
encryption, password protection, secure file transfer protocols, and routine
antivirus and anti-malware software updates. The many forms of file sharing,
hazards connected to file sharing, security precautions, and safest practices for
file sharing.
What is File Sharing?
File sharing is a productivity tool that enables a limited group of users to
exchange data remotely. These can be shared with a single person, two people
or even a whole company. File sharing allows users to share practically any
type of file format including images, PowerPoint slides, text documents, audio
and video files, and so on. When it comes to promoting cooperation and
communication between people and organizations, file sharing is needed. It
makes remote work possible and lessens the need for in-person meetings by
letting users transfer files quickly and effortlessly between locations.
Working of File Sharing
 An administrator creates a folder and allows access to the designated
users to arrange files in a corporate file-sharing solution.
 Usually, this entails making a group or groups and then adding the
groups to the access control list of the folder.
 This enables the administrator to configure read/write access for specific
users or entire groups as needed.
 Users can then access files by going to the directories that they can
access. Files are hosted on a physical server or in the cloud, or they are
kept on another computer.
 A user may often read and edit a saved file, save any changes, and have
those changes show up when they access the file again.
 The most recent changes to a shared folder or file are visible to all users
who have access to it.
Types of File Sharing
Below are four types of File Sharing
 Cloud-Based File Sharing: Cloud-Based File Sharing calls for storing files
on an inaccessible server that is accessible from any internet-connected
 device. These services like Dropbox, Google Drive, and OneDrive allow
users to upload and download data.
 Peer-to-peer (P2P): Peer-to-peer file sharing is the transmission of Files
Users may exchange files with one another without a centralized server.
These are equipotent, equally privileged members of the network that
comprise a peer-to-peer network of nodes.
 Sharing of Removable Media Files: This type of file sharing requires the
usage of physical storage devices, such as external hard drives or USB
drives. By physically transferring the device to others, users may copy
files onto it and share them with others.
 Direct File Transfer: Transferring data between two devices directly
using a direct connection, such as Bluetooth or Wi-Fi Direct, is known as
direct file transfer. File sharing between laptops and mobile devices
often occurs via direct file transfer.
How to be Secure When You Share a File?
 Users should only allow authorized persons or groups to access files in
order to reduce the risk of data breaches or leaks. Encryption, password
protection, and other access control techniques can be used to achieve
this.
 Reducing the possibility of security issues can be achieved by educating
users on safe file-sharing procedures.
 Using dependable sources when exchanging files will help you lower the
chances of obtaining malware and viruses.
 To provide optimal protection against viruses and malware, It is crucial
to update antivirus and anti-malware software on a regular basis on your
system.
Benefits of File Sharing
 Teams that share files are more productive, especially when they
operate remotely.
 Team members may visit the shared file location and obtain the most
recent version of any necessary files, saving time compared to
exchanging data via email.
  The majority of file sharing systems run in the cloud, making system
administration and file backups more affordable and manageable.
 Using the shared drive to access data also helps cut expenses by
preventing errors that might happen when users decide to do tasks
based on out-of-date, erroneous information.
Disadvantages of File Sharing
 Increased File possibility there's a bigger chance of
malware, ransomware, and viruses getting into shared data.
 Increased Chance of Files Being Disseminated Openly When files are
shared, there's a greater chance that a worker or outside hacker may try
to reveal firm information in an open internet forum.
 Possible Problems with Proprietary Data and Plagiarism An employee
violates the law if they steal another employee's ideas, thoughts, or
confidential information and use it for their own purposes or sell it.
 Needs Adequate Bandwidth/Network Speeds is true that file sharing
needs fast enough speeds to provide easy and quick access to data.

Web-Based Networking
Introduction
Web-based networking refers to the use of internet technologies to establish,
manage, and communicate over networks without relying on traditional
physical infrastructure. It enables file sharing, communication, remote access,
and cloud-based services through web applications and protocols.

Key Features of Web-Based Networking

1) Internet-Based Access: Users can connect from anywhere using web
browsers.
2) Cloud Integration: Data and services are stored and managed in cloud
environments.
3) Platform Independence: Works on various devices (PCs, smartphones,
tablets) without specialized software.
4) Scalability & Flexibility: Easily expandable for growing network demands.
5) Security Measures: Includes encryption, authentication, and secure web
protocols like HTTPS.

Components of Web-Based Networking

1) Web-Based Communication
 Email Services: Gmail, Outlook
 Instant Messaging & Collaboration: Slack, Microsoft Teams
 Video Conferencing: Zoom, Google Meet
2) Web-Based File Sharing
 Cloud Storage Platforms: Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive
 File Transfer Protocols: FTP, HTTP-based file transfers
3) Cloud Computing & Virtual Networks
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): AWS, Microsoft Azure
 Platform as a Service (PaaS): Google App Engine
 Software as a Service (SaaS): Web applications like Google Docs
4) Content Distribution Networks (CDN)
 Used to distribute web content efficiently.
 Examples: Cloudflare, Akamai, AWS CloudFront
5) Remote Access & Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
 Secure remote access to organizational networks.
 Examples: NordVPN, Cisco AnyConnect

Advantages of Web-Based Networking

✔ Accessibility: Connect from anywhere with an internet connection.
✔ Cost-Efficient: Reduces need for physical networking hardware.
✔ Real-Time Collaboration: Teams can work together remotely.
✔ Security & Encryption: Web-based platforms implement HTTPS, VPNs, and
firewalls.
✔ Scalability: Can expand easily based on demand.

Content distribution network:

A Content Distribution Network (CDN) is a network of geographically
distributed servers designed to deliver web content efficiently. It reduces
latency, improves website speed, and enhances security by caching content
closer to users.
CDNs are widely used by websites, streaming services, and online platforms to
provide fast and reliable access to images, videos, scripts, and other digital
content.

How Does a CDN Work?

1)Caching Content: The CDN stores copies of content (HTML pages, videos,
images, CSS, JavaScript) in multiple edge servers across different locations
worldwide.
2) User Request Handling: When a user requests a webpage, the CDN
automatically serves the content from the nearest edge server instead of the
original web server.
3)Reduced Latency: Since the content is delivered from a nearby location, the
response time is much faster compared to fetching it from a distant server.
4) Load Distribution: CDNs help balance traffic across multiple servers,
preventing overload on the main server.
5) Security & Optimization: Many CDNs offer DDoS protection, SSL encryption,
and optimization features to enhance security and performance.

Key Features of a CDN

Global Distribution: Servers located worldwide to serve users faster.
Load Balancing: Spreads traffic across multiple servers to avoid bottlenecks.
Caching & Compression: Stores static content and compresses files for faster
delivery.
Security Enhancements: Protects against DDoS attacks, bot traffic, and data
breaches.
Optimized Streaming: Supports video and audio streaming by reducing
buffering.

Types of Content Served by a CDN

Static Content: Images, CSS, JavaScript, and HTML files.
Dynamic Content: Personalized web pages, database-driven applications.
Streaming Media: Videos, live streams, and audio files.
Software & Application Files: Updates, patches, and downloads for apps.

Benefits of Using a CDN

✔ Faster Load Times: Web pages and media load quicker due to caching.
✔ Improved Reliability: Reduces downtime and ensures availability during
high traffic.
✔ Better Security: Protects against cyber threats like DDoS attacks.
✔ SEO Benefits: Faster websites rank higher on search engines like Google.
✔ Lower Bandwidth Costs: Reduces data transfer costs by optimizing content
delivery.

Popular CDN Providers

Cloudflare – Security-focused CDN with DDoS protection.
Akamai – One of the largest and oldest CDN providers.
Amazon CloudFront – Integrated with AWS services.
Google Cloud CDN – Optimized for Google Cloud users.
Microsoft Azure CDN – Scalable content delivery for enterprises.

Introduction to Example Networks

Introduction
Example networks help illustrate the fundamental concepts of networking by
showcasing how different types of networks function in real-world
applications. This topic covers:
 The Internet and its conceptual view
  Internet services and how users access the Internet
 Connection-oriented networks like X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM
These concepts help in understanding how data is transmitted, how networks
are structured, and how different network types ensure reliable
communication.

1) The Internet and Its Conceptual View

What is the Internet?
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that
communicate using the TCP/IP protocol suite. It enables communication,
information sharing, and services like web browsing, email, and video
streaming.
Conceptual View of the Internet
The Internet can be viewed as a massive, decentralized network that follows
different communication models:
Client-Server Model:
 The client (a user's device) requests data from a central server (websites,
email servers, etc.).
 Examples: When you open a website, your browser (client) requests
data from the website's server.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Communication:
 Devices communicate directly without requiring a central server.
 Used in file-sharing applications (BitTorrent), VoIP (Skype), and
blockchain networks.
Packet-Switched Network:
 Data is broken into small packets before transmission and reassembled
at the destination.
 This method optimizes network bandwidth and reduces delays.
Domain Name System (DNS):
  Converts human-readable website names (e.g., google.com) into IP
addresses (e.g., 142.250.190.46).
 Allows users to browse the web without remembering complex IP
addresses.

2) Internet Services
The Internet provides various services that enable communication, data
transfer, and media access. Some of the key services include:
Email Services
 Allows users to send and receive messages via email clients (Gmail,
Yahoo, Outlook).
 Uses protocols like SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP3, and
IMAP.
World Wide Web (WWW)
 A collection of web pages accessible via the Internet using a web
browser.
 Uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (Secure HTTP) for
communication.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 A protocol for transferring files between computers on a network.
 Used for website maintenance, software downloads, and file sharing.
Remote Access Services
 Allows users to connect to networks remotely.
 Includes VPN (Virtual Private Network) for secure access and SSH
(Secure Shell) for command-line access to remote servers.
Streaming Services
 Delivers audio and video content in real time.
 Examples: YouTube, Netflix, Spotify.
3) Connection-Oriented Networks
Connection-oriented networks establish a dedicated communication path
before data transfer, ensuring reliable and ordered delivery.
X.25 Network
 An early packet-switched network used in banking and financial
services.
 Ensures error control and flow control before delivering packets.
 Operates at the network layer of the OSI model.
Frame Relay
 A high-speed packet-switched technology used for Wide Area Networks
(WANs).
 Faster than X.25 but does not provide error correction.
 Used in corporate networks for connecting remote offices.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
 A cell-switched network that uses fixed-size 53-byte cells.
 Supports voice, video, and data transmission, making it ideal for
telecommunications.
 Used in broadband networks and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network).

4) Accessing the Internet

Users connect to the Internet using different access technologies based on
speed, availability, and cost.
Dial-Up Internet
 Uses telephone lines for Internet access.
 Very slow (max speed ~56 Kbps) and largely obsolete.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Uses existing telephone lines but provides higher speeds than dial-up.
  Includes ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) and VDSL (Very High-Speed DSL).
Fiber Optic Internet
 Uses light signals transmitted through fiber optic cables.
 Provides high-speed Internet with low latency.
Satellite Internet
 Uses satellites to provide Internet access in remote areas.
 Slower than fiber and DSL due to high latency.
Mobile Networks (3G, 4G, 5G)
 Uses cellular networks for wireless Internet access.
 5G provides higher speeds and lower latency compared to 3G and 4G.