ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CODE COURSE NAME CATEGORY L T P CREDIT

DC MACHINES AND
EET202 PCC 2 2 0 4
TRANSFORMERS

Preamble : The purpose of the course is to provide the fundamentals of DC

generators, DC motors and transformers and giving emphasis to
applications in engineering field.

Prerequisite : Basics of Electrical Engineering

Course Outcomes : After the completion of the course the student will be able to:

CO 1 Acquire knowledge about constructional details of DC machines

CO 2 Describe the performance characteristics of DC generators
CO3 Describe the principle of operation of DC motors and select appropriate motor types for
different applications
CO 4 Acquire knowledge in testing of DC machines to assess its performance
CO 5 Describe the constructional details and modes of operation of single phase and three
phase transformers

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CO6 Analyse the performance of transformers under various conditions

PO 1 PO 2 K T U
PO 3
N
Mapping of course outcomes with program outcomes
PO 4 PO 5 PO 6 PO 7 PO 8 PO 9 PO 10 PO 11 PO 12
CO 1 3 2 2 3
CO 2 3 2 2 3
CO 3 3 2 2 2 3
CO4 3 3 2 3
CO5 3 2 3
CO6 3 2 3

Assessment Pattern

Continuous Assessment Tests

Bloom’s Category End Semester Examination
1 2
Remember 10 10 20
Understand 10 10 30
Apply 10 10 30
Analyse 10 10 20
Evaluate
Create

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 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
End Semester Examination Pattern

There will be two parts; Part A and Part B. Part A contain 10 questions with 2 questions
from each module, having 3 marks for each question. Students should answer all
questions. Part B contains 2 questions from each module of which student should answer
any one. Each question can have maximum 2 sub-divisions and carry 14 marks.

Part A: 10 Questions x 5 marks=50 marks, Part B: 5 Questions x 10 marks =50 marks

Course Level Assessment Questions

CO1:

1. Describe the functions of individual parts of DC machines.

2. Develop simplex lap and wave windings for different pole and slot configurations.

3. Explain in detail why equaliser rings are required in lap windings.

CO2:
1. Describe different types of DC generators.
2. Derive the EMF equation of a DC machine.

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3. Draw the open circuit and load characteristics of DC generators.

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4. Explain the condition for voltage build up.
5. Explain armature reaction in DC machines and solutions to overcome its effects.
6. Analyse parallel operation of DC generators.

CO3:
1. Derive the torque equation of a DC motor.
2. Why starters are used in DC motors?
3. Explain types of speed control in DC motor.
4. Explain regenerative braking in DC motor.
5. What are the losses associated with DC motor?
6. Select suitable type of DC motor for specific applications.

CO4:
1. Describe the principle of Swinburn’s test for testing of DC motor and perform the
calculations.
2. Describe the principle of Hopkinson’s test for testing of DC motor.
3. Describe the principle of retardation test for separation of losses in a DC motor.

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 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
CO5:
1. Derive the EMF equation of single-phase transformer.
2. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency in a transformer.
3. Explain the difference between power transformer and distribution transformer.
4. Explain the current rating and kVA rating of auto transformers.
5. Explain in detail no load and on load tap changing.
6. Draw the various three phase transformer connections.
7. Explain the stabilization by tertiary winding.

CO6:
1. Draw the equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer referred to primary side.
2. Explain no load and short circuit test on a single-phase transformer.
3. Explain Sumpner’s test on transformers.
4. What are the necessary condition for parallel operation of a single phase and three
phase transformers?

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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Model Question paper ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
QP CODE:
PAGES: 2
Reg. No:______________
Name:________________

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY FOURTH SEMESTER

B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION,
MONTH & YEAR

Course Code: EET 202

Course Name: DC MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS
Max. Marks: 100 Duration: 3 Hrs
PART A

Answer all questions. Each Question Carries 3 marks

1. Compare Lap and Wave Windings in DC machines.

2. Explain the need of Dummy Coils in DC machines.
3. What is armature reaction and mention two methods to eliminate it in DC machines.
4. What are the necessary conditions for voltage build up in a DC shunt generator.
5. Explain the significance of Back emf in a DC motor. Write down the voltage equation
of a DC shunt motor.

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6. Discuss the different types of armature speed control in DC shunt motor.

K T N
7. Derive the emf equation for a single phase Transformer.
U
8. How the rating of a transformer is specified? Justify.
9. Discuss the operation of open delta (V-V) configuration of transformers.
10. Discuss the need and working of on-load tap changers.

PART B
Answer any one full question from each module. Each question carries 14 marks.
Module 1
11. a) Discuss the need of Equalizer rings. (5)
b) Obtain the front and back pitch of a progressive simplex double layer wave
winding for a 4 pole dc generator with 30 armature conductors. (9)
12. Explain the construction of a DC machine with neat diagram. (14)

Module 2
13. Explain different types of DC generator with neat circuit diagram and necessary
equations. (14)
14. Two DC shunt generators with induced emfs of 120V and 115V, armature resistance
of 0.05Ω and 0.04Ω and field resistances of 20Ω and 25Ω respectively are in parallel
supplying a total load of 25kW. Calculate the load shared by each generator? (14)

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 Module 3
15. Draw the circuit diagram andELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
explain the experimental ENGINEERING
procedure to conduct
Hopkinson test on DC machine. (14)
16. A DC machine is rated at 5kW, 250V, 2000rpm and Ra=1Ω. Driven at 2000rpm, the
no load power input to the armature is 1.2A at 250V with field winding (Rsh) =
250Ω, excited by Ish =1A. (i) Estimate efficiency as a generator delivering.
(ii) Estimate the efficiency as a motor taking 5kW from supply. (14)

Module 4
17. a) Derive the condition for maximum efficiency and the load current at which max.
Efficiency occurs in a single phase transformer. (8)
b) Discuss the significance of all day efficiency of transformers. (6)

18. A 20kVA, 250/2500V single phase transformer gave the following test results.
OC Test (LV side): 200V, 1.4A, 105W
SC Test (HV side): 120V, 8A, 320W
Draw the equivalent circuit of single phase transformer referred to LV side. (14)

Module 5
19. Explain Auto transformer with neat diagram and Derive an expression to justify
thesaving of copper in auto transformer with respect to an ordinary two winding
transformer with same rating. (14)

N
20. Explain Dy11 and Yd1 vector groupings of three phase transformers with phasor and

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winding connection diagrams. (14)

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 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Syllabus

Module 1
Constructional details of dc machines - armature winding- single layer winding, double
layer winding- lap and wave, equalizer rings, dummy coils, MMF of a winding, EMF
developed, electromagnetic torque - numerical problems.

Module 2
DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation,armature reaction–
demagnetising and cross magnetising ampere turn,compensating windings, interpoles,
commutation,OCC, voltage build upand load characteristics, parallel operation. Power
flow diagram– numerical problems.

Module 3
DC motor –back emf, generation of torque,torque equation,performance characteristics –
numerical problems.
Starting of dc motors- starters –3point and 4 point starters(principle only).
Speed control of dc motors - field control, armature control. Braking of dc motors. Power
flow diagram – losses and efficiency.Testing of dc motors - Swinburne's test,Hopkinson's

I N
test, and retardation test.DC motor applications – numerical problems.

S .
Module 4

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K
Single phase transformers –constructional details, principle of operation, EMF equation,
ideal transformer,dot convention, magnetising current, transformation ratio, phasor
diagram, operation on no load and on load, equivalent circuit, percentage and per unit
impedance, voltage regulation. Transformer losses and efficiency, condition for
maximum efficiency,kVA rating. Testing of transformers– polarity test, open circuit test,
short circuit test, Sumpner's test – separation of losses, all day efficiency.Parallel
operation of single-phase transformers– numerical problems

Module 5
Autotransformer – saving of copper –ratingof autotransformers.
Three phase transformer – construction- difference between power transformer and
distributiontransformer –Different connections of 3-phase transformers. Υ-Υ, Δ-Δ,Υ-Δ,
Δ-Υ, V-V. Vector groupings – Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1, Dy11.Parallel operation of
three phase transformers.
Three winding transformer – stabilization by tertiary winding. Tap changing transformers
- no load tap changing, on load tap changing, dry type transformers.

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 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Text Books

1. Bimbra P. S., Electrical Machinery, 7/e, Khanna Publishers, 2011.

2. Nagrath J. and D. P. Kothari, Theory of AC Machines, Tata McGraw Hill, 2017.

Reference Books
1. Fitzgerald A. E., C. Kingsley and S. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6/e, McGraw Hill,
2003.
2. Langsdorf M. N., Theory of Alternating Current Machinery, Tata McGraw Hill, 2001.
3. Deshpande M. V., Electrical Machines, Prentice Hall India, New Delhi, 2011.
4. B. L. Theraja, Electrical Technology Vol II,S.Chand Publications.
5. A. E. Clayton & N. N. Hancock, The Performance and design of Direct Current
Machines,CBS Publishers& Distributors, NewDelhi.

Course Contents and Lecture Schedule

Sl. No. of
Topic
No. Hours

S . I N
OTE
1 Constructional details of dc machines 8

1.1

1.2 K T U N
Constructional details of DC machines

Armature winding- single layer

2

1.3 Armature winding- double layer-wave and lap, equaliser rings, dummy 3
coils.

1.4 MMF of a winding, EMF developed, electromagnetic torque. 2

2 DC Generator 9

2.1 DC generators- principle of operation, EMF equation, methods of 3

excitation –separately and self-excited – shunt, series, compound
machines.Numerical problems

2.2 Armature reaction – effects of armature reaction, demagnetising and 3

cross magnetising ampere-turns, compensating windings,interpoles.
Numerical problems.

2.3 Load characteristics, losses and efficiency power flow diagram. Parallel 3
operation – applications of dc generators. Numerical problems.

3 DC Motor 10

3.1 DC motor– principle of operation, back emf, classification– torque 2

equation. Numerical problems.

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 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
3.2 Starting of DC motors – necessity of starters. Numerical problems. 2
Types of starters – 3 point and 4 point starters(principle only).

3.3 Speed control – field control, armature control- Numerical problems. 2

Braking of dc motors (Description only)

3.4 Losses and efficiency – power flow diagram. Numerical problems 1

3.5 Swinburne’s test - Numerical problems. 1

3.6 Hopkinson’s test, separation of losses – retardation test. 2

Applications of dc motors.

4 Single phase Transformer 10

4.1 Transformers – principle of operation, construction, core type and shell 1

type construction.

4.2 EMF equation, transformation ratio, ideal transformer,transformer with 2

losses, phasor diagram - no load and on load operation. Numerical
problems.

4.3 Equivalent circuit, percentage and per unit impedance, voltage regulation. 2
Numerical problems.
S . I N
4.4
U N OTE
Transformer losses and efficiency, Condition for maximum efficiency, all

T
2

4.5
K
day efficiency – Numerical problems.

Dot convention – polarity test, OC & SC test, Sumpner’s test,separation 2

of losses. Numerical problems.

4.6 kVA rating of transformers,parallel operation of single phase 1

transformers

5 Autotransformer & Three phase transformer 8

5.1 Autotransformer – ratings, saving of copper.Numerical problems. 2

5.2 Three phase transformer construction, three phase transformer 2

connections, power transformer and distribution transformer.

5.3 Vector groupings Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1, Dy11. 1

5.4 Three winding transformer – tertiary winding. Percentage and per unit 2
impedance. Parallel operation.

5.5 On load and off load tap changers, dry type transformers. 1

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DC Machines & Transformers

Abel George

http://www.free-power
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Agenda
Through understanding of syllabus
Syllabus, revise

Online webinar on same topic

Write notes and submit it.

Tutorial session
Assignment problems, Doubt Clearance.

Test on topic
After completion of half-of the topic.

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 Syllabus!!
Understanding of Complete Syllabus.

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 Constructional Details
of DC Machines
Module 1

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Construction of DC Machines
Can be divided into three systems
1. Magnetic Field System (Stator)
2. Armature System (Rotor)
3. Commutator & Brushes

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Construction of DC Machines
Magnetic Field System (Stator)

Yoke

1. Protects the machine (Frame)

2. Mechanical support to poles
3. Low reluctance path
4. Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

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Construction of DC Machines
Magnetic Field System (Stator)

Pole Core
1. Pole core acts as electromagnet with field winding wound to produce flux
when excited
2. Pole core is laminated to reduce Eddy Current
3. Pole core offers low reluctance path
4. Pole core material used can be Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

Pole Shoe

1. Pole shoe supports field coils

2. Pole shoe increases the cross sectional area of magnetic circuit
3. Pole shoe is laminated to reduce Eddy Current
4. Pole shoe offers low reluctance path
5. Pole shoe material used can be Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

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Construction of DC Machines
Magnetic Field System (Stator)

Field Windings

1. Connected around the pole shoe.

2. Pole direction is found by using Maxwell's right hand grip rule.
3. Copper is preferred than Aluminum for bending easily.
4. Forms as the electromagnet as it is excited.

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Construction of DC Machines
Armature (Rotor)

Armature Core

1. Slots to accommodate armature windings. (Conductors)

2. Lamination to reduce Eddy Current Loss
3. Low reluctance path
4. Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

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Construction of DC Machines
Armature (Rotor)

Armature Windings

1. Armature conductors are connected to form armature windings

2. Voltage/ Magnetic Flux is induced when conductor is moved in magnetic
field for generator and motor respectively.
3. Connection taken to external circuit
4. Copper for better conductivity

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Construction of DC Machines
Commutator & Brushes

Commutator
1. Mechanical rectifier which collects current from armature and supply it to
load using brushes.
2. Copper segments with mica insulation in between.
3. Provides Unidirectional Torque.

Brushes

1. Collects Current from commutator and give it to load.

2. Carbon or Graphite
3. Wearing can happen with time.

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Construction of DC Machines
Shaft

Shaft

1. To transfer mechanical power from the machine.

2. Attached to rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling fans etc.
3. Slots to accommodate armature windings. (Conductors)
4. Mild steel in case of low applications and Nickel, Nickel- Chromium in case
of heavier applications.

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Construction of DC Machines
Nomenclatures- Turn, Coil and Winding with Overhang

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Construction of DC Machines
Coil- Side Numbering, Coil Pitch, Back Pitch

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Construction of DC Machines
Commutator Pitch, Coil Span(in terms of Slots and Pole)

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Construction of DC Machines
Single Layer Winding & Double Layer Winding

Single Layer Winding

1. Each coil side of a coil occupies the whole slot.

2. C= S/2 ( C= Number of Armature coils, S= Number of Armature slots).
3. Coils are arranged in groups & the overhang of one group of coils is made
to cross the other appropriately by adjusting the size & shape of individual
coil groups.
4. Variety of coils differing in size & shape which creates inconvenience &
increases the cost of production.
5. Space is not utilised properly.

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Construction of DC Machines
Single Layer Winding & Double Layer Winding

Double Layer Winding

1. One coil side of a coil occupies the upper position and second coil side of
that coil occupies the lower position in a slot displaced by coil span.
2. C= S ( C= Number of Armature coils, S= Number of Armature slots).
3. Coils are identical in shape & size with two coils lying in two different planes
4. No overhang crossing problems.
5. As identical coils are to be used, production is easy & cost effective.
6. Space is utilised properly.

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Construction of DC Machines
Lap Winding

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Construction of DC Machines
Lap Winding

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Construction of DC Machines
Lap Winding Problem

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Construction of DC Machines
Equalizer Rings
Equalizer Rings
1. In Lap winding all conductors in parallel path lie under a pole pair thus EMF
induced in each parallel path should be same if fluxes from poles are same.
2. But some inequalities in flux or imbalance in EMF occurs due to,
A. Slight Variation in air gap
B. Wearings in bearings
C. Faulty assembling of poles
D. Variation in joints between pole cores and pole shoe
E. Imperfections and impurities in materials of magnetic circuits
3. Results in larger EMF of grater current in conductors under strong poles
which result in unequal distribution of currents at brushes.
4. Unequal EMF at brushes cause Circulating Currents.
5. Circulating currents causes sparking at brushes and overheating at
armature windings.
6. By connecting together a number of equi-potential points on armature
winding to equalizer rings( Having same voltage), circulating currents will
flow in this low resistant path than brushes.
7. These additional copper wires make the cost of production to get increased
and so will be used only in High Current and low voltage applications like
welding.
8. Number of connections to an equalizer ring is equal to number of pole pairs.
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Construction of DC Machines
Equalizer Rings

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Construction of DC Machines
Wave Winding

Wave Windings

1. The finishing end of one coil is connected to starting end of another coil under a
different pole pair avoiding overlapping.
2. The winding has appearance of wave and hence the name
3. Parallel path(A ) is always 2, so unequal distribution of flux due to any dissymmetric
poles will affect the conductors equally and EMF will be same.(No need of Equalizer
Rings)
4. Number of coil sides is double the number of segments.
5. As the number of coil sides is double the number of segments, the top coil side of sec
ond coil will be numbered(1 + 2 yc )

(1 + 2 yc ) − y f = 1 + yb
2 y c = y f + yb = y r

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Construction of DC Machines
Wave Winding

Wave Windings

1. Progressive Wave Windings: If a coil travels once around the commutator and finishe
s in commutator ahead of the starting commutator segment. (Sign is Positive)
2. Retrogressive Wave Windings: If a coil travels once around the commutator and finis
hes in commutator behind the starting commutator segment. (Sign is Negative)

2(C  1)
yc =
P

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Construction of DC Machines
Wave Winding

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Construction of DC Machines
Wave Winding

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Construction of DC Machines
Dummy Coils
Dummy Coils
1. There must a combination of slots and conductors in armature winding to be
maintained and practically it is not possible.
P 6
C = yc  1, = * 5  1, = 16or14
2 2
1
C = US , = 16 = C '
2
C' C
2. The difference (C’-C) are called Dummy coils and are placed in appropriate
yb their ends electrically insulated to give mechanical balance to the
slots with
armature.

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 Construction of DC Machines
Important points to remember

Conductor Turn
1. An individual piece of wire placed in the slots of the 1. Two conductors connected in series and separated
armature in the magnetic field. from each other by a pole pitch so that the EMF
induced will be additive.

Coil Winding
1. When one or more turns are connected in series and 1. Number of coils arranged in coil group is said to be a
placed in almost similar magnetic positions. winding.
2. Coils may be single turn or multi turn coils.

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 Construction of DC Machines
Important points to remember

Back- Pitch Front- Pitch

1. The distance between top and bottom coil sides of a 1. The distance between two coil sides connected to the
coil measured around the back of the armature is same commutator segment is called the front pitch
called back pitch and is designated as yb. and is designated as yf.
2. Generally back pitch is an odd integer.

Commutator- Pitch Coil Span

1. The distance between the two commutator segments 1. Coil span ycs (in terms of slots/ in terms of coil sides) i
to which the two ends of a coil are connected is is defined as the peripheral distance between two sides
called commutator pitch and is designated as yc and of a coil, measured in terms of the number of
is measured in terms of commutator segments.. armature slots between them.

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 Construction of DC Machines
Important points to remember

Lap Winding Formulas

S
1. Z = Number of conductors Ycs = (Lower integer)
2. P = number of poles P
3. S = Number of Slots yb = UYcs + 1
4. U = Coil- sides/ slot
5. C = Commutator Segments y r = yb − y f , y f − yb = 2
6. A = Parallel Paths
7. Yb = Back pitch yc = 1
8. Yf = Front pitch 1
9. Ycs = Coil- Span in slots C = US
10. Yc = Commutator pitch 2
11. Ya = Average pole pitch I
12. Yp = Pole pitch Ic = a
13. Yr = Resultant pitch A
14. Ic = Current in Armature Conductors yb + y f Z
yp = or =
2 P

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 Construction of DC Machines
Important points to remember

Wave Winding Formulas

S (Lower integer)
1. Z = Number of conductors Ycs =
2. P = number of poles P
3. S = Number of Slots yb = UYcs + 1
4. U = Coil- sides/ slot y r = yb + y f = 2 y c
5. C = Commutator Segments
2(C  1)
6. A = Parallel Paths (2) yc = (Must be an integer)
7. Yb = Back pitch (Odd Number) P
8. Yf = Front pitch (Odd Number) 1
9. Ycs = Coil- Span in slots C = US
2
10. Yc = Commutator pitch
I Ia
11. Ya = Average pole pitch I c = a , I Brush =
12. Yp = Pole pitch A P
( )
13. Yr = Resultant pitch 2
14. Ic = Current in Armature Conductors yb + y f ( Z  2)
yp = or =
2 P

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 Construction of DC Machines
Problem:1

Lap Winding: Draw the winding diagram of a D C Machine with 4 poles, 14 slots, progressive, double layer lap winding.
Show the position of brushes and direction of induced EMF.
Yb = 9 Yf = 9
Solution: 1+9=10 10+9=19
P=4, S=14, U=2, Z=28 19+9=28 28+9=37(3)
S
Ycs = .....(1) 37(3)+9=12 12+9=21
P = 14/4 = 3 (Nearest Lower Integer)
21+9=30 30+9=39(5)
yb = UYcs + 1.....(2) = 2*3 + 1 = 7 39(5)+9=14 14+9=23
23+9=32 32+9=41(7)
yr = yb − y f = 2.....(3) = 7-2 = 5 = y f 41(7)+9=16 16+9=25
25+9=34 34+9=43(9)
yc = +1 as it is progressive winding 43(9)+9=18 18+9=27
27+9=36(2) 2+9=11
1 11+9=20 20+9=29
C = US = 2*14/2 = 14
2 29+9=38 (4) 38(4)+9=47(13)
Number of Poles (P) = Number of Parallel Paths 47(13)+9=22 22+9=31
(A) = Number of Brushes (B) 31+9=40 (6) 40+9=49 (15)
Therefore, A = B = 4 15+9=24 24+9=33
33+9=42(8) 8+9=17
17+9=26 26+9=35(1)
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 Construction of DC Machines
Problem:2
Wave Winding: Develop a wave winding diagram for a DC machine having 34 armature conductors accommodated in
17 slots, progressive winding and 4 poles. Draw the sequence diagram indicate the position of the brushes, show the direction
of induced EMF.
Yb = 9 Yf = 9
Solution: 1+9=10 10+9=19
P=4, S=17, U=2, Z=34 19+9=28 28+9=37(3)
S
Ycs = .....(1) 37(3)+9=12 12+9=21
P = 17/4 = 4 (Nearest Lower Integer)
21+9=30 30+9=39(5)
yb = UYcs + 1.....(2) = 2*4 + 1 = 9 39(5)+9=14 14+9=23
23+9=32 32+9=41(7)
1
C = US .....(3) = 2*17/2 = 17 41(7)+9=16 16+9=25
2 25+9=34 34+9=43(9)
2(C  1)
yc = .....(4) = 2(17+1)/4 =9 as it is 43(9)+9=18 18+9=27
P 27+9=36(2) 2+9=11
progressive winding, C’=P*Yc-1/2=17, there is no
need of Dummy Coils. 11+9=20 20+9=29
y f = 2 yc − yb .....(5) = 18-9=9 29+9=38 (4) 38(4)+9=47(13)
Number of Parallel Paths (A) = Number of 47(13)+9=22 22+9=31
Brushes (B) = 2 as it is wave winding and = P 31+9=40 (6) 40+9=49 (15)
when it is a larger machine. 15+9=24 24+9=33
Distance between brushes=C/P=17/4=4.25 if B=P 33+9=42(8) 8+9=17
17+9=26 26+9=35(1)
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Construction of DC Machines
EMF

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Construction of DC Machines
EMF

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Construction of DC Machines
Torque

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Construction of DC Machines
Torque

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 Thank you
Insert the title of your subtitle Here

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 Module II
DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation,
armature reaction–demagnetising and cross magnetising ampere turn,
compensating windings, interpoles, commutation, OCC, voltage build up
and load characteristics, parallel operation. Power flow diagram–
numerical problems

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 DC Generator – Principle of operation

Magnetic fields

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Faradays Law
• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: -
The induced electromotive force (EMF or voltage) in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the
time rate of change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit. For a coil of wire of N turns EMF is
given as: -

The negative sign indicates that the direction of EMF is opposite to the source that produces it

−𝑑∅
is the number of magnetic field lines that a conductor intersects per unit time
𝑑𝑡

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Lorentz’s forces
Single conductor Experiment in a
magnetic field – a generator point
of view

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Lorentz’s Law
• When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, the electrons experience a force
which causes current to flow in the conductor and this current is mutually
perpendicular to the direction of the field and the force applied. [For Generators]
F = Bqvsinθ
• Where θ is the angle between the wire and the magnetic field.
• q = charge
• v = velocity of electrons
• B = magnetic field strength

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Lorentz’s Single conductor Experiment in a magnetic field – in a
generator

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Distribution of flux
• dφ/dt = number of lines that the conductor intersects (passes through) per unit time
• dφ/dt = 0 because the direction of conductor movement is parallel to the direction
of flux

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Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 1

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Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 2

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Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 3

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Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 4

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Induced emf in a loop

POSITION 5

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COMMUTATORS
• Direction of current in the conductor

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Brushes
• Position of sliprings and brushes

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Rectified output waveform

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Electromagnetic energy conversion

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Flemings right hand rule
• Used to determine the direction of emf ductor
• The middle finger , the fore finger and thumb of
the
• left hand are kept at right angles to one another.
▪ The fore finger represent the direction of
magnetic field
▪ The thumb represent the direction of motion of
the conductor
▪ The middle finger will indicate the direction of
the inducted emf .
▪ This rule is used in DC Generators
• A generator works on the principles of Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction
• Whenever a conductor is moved in the magnetic
field , an emf is induced and the magnitude of the
induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkage.
• This emf causes a current flow if the conductor
circuit is closed .

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Power generated- for a generator

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Emf Equation
• Flux cut by 1 conductor in 1 revolution = P * φ
• Flux cut by 1 conductor in / sec = P φ N /60
• Average emf generated in 1 conductor = PφN/60
• Number of conductors in each parallel path = Z /A

∅𝑍𝑁 𝑃
𝐸𝑔 =
60 𝐴

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Types of DC generators
DC generators are generally classified according to their method of excitation:
• Separately excited DC generator
• Self excited D C generator

Further it can be classified according into:-

• Series wound generator
• Shunt wound generator
• Compound wound generator
• Short shunt & Long shunt

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Armature reaction
The armature reaction simply shows the effect of armature field on the
main field. In other words, the armature reaction represents the impact
of the armature flux on the main field flux.
The effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the
distribution of flux under main poles of a generator. The armature
magnetic field has two effects:
(i) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux and
(ii) It cross-magnetises or distorts it.

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•The main field in a DC generator is produced by field coils.
•In both the generating and motoring modes, the armature carries current
and a magnetic field is established, which is called the armature flux.
•The effect of this armature flux on the main field is called the armature
reaction.
•Armature reaction has two undesirable effects, either it distorts the main
field, or it reduces the main field flux (or both).
•When the main field gets distorted, it is known as a cross magnetizing
effect.
•And when the main field flux gets reduced, it is known as the
demagnetizing effect.

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Effect of armature reaction
1. . Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case
of a dc generator, weakening of the main flux
reduces the generated voltage

1. Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the

position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A. is
perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux).
Brushes should be placed on the M.N.A.,
otherwise, it will lead to sparking at the surface of
brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it is hard to
determine the exact position of the MNA

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• The plane through the axis, along which no emf is induced in the
armature conductors is known as magnetic neutral axis.

• The current flowing in the armature conductors creates a magnetising

effect or mmf that is at right angles to the main flux. This magnetising
action is called cross magnetisation
• The cross magnetisation effect distorts the field in the air gap, this has
two effects
• Creation of magnetic field in the interpolar region where the brushes
are kept
• Weakened field strength under leading end and strengthened field
under trailing pole tips

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• When the brushes lie in the GNA
the entire armature reaction is
cross magnetising
• Brushes kept in MNA – a part of
armature reaction is cross
magnetisation and a part is
demagnetisation
The armature mmf (depending on the strength of the armature current) is shown
separately both in magnitude and direction by the vector OFA. Under actual load
conditions, the two mmf exist simultaneously in the generator as shown in Fig. It is seen
that the flux through the armature is no longer uniform and symmetrical about the pole
axis, rather it has been distorted. The flux is seen to be crowded at the trailing pole tips
but weakened or thinned out at the leading pole tips (the pole tip which is first met during
rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip and the other as trailing
pole tip). The strengthening and weakening of flux is separately shown for a four-pole
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MMF AND FLUX VARIATION IN AN UNLOADED MACHINE

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MMF WAVEFORM WHEN ARMATURE CONDUCTORS ALONE CARRYING CUTTENTS

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MMF WAVEFORM WITH ARMATURE REACTION

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MMF WAVEFORM DUE TO SHIFTING OF BRUSHES

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Demagnetising and Cross-magnetising Conductors: All conductors lying
within angles AOC = BOD = 2θ at the top and bottom of the armature, are
carrying current in such a direction as to send the flux through the armature
from right to left. It is these conductors which act in direct opposition to the
main field and are hence called the demagnetising armature conductors.

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• Consider the remaining armature conductors lying between angles AOD and COB. These
conductors carry current in such a direction as to produce a flux at right angles to the
main flux resulting in distortion of the main field. Hence, these conductors are known as
cross-magnetising conductors and constitute distorting ampere-conductors.
• Since armature demagnetising ampere-turns are neutralized by adding extra ampereturns
to the main field winding, it is essential to calculate their number. But before proceeding
further, it should be remembered that the number of turns is equal to half the number of
conductors because two conductors-constitute one turn.

Let Z = total number of armature conductors

I = current in each armature conductor
= Ia/2 ... for simplex wave winding
= Ia/P ... for simplex lap winding

θm = forward lead in angular degrees.

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 4𝜃𝑚
Total number of armature conductors in angles AOC and BOD is 𝑥𝑍
360
As two conductors constitute one turn

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The armature reaction effect can be reduced by providing compensating windings and
interpoles

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 COMPENSATING WINDINGS
• Used with generator supplying heavy loads

• Auxiliary winding embedded in slots located in

the faces of main poles.

• Compensating winding is connected in series

with armature
• The direction of current in the compensating winding will be opposite to that of the
adjacent conductor.
• The mmf produced by compensating winding will be equal to the mmf produced by
armature conductors.
• Current in compensating winding is equal to armature current 𝐼𝑎
• However current in each conductor is armature current divided by the number of parallel
paths

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𝑍𝐶 = No. of compensating conductors/pole face
𝑍𝑎 = No. of active armature conductors/pole,
𝐼𝑎 = Total armature current
𝐼𝑎
= current of armature conductor
𝐴
𝐼𝑎
𝑍𝑐 . 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑍𝑎 𝐴
𝑍
No. of armature conductors/pole =
𝑃
𝑍
No. of armature turns/pole = 2.𝑃
𝑍 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐
No. of armature-turns immediately under one pole =2.𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑍
= 0.7 .
2.𝑃

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1. A 4 pole generator has 640 conductors and it delivers 100A on full load. If the
brush has a lead of 8 deg mech , Calculate demagnetising and cross magnetising
AT if the machine is wave connected.
Soln:
P=4
A=2
Z=640
𝐼𝑎 = 100
Current in a conductor = I= Ia/A=

Atd =711.11
Atc =6577.8
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2. A 22.38kW,440V,4 pole wave wound dc shunt motor has 940 armature conductors
and 140 segments. Its full load efficiency is 88% and the shunt field current is 1.8A.
If the brushes are shifted backwards through 1.5 segments from the geometrical
neutral axis ,find the demagnetising and cross magnetising AT/pole

Solution:

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A 90 kW,450V, 4 pole dc shunt generator has a wave connected armature of 820
conductors. If the brushes are given an actual lead of 10degree, determine the
demagnetising and cross magnetising AT/ pole. Assume the resistance of the shunt field
winding 90ohms.

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 Module II
DC generator –principle of operation, EMF equation, excitation,
armature reaction–demagnetising and cross magnetising ampere turn,
compensating windings, interpoles, commutation, OCC, voltage build up
and load characteristics, parallel operation. Power flow diagram–
numerical problems

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 Commutation
• Conductors pass out of the influence of a N-
pole and enter that of S-pole, the current is
reversed.

• This reversal of current takes place along

magnetic neutral axis or brush.
• This process by which current in the short-
circuited coil is reversed while it crosses the
M.N.A. is called commutation.
• The brief period during which coil remains
short-circuited is known as commutation
period Tc.
• If the current reversal i.e. the change from +
I to zero and then to − I is completed by the
end of commutation period, then the
commutation is ideal.
• If current reversal is not complete by that
time, then sparking is produced between the
brush and the commutator which results in
progressive damage to both
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Methods of Improving Commutation:

(i) Resistance commutation

(ii) Emf. Commutation

Resistance commutation
• Use of high resistance carbon brushes instead of copper
brushes.

• Advantages of carbon brush

(i) Self lubricating and polish the commutator.
(ii) Damage the commutator less than when Cu brushes.

• Disadvantages
(i) Contact resistance being higher a brush drop of 2V is caused.
(ii) High resistance - commutator has be made large to dissipate heat.
(iii) Low current density for carbon brush hence brush holders.

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EMF Commutation:
Neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a reversing emf in the short-circuited coil under commutation.
The reversing emf may be produced in two ways:
(i) By giving the brushes a forward lead
(ii) By using interpoles.

Interpoles or Compoles:
Small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the main poles.
Wound with comparatively few heavy gauge Cu wire turns and connected in series with the armature
Their polarity, in the case of a generator, is the same as that of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation.
The function of interpoles is two-fold:

(i) Polarity is the same as that of the main pole ahead, for generators.
Enables quick reversal.

(ii) Neutralises the cross-magnetising effect of armature reaction.

Shifting of brushes not required.

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Characteristics of DC Generators
There are 3 main characteristics of DC generators

1. No load saturation characteristics. (OCC)

No load generated voltage Vs Field current
2. Internal Characteristics
Induced emf Vs Armature current.
3. External characteristics
Terminal voltage on load Vs Load current

Separately excited Generator

Here E = Kφ at constant speed hence same as magnetisation curve

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External characteristics

Due to armature reaction drop in voltage is

represented.

Drop in terminal voltage due to

𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

The voltage drop due to armature resistance alone can

be deduced from the curves II and III.

Advantages
Operation is stable with any field excitation
Wide voltage ranges can be possible
Characteristics of separately excited generator
Disadvantages
Separate excitation source required and hence cost is
high.
Used in testing labs.

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Series generators- Characteristics
Curve I represents magnetic characteristics. It starts from F
representing residual magnetism.

Due to demagnetisation effect due to armature reaction, the

internal characteristics lies below the magnetic
characteristics (II).

The external characteristics will be still below the internal

characteristics because of the voltage drop in armature and
series field resistances.(III)
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒

It should be noted that armature current = load current = field

Characteristics of series generator
current.

Voltage drop due to resistances can be deduced from the

characteristics II and III

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Shunt generators- Characteristics

• Residual magnetism
• aa’ is maximum voltage generated
Critical resistance

If the field resistance is increased from OA to OB and to OC the

generated emf at field resistance line OC will be o𝑐1 .This line
is called the critical resistance line and the field resistance
corresponding to it is critical resistance.

Further increase in field resistance the machine will not excite.

For the machine to excite:
1. Residual field must be present.
2. The polarity of excitation must aid the residual
magnetism.
3. The field circuit resistance must be below the critical
value.
4. The speed of operation of the machine must be above
the critical speed.
5. The load resistance must be very large.
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LOAD TEST ON DC Generator

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Load Characteristics
The terminal voltage on no load depends on 𝑅𝑓
When machine is loaded
• Armature drop increases
• The brush drop increases
• Armature reaction increases with load making terminal voltage to fall

• Effects are cumulative, as the load increases the voltage drop also
increase .
• Further increase in load will increase the armature reaction and voltage
drop causing decrease in current hence the characteristic turns back.
• When terminals are shorted then terminal voltage is zero and current
through the field winding will be zero. However a small voltage will be
induced in the field due to residual magnetism.

Critical Load resistance

Line through the origin and tangential to internal characteristic is drawn
and its gradient will give the external load resistance for which the machine
will excite on load. This resistance is critical load resistance

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 𝑻𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑶𝑪𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒔
If the flux is kept constant then generated emf is directly proportional to speed
𝐸1 𝛼 𝑁1 , 𝐸2 𝛼 𝑁2

𝐸1 𝑁1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2

𝑁
Or 𝐸2 = 𝐸1 𝑁2
1

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The open circuit characteristic of a separately excited dc generator running at 1000 rpm is as follows

𝑰𝒇 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

(A)
𝐸𝑜 30 55 75 90 100 110 115 120

If the machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 1000rpm and has a field resistance of 100ohms,
obtain (i) OC voltage and exciting current (ii) the critical resistance (iii) resistance to induce 115V on open circuit

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POWER STAGES OF DC GENERATOR

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A 10kW shunt generator having resistances 1ohm and 100ohms in its armature and field delivers full load at a
terminal voltage of 230V. Determine the efficiency at full load assume iron , friction and windage losses as
500W.

Solution
10 𝑥1000
Current delivered to the load = 230 = 43.47𝐴
𝑉 230
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2.3𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 100
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 43.47 + 2.3 = 45.77𝐴

Electrical power developed in armature = Output power + copper losses

𝐸𝑔 x𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉. 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑎2 . 𝑅𝑎 = 230x43.47 = (45.77)2 x1 =10000 +2094.89 =12094.89W

Power input to the machine = Electrical power developed + friction, iron and windage losses
= 12094.89 + 500 =12594.89

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 10000

Efficiency = = = 79.39%
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 12594.89

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Solution

𝑉 250
Shunt current = 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 5𝐴
𝐼𝑠ℎ 50
Copper losses = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
To find 𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 195 + 5 = 200𝐴
Power developed in the armature =𝐸𝑔 . 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 . 𝑅𝑎 . 𝐼𝑎 = 250 + 200 ∗ .02 200 = 50800

Output from prime mover = Power developed +friction, iron and windage losses = 50800 + 950 = 51750W

𝐸𝑔 .𝐼𝑎 51800
Mechanical efficiency = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 51750 = 98.16
𝑉.𝐼 195∗250
Commercial efficiency=𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = = 94.2%
51750
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼 250∗195 48750
Electrical Efficiency = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑
= 𝐸𝑔 .𝐼𝑎
= 254∗200
= 50800 = 95.96%

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CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY OF DC GENERATOR

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 Tutorial 3
Qn1. A Short shunt compound dc generator supplies a current of 100A at a voltage of 220V. If the resistance of the
shunt field is 50ohms, of the series field 0.025ohms, of the armature 0.05ohms, the total brush drop is 2V and friction
and iron losses amounts to 1000watts. Find (i) the generated emf, (ii)copper losses , (iii) Power input to generator,
(iv)and the generator efficiency.

Qn2.A 20kW,440V, short shunt compound generator has a full load efficiency of 87%. If the resistance of armature and
interpoles is 0.04ohms and series field and shunt fields 0.25ohms and 240ohms respectively, calculate the combined
bearing friction, windage and core loss of the machine.

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 PARALLEL OPERATION OF DC GENERATORS
Why parallel operation?

i. Service continuity.
Single large generator is used in the power plant, then in case of its breakdown, the whole plant will be
shut down. However, if power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in
case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other healthy units.
ii. Efficient working.
Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated capacity. Electric power costs less per kWh
when the generator producing it is efficiently loaded. Therefore, when load demand on power plant
decreases, one or more generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be efficiently loaded.
iii. Repair facility.
Generators generally require routine-maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators are operated in
parallel, the routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the affected generator while the
load is being supplied by other units. This leads to both safety and economy.

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iv. Extension facility.
In the modern world of increasing population, the use of electricity is continuously
increasing. When added capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with
the old units. In many situations, a single unit of desired large capacity may not be
available. In that case, a number of smaller units can be operated in parallel to meet the
load requirement. Generally, a single large unit is more expensive.

v. Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a single unit of desired large
capacity may not be available. In that case a number of smaller units can be operated in
parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a single large unit is more expensive.

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Conditions for Parallel Operation of DC Generators :
To connects the generators in parallel to common bus-bars, the generators should satisfy
the following conditions:-
• The incoming generator's voltage should be the same as the bus-bar voltage.
• The +ve and -ve terminals ( i.e. polarity ) of generators must be connected to +ve and -
ve of bus-bars ( otherwise a serious short-circuit will occur ).
• Equalizer bar should be used for compound and series generators.
• Induced e.m.f’s of generators should be preferably the same ( otherwise circulating
currents result ).

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SHUNT GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

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SERIES GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

• DC series generators are not usually operated in parallel.

• DC series generators are put in parallel for electric traction purposes to provide electric
braking of motors in electric trains, cars etc.

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Equalizer Bar or Ring
Two identical series generators G1 and G2 are connected in
parallel. Let the shunt resistances be equal and E1 and E2 are
initially equal and generators supply equal current. When
E1 increases slightly ( E1 > E2 ). In that case, I1 becomes greater
than I2.

Consequently, the field through generator G1 is strengthened

thus increasing E1 further whist the field of generator G2 is
weakened thus decreasing E2 further. At a stage when G1 supplies
power not only to the whole load but also supplies power to
G2 making it to run as a motor. Here, the two machines will form a
short-circuited loop and the current will rise in the loop.

This condition can be prevented by placing an equalizing bar

between two generators because of which two machines passes
similarly equal currents to the load, the slight difference between
the two currents are adjusted in the loop is made by the armatures
and the equalizer bar.

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COMPOUND GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
• The condition of parallel operation with compound generators are similar to that of
series generators in parallel.
• Equaliser connection has to be provided to overcome this.
• Proper division of load is possible , the essential conditions are
I. The regulation of each generator is the same
II. The series field resistance are inversely proportional to the generator rating

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Qn. Two DC shunt generators with induced emfs of 120V and 115V, armature resistance of 0.05Ω and 0.04Ω
and field resistances of 20Ω and 25Ω respectively are in parallel supplying a total load of 25kW. Calculate the
load shared by each generator?

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DC Machines & Transformers

Abel George

http://www.free-power
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Agenda
Through understanding of syllabus
Syllabus, revise

Online webinar on same topic

Write notes and submit it.

Tutorial session
Assignment problems, Doubt Clearance.

Test on topic
After completion of half-of the topic.

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 Syllabus!!
Understanding of Complete Syllabus.

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 DC Motors
Module 3

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 DC Motor
• DC motor is a machine which converts Electrical energy into Mechanical energy(
DC Input)
•These motors are used to drive generators, fans and pumps.

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Principle of Operation

DC motor operates on the principle that, a mechanical force

acts on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field.
If the conductor is free to move, it moves in the direction of force,
which is determined by Flemings Left Hand rule.

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Construction of DC Motor
Magnetic Field System (Stator)

Yoke

1. Protects the machine (Frame)

2. Mechanical support to poles
3. Low reluctance path
4. Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

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Construction of DC Motor
Magnetic Field System (Stator)

Pole Core
1. Pole core acts as electromagnet with field winding wound to produce flux
when excited
2. Pole core is laminated to reduce Eddy Current
3. Pole core offers low reluctance path
4. Pole core material used can be Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

Pole Shoe

1. Pole shoe supports field coils

2. Pole shoe increases the cross sectional area of magnetic circuit
3. Pole shoe is laminated to reduce Eddy Current
4. Pole shoe offers low reluctance path
5. Pole shoe material used can be Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

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Construction of DC Motor
Magnetic Field System (Stator)

Field Windings

1. Connected around the pole shoe.

2. Pole direction is found by using Maxwell's right hand grip rule.
3. Copper is preferred than Aluminum for bending easily.
4. Forms as the electromagnet as it is excited.

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Construction of DC Motor
Armature (Rotor)

Armature Core

1. Slots to accommodate armature windings. (Conductors)

2. Lamination to reduce Eddy Current Loss
3. Low reluctance path
4. Cast Iron/ Cast Steel/ Rolled Steel

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Construction of DC Motor
Armature (Rotor)

Armature Windings

1. Armature conductors are connected to form armature windings

2. Voltage/ Magnetic Flux is induced when conductor is moved in magnetic
field for generator and motor respectively.
3. Connection taken to external circuit
4. Copper for better conductivity

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Construction of DC Motor
Commutator & Brushes

Commutator
1. Mechanical rectifier which collects current from brushes and supply it to
armature conductors
2. Copper segments with mica insulation in between.
3. Provides Unidirectional Torque.

Brushes

1. Gives Current from to armature conductors through commutator

2. Carbon or Graphite
3. Wearing can happen with time.

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Construction of DC Motor
Shaft

Shaft

1. To transfer mechanical power from the machine to the load.

2. Attached to rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling fans etc.
3. Mild steel in case of low applications and Nickel, Nickel- Chromium in case
of heavier applications.

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Working of DC Motor
Working
• When armature windings are connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the winding.
• Magnetic field may be provided by field winding (electromagnetism) or by using permanent magnet
• In this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field.
• Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque.
• Otherwise, the direction of force would have reversed every time when the direction of movement
of conductor is reversed in the magnetic field.
•This is how a DC motor works.
.

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Back EMF
• When the armature of a motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux lines
and hence according to the Faradays law of Electromagnetic Induction, an EMF induces in the
armature conductors.
• The direction of this induced EMF is such that it opposes the armature current (Ia)(Lenz’s Law)
• Thus this EMF is known as Back EMF(Eb).
•Magnitude of the Back EMF can be given by EMF equation of a generator.
ZNP
Eb = , Volts
60 A
• Magnitude of back EMF is directly proportional to speed of the motor.

Significance of Back EMF

• Consider the load on a dc motor is suddenly reduced.

• In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current torque.
• Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque.
• Hence, being proportional to the speed, magnitude of the back EMF will also increase.
• With increasing back EMF armature current will start decreasing.
• Torque being proportional to the armature current, will decrease until it becomes sufficient .
•Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.
• On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed.
• Due to decrease in speed, back EMF will also decrease allowing more armature current.
• Increased armature current will increase the torque to satisfy the load requirement.
• Hence, presence of the back EMF makes a dc motor ‘self-regulating’.
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Voltage and Power Equations
•Voltage Equation of a DC Motor
V = Eb + I a Ra
V = Applied Voltage
Eb = Back EMF
I a = Armature Current
Ra = Armature resis tan ce
Factors affecting Speed
ZNP
Eb =
60 A
E 60 A
N= b
PZ
P, Z , andA − Fixed
E
N b

Mechanical Power delivered

. Eb = V − I a Ra
Power = Eb I a , Eb I a = VI a − I a Ra
2

VI a = Power ' sup plied ' to' armature

I a Ra = Armature' copper" loss
2

 Pm = Eb IDownloaded
a , Watts from Ktunotes.in
 Torque Equation
Production of Torque in a DC Machine
•When field magnets are excited and current is sent through the armature conductors, force is
experienced to rotate the armature.
• Applying Flemings Left Hand rule in the below figure, the force acting on each conductor is found to
be in clockwise direction (conductors near N pole has current moving out from the plain and conductors
near S pole has current moving into the plain)
• These forces in armature conductor add up to produce the driving torque which causes rotation of the
armature.

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Torque Equation
Torque Equation
•r= average radius of armature(m)
•Z= Total number of conductors
•B= Flux Density(Wb/m)=
•i= Current in each conductor=Ia/A, Ia= Armature Current, A= Number of parallel paths
•l= Length of conductor(m)
•F= Force experience in armature conductors(N)= F = Bil sin( ), = 90

Torque due to one conductor= F  r ( N − m)

Total armature torque= Z  F  r ( N − m)  I 2rl
Ta = ZBilr ; B = ; i = a ; a =
a A P
.
 Ia
Ta = Z lr
2rl A
P
P I a
Ta = Z lr
2rl A
P I a
Ta = Z ( N − m)
2 A
P
Ta = 0.159ZI a ( )( N − m)
A
TI a
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Types of DC Motors

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Types of DC Motors
Separately Excited
•Field magnet winding and armature conductor windings are supplied from an independent external
DC source or battery.

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Types of DC Motors
Permanent Magnet
•Permanent magnets are used instead of Field wound electromagnets.

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Types of DC Motors
Self Excited
•A DC Motor whose field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or partly in series, partly in
parallel to the armature winding.
•There are three types of self-excited motors depending upon the manner in which the field
winding is connected to the armature, namely;
(i) Series Motor
(ii) Shunt Motor
(iii) Compound Motor

1. Series Motor
•In a series wound motor has the field winding connected in series with the armature.
•The whole current applied to the motor passes through the field windings as well as the armature.

V = Eb + I a ( Ra + Rse )

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Types of DC Motors
Performance Characteristics of Series Motors
•As armature current increases with load, the speed comes down sharply.
•Speed is dangerously high at no load.

Applications of Series Motors

•Heavy duty applications like electric railways, rolling mills, cranes etc.

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 Types of DC Motors
2. Shunt Motor
•Field winding is connected in parallel with the armature.
•The current is offered in two paths, one through armature and the other through field coils.

V = Eb + I a Ra
Performance Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor
•Medium starting torque.
•Constant Speed Motor(Speed does not vary as load is increasing)

Applications of Shunt Motors

•Driving constant speed line shafts, vacuum cleaners, compressors, etc.

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Types of DC Motors
3. Compound Motor
•Field winding is connected in parallel and series with armature

•In Cumulative compound Total = Series + Shunt

•In Differential Compound Total = Series − Shunt

a. Short Shunt DC Motor

•Shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field winding.

b. Long Shunt DC Motor

•Shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field

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Questions

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Starter
Voltage equation of DC shunt motor is

V = Eb + I a Ra
V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
1
I a ( starting ) = = 100 full load current
0.01

Need for a starter

•If motor is connected without load, a heavy current flows through armature conductors, which
damages the armature.
•Here a high resistance in series with armature is to be added to reduce this high starting current.
•Once the motor starts gaining speed, the back EMF is generated and hence the series resistance can
be gradually cut.
•When motor attains its rated speed, entire resistance can be cut from the armature circuit.
•This process can be done by a starter.
1. The Three point starter
2. The four point starter

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 Starter
1. Three point starter

V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
At no load
V
I a0 =
R + Ra
TI a
•A 3 point starter is a device that helps in the starting and running of a DC shunt motor or Compound
When T , N   Eb  motor.
•L, F and A are the three points.
V − Eb1 •When supply is given, current pass through OLR to stud number 1, and NVC, field current is given.
I a1 = , I a 0  I a1 •Current pass through OLR to stud number 1, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and run, to supply armature current
R + Ra •Magnetised NVC will hold the soft iron piece of starter handle from moving back at Run position.
Removing R1 •When power goes or open circuited, the spring will bring back the starter handle to off position as
NVC gets demagnetised.
V − Eb1 •When load crosses the permissible limit of motor, OLR gets magnetised and short circuit the
 Ia2 = triangular iron piece.
R + Ra − R1  •Current then will bypass NVC which gets demagnetised and brings starter handle to OFF position.
•Initially If and flux will be high to produce Tst but as Ia increases If decreases and flux generated will
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Starter
1. Three point starter
Disadvantages
•The 3 point starter suffers from a serious drawback for motors with a large variation of speed by
adjustment of the field rheostat.
•To increase the speed of the motor field resistance can be increased.
•Therefore current through the shunt field is reduced.
•Field current becomes very low which results in holding electromagnet too weak to overcome the
force exerted by the spring.
•The holding magnet may release the arm of the starter during the normal operation of the motor and
thus disconnect the motor from the line.
•This is not desirable.
•To avoid this tripping of motor, 4 point starter is used.

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 Starter
2. Four point starter

V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
At No load
V
I a0 =
R + Ra
•A 4 point starter is a device that helps in the starting and running of a DC shunt motor or Compound
TI a motor where L, N, F and A are the Four points.
•When supply is given, current pass through OLR to stud number 1, and field current is given directly.
When T , N  Eb  •Current pass through OLR to stud number 1, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5 and run, to supply armature current.
•Even if field control is done for speed control of motor, NVC does not get demagnetised.
V − Eb1 •Magnetised NVC will hold the soft iron piece of starter handle from moving back at Run position.
I a1 = , I a 0  I a1 •When power goes or open circuited, the spring will bring back the starter handle to off position as
R + Ra NVC gets demagnetised.
Removing R1 •When load crosses the permissible limit of motor, OLR gets magnetised and short circuit the
triangular iron piece.
V − Eb1 •Current then will bypass NVC which gets demagnetised and brings starter handle to OFF position.
 Ia2 = •NVC always produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its ‘RUN’ position, against
R + Ra − R1  the force of the spring, under all the operational conditions.
•Such a current is adjusted through No Voltage Coil with the help of fixed resistance R connected in
series withDownloaded
the NVC using fourthfrom
point ‘N’.Ktunotes.in
 Losses in a DC Motor
• As total input is not received at output of DC motor, its understood that losses happen when
electromechanical energy conversion is happening

a. Copper Losses
•All windings have some resistance and hence there are copper losses associated with current flow in
them.
•They generate heat proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
Armatureloss = I a Ra
2
•Copper losses can be divided into
1. Armature Copper Loss( Copper loss occurring due to resistance of armature winding)
Shuntloss = I sh Rsh
2
• This loss is about 20%-30 % of full load losses.
• Armature Copper loss is variable.
Seriesloss = I se Rse
2
2. Shunt Copper Loss( Copper loss occurring due to resistance of shunt field winding)
3. Series Copper Loss( Copper loss occurring due to resistance of series field winding)
• Both these loss is about 30%-40 % of full load losses.
• Field Copper losses are constant.
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Losses in a DC Motor
b. Mechanical Losses
•Losses due to mechanical friction of the machine.
•Mechanical losses can be divided into
1. Friction Loss( Due to bearing and brushes)
This loss is about 20%-30 % of full load losses.
2. Windage loss( Due to friction caused by air circulated for cooling purpose)

c. Core Losses(Iron Losses)

•Due to rotating armature in the magnetic field.
•Core losses can be divided into
1. Hysteresis Loss( Heat loss due to magnetic properties of the Armature)
This is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core.

Wh = B1.6 max fV (Watts)

2. Eddy Current Loss( Due to the Current generated by cutting magnetic flux by armature conductors)
Current produced due to the EMF generated is called Eddy Current.
Power loss happens in the form of heat

We = kB 2 max f 2t 2V (Watts )

Total Loss= Variable armature Copper loss+ Constant Loss(Wc)

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 Efficiency of a DC Motor
• Efficiency is the ratio of output power(mechanical) to input power(electrical).
Output
η=
Input
Useful Mechanical Power Output Useful Mechanical Power Output
ηm = =
Mechanical Power Developed E b Ia
Mechanical Power Developed E b I a
ηe = =
Total Electrical PowerInput VI
Useful Mechanical Power Output
ηc = = η m  ηe
Total Electrical PowerInput
Input Of Motor = Output Of Motor + Total Losses
Input Of Motor = VI + (I 2 a R a + Wc )
Input Of Motor = VI + ((I + I sh ) 2 R a + Wc )
Input Of Motor = VI + ((I)2 R a + Wc )
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Efficiency of a DC Motor
Output VI 1
η= = =
Input VI + ((I)2 R a + Wc ) 1 + (( I ) R + Wc )
a
V VI
Efficiency is maximum when denominator is minimum.
I W
( ) Ra + c = 0
V VI
I 2 a R a = Wc
Variable Loss = Constant Loss
1. A 250 V DC long-shunt, compound motor takes a current of 82 A at full load. Calculate the output
power and the efficiency, given the following details:
armature resistance = 0.09 Ω
shunt field resistance = 125 Ω
series field resistance = 0.04 Ω
total of all other losses = 750 W

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 Speed Control of DC Motor
• Speed of DC Motors can be changed over a wide rage by various methods but that is not generally
possible with AC Motors.
ZNP
Back EMF, E b = , Volts.....(1)
60 A
Eb
N .....(2) NT = Constant
 P=
2NT
60
V - I a Ra
N .....(3)

a. Field Control/ Flux Control
b. Armature Control
c. Voltage Control
1
N .....(4)
 a. Field Control/ Flux Control
• By varying If(Field Current), Flux can be varied and thus speed can be varied. I f ,  , N 
T = m − a .....(5) • Therefore this method can be used for speed control above rated speed.
Disadvantages
TI a .....(6) • As flux is reduced, Armature Reaction effect is increased which results in poor commutation which
leads to sparking at the brushes.
1 • As NT is constant, Power is also constant which makes the machine Constant Power Drive with
N .....(7)
T field control.
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Speed Control of DC Motor
N 2 Eb 2 1
Field Control in Shunt Motor =  ......(9)
• By varying If(Field Current) with Rf, flux also reduces. N1 2 Eb1
V N 2 Eb 2 1
If = .....(8) =  ......(10)
Rsh + R f N1 Eb1 2
As V and Rsh are constant, I f can be varied by varying R f Where Eb 2 , 2 and N 2 is related to R f

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 Speed Control of DC Motor
Field Control in Series Motor
1. Diverter Control
• By varying Rd(Diverter resistance), Ise(field Current) can be reduced hence flux can be reduced.
• The lowest speed obtainable is when diverter is open or zero current passes through the diverter.
• As we already know the lowest speed obtainable is the rated speed of motor so this method helps
only for speed control above rated speed.
I a = I d + I se .....(11) N 2 Eb 2 1
=  ......(13)
By Current division rule, N1 2 Eb1
Rd N 2 Eb 2 I a
I se = I a  , less than I a .....(12) =  ......(14)
Rse + Rd N1 I se Eb1
N 2 Eb 2 I a
=  ......(15)
N1 Eb1 I se
Where Eb 2 , 2 and N 2 is related to R d

Rd 1  Rd 2  Rd 3
I se1  I se 2  I se3
N1  N 2  N 3

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Speed Control of DC Motor
Field Control in Series Motor
2. Tapped Field Control
• In this method the field current is reduced by decreasing the number of turns of the coil and thus re
duces the flux which will increase the speed.
• With full turns of the field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field turns are
cut out, speeds higher than normal speed are achieved.

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Speed Control of DC Motor
Field Control in Series Motor
3. Series Parallel Control
• Basically used in DC fans.

MMFs = 4 N se  I a MMFp = 2(2 N se 

Ia
)
2
MMFp = 2 N se  I a
1
MMFp = (4 N se  I a )
2
1 1
MMFp = ( MMFs ); p = (s ); N p = 2( N s )
2 2
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Speed Control of DC Motor
Armature Control
• This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across the armature, the
back EMF and hence the speed of the motor can be changed.
• This is done by inserting a variable resistance Re (known as controller resistance) in series with
the armature as shown in Figure.
NV − I a Ra .....(1)
NV − I a ( Ra + Re ).....(2)
Re , I a ( Ra + Re ) , V − I a ( Ra + Re ) , N 
• This method is used for speed below rated speed
• Armature reaction is low compared to field control method as flux is constant.
Re , N ,  - Constant, I a − Constant
TI a − Constant
N 2 - N1
• The machine acts as constant torque drive. Speed Regulation = 100
N1
Armature Control in Shunt Motor
N1 - N 2
N 2 V − I a ( Ra + Re ) Speed Regulation = 100.....(4), as N 2  N1
= .....(3) N1
N1 V − I a Ra
N2 I R I R
N 2 V − I a Re I R Speed Regulation = 1 − , ie,1 − (1 − a e ) = a e .....(5)
= = 1 − a e .....(4) N1 V V
N1 V V
EI E V − I a Ra I R N
No Load Speed - Rated Load Speed = b a = b = = 1− a a = 2
Speed Regulation = 100 VI a V V V N1
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fromSpeed Ktunotes.in
Speed Control of DC Motor
Armature Control in Series Motor
•In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in series with the supply to the complete
motor as shown in Figure.
•This reduces the voltage available across the armature and hence the speed falls.
•By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed below the normal speed can be obtained.
N 2 V − I a ( Ra + Re + Rse )
= .....(6)
N1 V − I a ( Ra + Rse )
N 2 V − I a Re I R
= = 1 − a e .....(7)
N1 V V
N2 I R I R
Speed Regulation = 1 − , ie,1 − (1 − a e ) = a e .....(8)
N1 V V
Eb I a Eb V − I a Ra I R N
= = = = 1 − a a = 2 .....(9)
VI a V V V N1

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Braking of DC Motor
• The motor and its load may be brought to rest by using either;
(i) mechanical (friction) braking
(ii) electric braking.
• In mechanical braking, the motor is stopped due to the friction between the moving parts of the
motor and the brake shoe i.e. kinetic energy of the motor is dissipated as heat.
• Mechanical braking has several disadvantages including non-smooth stop and greater stopping time.
• Electric Braking is divided into three

a. Rheostatic or Dynamic braking

b. Plugging
c. Regenerative braking

a. Rheostatic or Dynamic braking

• In this method, the armature of the running motor is disconnected from the supply and is connected
across a variable resistance R and the field winding is left connected to the supply.
• The armature, while slowing down, rotates in a strong magnetic field and, therefore, operates as a
generator, sending a large current through resistance R.
• This causes the energy possessed by the rotating armature to be dissipated quickly as heat in the re
sistance and motor is brought to standstill quickly.
•If the value of R is decreased as the motor speed decreases, the braking torque may be maintained
at a high value, and at a low value of speed, the braking torque becomes small and the final stopping
of the motor is due to friction.
• This type of braking is used extensively in connection with the control of elevators and hoists and in
other applications in which motors
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from started, stopped and reversed frequently.
Braking of DC Motor
Torque Speed Relationship

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Braking of DC Motor
b. Plugging
• In this method, connections to the armature are reversed so that motor tends to rotate in the
opposite direction, thus providing the necessary braking effect.
• As a result the current in the armature reverses.
• During the normal running of the motor Fig. (i), the back Eb opposes the applied voltage V.
• However, when armature connections are reversed, back Eb and V act in the same direction around
the circuit so a voltage equal to V + Eb is imposed across the armature circuit.
• Since Eb ~ V, the imposed voltage is approximately 2V.
• In order to limit the current to safe value, a variable resistance R is inserted in the circuit at the time
of changing armature connections.
• When the motor comes to rest, the supply must be cut off otherwise the motor will start rotating in th
e opposite direction.

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Braking of DC Motor
C. Regenerative Braking
• In the regenerative braking, the motor is run as a generator, so, the kinetic energy of the motor is con
verted into electrical energy and returned to the supply.
There are two methods for regenerative braking.
a. Field winding is disconnected from the supply and field current is increased by exciting it from
another source [See Fig. 5.15 (i)].
• As a result, induced Eb exceeds the supply voltage V and the machine feeds energy into the
Supply thus braking torque is provided upto the speed at which induced e.m.f. and supply voltage are
equal.
• As the machine slows down, it is not possible to maintain induced e.m.f. at a higher value than the
supply voltage.
• This method is possible only for a limited range of speed.
b. Field excitation does not change but the load causes the motor to run above the normal speed (e.g
., descending load on a crane).
• As a result, the induced Eb becomes greater than the supply voltage V [See Fig. 5.15 (ii)].
• The direction of armature current I, therefore, reverses but the direction of shunt field current If
remains unaltered.
• Hence the torque is reversed and the speed falls until E becomes less than V.

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Testing of DC Motor
• To perform the electric characteristics of a DC machine after construction, testing is to be done.
• Testing is used for finding Losses, temperature rise and to pre determine the efficiency of DC mach
ine.
• The Important Tests of DC machine are
1. Swineburns Test(Indirect Test)
2. Hopkinsons Test(Regenerative Test)
3. Retardation Test(Running Down Test)

• Losses in a DC machine are,

1. Copper Losses(Armature Copper Loss, Field Copper Loss and Brush loss)
2. Iron Losses/ Core Losses( Hysteresis Loss and Eddy Current Loss)
3. Mechanical Loss(Windage loss and Frictional Loss)
4. Stray Losses(Miscellaneous Losses)

Copper Losses:
Motor Input at no Load (Va I ao ) = Pi 0 + Pwf + I ao Ra
2
a) Armature Copper Losses/ Variable Loss Pv = I a 2 Ra
b) Field Copper Losses,Pf = I sh / se Rsh / se
2
Rotational Loss ( Pi 0 + Pwf ) = Va I ao − I ao Ra
2

Core Loss
Constant Loss(Pk ) = (Va I ao − I ao Ra ) + I f R f
2 2
a) No load Core loss, Pi 0
Mechanical Losses Total Loss = Constant Loss + Variable Loss
a) Windage and Friction Losses, Pwf

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Testing of DC Motor
A. Swineburne’s Test
• In this method, the D.C Motor run at no load and losses of the machine are determined.
• Once the losses of the machine are known, its efficiency at any desired load can be determined in a
dvance.
• It may be noted that this method is applicable to those machines in which flux is practically constant
at all loads e.g., shunt and compound machines.
The test insists of two steps:
1. Determination of hot resistances of windings
• The armature resistance and shunt field resistance are measured using a battery, voltmeter and
ammeter.
• Since these resistances are measured when the machine is cold(15°C), they must be converted to
values corresponding to the temperature at which the machine would work on full-load.
• Generally, these values are measured for a temperature rise of 40°C above the room temperature
• Let the hot resistances of armature and shunt field be Ra and Rsh respectively.

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Testing of DC Motor
2. Determination of constant losses
• The machine is run as a motor on no-load with supply voltage adjusted to the rated voltage
• The speed of the motor is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of field regulator R as shown is
Fig: 1.
V = Supply Voltage
I 0 = No Load Current
I sh = Shunt Field Current
No Load Armature Current(Ia0 ) = I 0 − I sh
No Load input power to motor = VI 0
No Load input power to Armature = VI a0
= V (I 0 − I sh )

•Since the input power doesnt supply load, it is used to overcome the losses such as
1. Iron Loss (Core Loss)
2. Friction Loss (Constant Loss)
3. Windage Loss (Constant Loss)
4. Armature Copper Loss I a 0 Ra = ( I 0 − I sh ) Ra
2 2

Constant Losses (Wc)= Input –Armature Copper Losses= VI 0 − ( I 0 − I sh ) 2 Ra

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Testing of DC Motor

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Testing of DC Motor
Problem:

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 Thank you
Insert the title of your subtitle Here

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 Module 4- Part I
Single phase transformers –constructional details, principle of operation,
EMF equation, ideal transformer, dot convention, magnetising current,
transformation ratio, phasor diagram, operation on no load and on load,
equivalent circuit, percentage and per unit impedance, voltage regulation.
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Transformer
• A static device which helps in the
transformation of electric power in one circuit
to electric power of the same frequency in
another circuit.
• The voltage can be raised or lowered in a
circuit, but with a proportional increase or
decrease in the current ratings.
Principle
• The main principle of operation of a
transformer is mutual inductance between two
circuits which is linked by a common
magnetic flux.
• A basic transformer consists of two coils that
are electrically separated and inductive, but
are magnetically linked through a path of low
reluctance.

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In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

1.Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3.Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4.The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

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Types of Transformers
The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are provided around the laminated steel
core. According to the design, transformers can be classified into two:
1. Basis of construction
• Core- Type Transformer
• Shell-Type Transformer
2. On the basis of their purpose
• Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at secondary.
• Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at secondary.
3. On the basis of type of supply
• Single phase transformer
• Three phase transformer
4. On the basis of their use
• Power transformer: High rating Used in transmission network, high rating
• Distribution transformer: Lower rating than power transformer, Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating
than that of power transformers.
• Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in industries
• Current transformer (CT)
• Potential transformer (PT)
5. On the basis of cooling employed
• Oil-filled self cooled type
• Oil-filled water cooled type
• Air blast type (air cooled)

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Core Type Transformer
• The windings take a considerable part of the core.
• The coils used for this transformer are of
cylindrical type.
• Can be applicable for small sized and large sized
transformers.
• In the small sized type, the core will be rectangular
in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. The
figure below shows the large sized type, they have
a fair advantage of having good mechanical
strength.
• The cylindrical coils will have different layers and
each layer will be insulated from the other with the
help of materials like paper, cloth, micarta board
and so on.
• The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the
core for easiness to insulate.
• The effective core area of the transformer can be
reduced with the use of laminations and insulation.

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Shell Type Transformers
• The core surrounds a considerable portion of
the windings.
• The coils are layer disc type usually wound in
the form of pancakes.
• Paper is used to insulate the different layers
of the multi-layer discs.
• The whole winding consists of discs stacked
with insulation spaces between the coils.
• These insulation spaces form the horizontal
cooling and insulating ducts.
• It may have the shape of a simple rectangle or
may also have a distributed form.

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 Core
• Magnetic core: Stack of thin silicon-steel laminations, about 0.35mm thick for 50
Hz transformers
• Cold-rolled grain oriented sheet - Steel (CRGO): Low core loss and high
permeability. Typically used in large power and distribution transformers
• Amorphous Steel: Core loss one third of conventional steel. Typically used in
distribution transformers

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Ideal Transformer
• Winding resistances are negligible.
• All flux setup by primary links the secondary.
• Core has constant permeability.
• The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current) are
negligible.
• The magnetizing current and hence flux are sinusoidal
in nature.
• The core flux (φm) lags the induced emf (E1 , E2) by
90 deg
• The no load current or magnetizing current (𝐼𝑚 )is in
phase with the core flux (φ𝑚 )
• Supply voltage leads the magnetizing current (𝐼𝑚 )
and core flux (φ𝑚 ) by 90deg , as the system is purely
inductive.

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EMF Equation
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑁1 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑁2 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
∅𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝐵𝑚 𝑥𝐴
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧
Flux reaches the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle

∅𝑚
Average rate of change of flux = =4f ∅𝑚 Wb/s or Volts
1/4𝑓
This is nothing but induced emf per turn

𝑅𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
In ac Form factor is defined as
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
For sine wave form factor =1.11
Therefore rms value of induced emf per turn =1.11x 4f ∅𝑚 =4.44 4f ∅𝑚 Volts

Hence emf induced in primary winding = number of primary winding x emf per turn
= 𝑁1 4.44 4f ∅𝑚 Volts=4.44 f ∅𝑚 𝑁1 Volts

Similarly emf induced in secondary winding will be = 4.44 4f ∅𝑚 𝑁2 Volts

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Transformation ratio
• Let number of turns in primary and secondary of the transformer be 𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2
and the respective induced emf be 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2
• Therefore 𝐸1 ∝ 𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 ∝ 𝑁2

𝐸2 𝑁2
• 𝐸1
=𝑁 = 𝐾 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
1

• K>1 for step-up transformers and K< 1 for step-down transformers

• Power in primary = 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑉2 𝐼2

• For an ideal transformer ( Losses=0) 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2
𝐼2 𝑉1 1
• or = =
𝐼1 𝑉2 𝐾

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 Problems

Q1. A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1,050 secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the core is
55 cm2. If the primary winding be connected to a 400 V, 50 Hz single phase supply, calculate (i) maximum value of
the flux density in the core and (ii) the voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Q2. It is desired to have a 4.13 mWb maximum core flux in a transformer at 110V and 50 Hz. Determine the
required number of turns in the primary.
Q3. A 25 kVA, single phase transformer has 250 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the secondary winding. The
primary is connected to 1500 V, 50 Hz mains calculate (i) secondary emf (ii) primary and secondary current on full
load (iii) maximum flux in the core.
Q4. The emf per turn of a single phase 10 kVA, 2200/220V, 50 Hz transformer is 10V. Calculate (i) the number of
primary and secondary turns, (ii) the net cross-sectional area of core for a maximum flux density of 1.5T.

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Solution -Question 4

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Transformer on No load

𝑃0 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅0

𝐼𝜔 =𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅0
This component is taken in phase with the source voltage because
it is associated with active or working losses in transformers

𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼0 𝑆𝑖𝑛∅0
This component produces the alternating magnetic flux in the
core, so it is watt-less

𝐼0 = 𝐼𝜇2 + 𝐼𝜔2
The current 𝐼0 is very small (appxly 1% of full load primary current) and
hence copper losses due to this current is negligible. Hence no load
primary input is practically equal to iron /core loss of the transformer

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Leakage flux

• Leakage flux: The flux linking with only one winding flows through air path between windings.
• •Reluctance of air is ~1000×that of core material =>leakage flux typically much less than mutual flux.
• Primary leakage flux : caused by mmf 𝑁1 𝐼1 and induces voltage in primary winding
• Secondary leakage flux: caused by mmf 𝑁2 𝐼2and induces voltage in secondary winding

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Leakage flux cotd…

Effect of primary and secondary

leakage flux in practical
transformer can be modelled as
an ideal transformer with
additional inductive reactances
𝑿𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿𝟐 in series with the two
windings

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Equivalent circuit of transformer
A practical transformer can be thus modelled as an ideal transformer plus
additional circuit elements to compensate its imperfections namely:

1. The copper losses in primary and secondary

2. Core losses
3. Leakage reactances in primary and secondary
4. No- load magnetising current

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Q5. A double wound , single phase transformer is required to stepdown from 2400V to 240 volts. It is to
have 1.5V per turn. (a)Calculate the required number of turns on the primary and secondary windings . (b)
The peak value of flux density is 1.2Wb/Sqm. Calculate the cross sectional area of the core. ©If the output
is 10kVA, calculate secondary current.

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 Dot Convention
Generally, when we study about Transformers, we assume that the primary and secondary voltage and currents are in
phase. But, such is not always the case. In Transformer, The phase relation between primary and secondary currents and
voltages depends on how each winding is wrapped around the core.

So we see that
1.The primary and secondary voltage and current are in phase in fig (1)
2.The primary and secondary voltage and current are 180° out of phase in fig (2)
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Dot Convention
• Phase relation represented by dot convention.
• Dots are placed on the top of primary and secondary
terminals as shown in fig (3) and (4)
• In fig (3), we see that dots are placed at the top in both
primary and secondary terminals. It shows that the primary
and secondary current and voltages are in phase.
• Moreover, the primary and secondary voltages (VP and VS)
have similar sine wave, also the primary and secondary
(IP and IS) currents are same in direction.
• The story is opposite in fig (4). We can see that one dot is
positioned at the top in primary terminal and the other one
(dot) is placed at bottom of secondary terminal. It shows that
the primary and secondary current and voltages are 180° out
of phase. In addition, the primary and secondary voltages
(VP and VS) sine waves are opposite to each other. Also the
primary and secondary currents (IP and IS) are opposite in
direction.

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Transformer on Load

𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝐼1
𝑰′𝟐 = 𝑲𝑰𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐾, Where 𝐼2′ is the primary equivalent of secondary current
𝐼2

The total current in primary will now be equal to the no load current and primary equivalent
of secondary current. (Vector sum of 𝑰𝟎 + 𝑰′𝟐 )

Similarly secondary equivalent of primary current

′ 𝑰𝟏
𝑰𝟏 =
𝑲

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PHASOR DIAGRAM OF TRANSFORMER SHOWING SECONDARY CURRENTS

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PHASOR DIAGRAM OF TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

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Conversion of Resistance and leakage reactance to primary
The equivalent circuit of the transformer with respect to primary can be deduced by converting the resistance and
leakage reactance in secondary to primary equivalents
Resistance :
we know that copper loss in secondary = 𝐼22 𝑅2
The primary equivalent of secondary resistance be 𝑅2′
Let the primary equivalent of current to produced the copper loss on secondary be 𝐼12 𝑅2′
𝐼 2 𝑅2
2 ′ 2 ′ 2
Thus 𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 or 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 = 2
𝐼1 𝐾
Similarly primary resistance with respect to secondary =𝑅1′ = 𝐾 2 𝑅1
Leakage reactance
The equivalent values of reactances with referred to primary and secondary can be obtained as
′ 𝑋2
Primary equivalent of secondary reactance 𝑋2 = 2
𝐾
′
Secondary equivalent of primary reactance = 𝑋1 = 𝐾 2 𝑋1

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 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT WITH RESPECT TO PRIMARY

Here the primary equivalent of secondary

resistance and leakage reactance is given by
𝑅2′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋2′ .

The primary equivalent of secondary current is

𝑰′𝟐 (= 𝑲.𝑰𝟐 )

If 𝑍𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 ∶
′ 𝒁𝒍
𝒁𝒍 = 𝟐
𝑲

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Fig shows a simplified
equivalent circuit where the
exciting circuit is taken to the
left side and connected across
supply. This forms the
approximate equivalent circuit
if transformer wrt primary.

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER WITH RESPECT TO SECONDARY SIDE

Transferring primary side parameters to secondary side, the secondary equivalent of primary
current 𝑰′𝟏 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑰′𝒐 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑹′𝟏 ,
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑿′𝟏 ,The no-load components 𝑹′𝟎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑿′𝟎 can be found using the following equations .
𝑰𝟏
• 𝑰′𝟏 = 𝑲

𝑰𝟎
• 𝑰′𝟎 =
𝑲

• 𝑹′𝟏 = 𝑲𝟐 𝑹𝟏
• 𝑹′𝟎 = 𝑲𝟐 𝑹𝟎

• 𝑿′𝟏 = 𝑲𝟐 𝑿𝟏
• 𝑿′𝟎 = 𝑲𝟐 𝑿𝟎

• 𝑬′𝟏 = 𝑲𝑬𝟏
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Equivalent circuit of
transformer w.r.t secondary

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VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulation of a transformer is a measure of
change in the voltage magnitude between the sending and
receiving end.
It is commonly used in power engineering to describe the
percentage voltage difference between no load and full
load voltages distribution lines, transmission lines, and
transformers.
Any transformer must be capable of maintaining the
secondary voltage within a limit even though the
magnitude and power factor of the load at the secondary
changes.
The voltage regulation of a transformer tells us how well
the transformer can maintain the output voltage as the
magnitude and power factor of the load varies from no
load to full load.

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 Transformers- Module IV -Part II
Transformer losses and efficiency, condition for maximum efficiency,
kVA rating. Testing of transformers– polarity test, open circuit test, short
circuit test, Sumpner's test – separation of losses, all day efficiency.
Parallel operation of single-phase transformers– numerical problems

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 Losses in Transformers
We all know that all machines have losses.Similarly, a Transformer also
has some losses called transformer losses.Its losses are almost similar to
that of d.c. machines except transformers do not have mechanical losses
because all of its parts are stationary.
So all losses in transformer are explained in detail below:
1. Primary copper loss
2. Secondary copper loss
3. Iron losses
4.Dielectric Losses

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Copper losses
These copper losses in transformer occur due to the flow of current through the
primary windings of a transformer which possess some resistance.
These copper losses in transformer occur due to the flow of current through the
secondary windings of a transformer which also has resistance.

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 Iron Losses or core loss
These losses include Eddy current losses and Hysteresis losses in Transformers. They
both depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for the construction of core.
Eddy current losses:

When AC supply is given to primary windings of a transformer, an alternating flux is

developed. This alternating magnetic flux links with secondary windings of transformer
and an emf is induced in it . As we are aware that, the core of transformer is made of steel
or iron, that alternating flux also cuts this iron parts or core of transformer, and emf is also
induced in those parts which causes some circulating currents to flow through it. These
circulating currents are also called eddy currents. Due to this eddy currents some amount
of energy is lost in the form of heat. The power loss due to eddy currents is given by

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As the lamination thickness is much smaller than the depth of penetration of the field,
the eddy current loss can be reduced by reducing the thickness of the lamination. Present
day laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These
reduce the eddy current losses in the core. This loss also remains constant due to constant
voltage and frequency of operation.
Hysteresis losses
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of the core. If the
magnetic field applied to a magnetic material is increased and then decreased back to its
original value, the magnetic field inside the material does not return to its original value. The
internal field lags behind the external field. This behaviour results in a loss of energy, called
the hysteresis loss when a sample is repeatedly magnetized and demagnetised. It can simply
stated that losses occurring due to the reversal of magnetization of a transformer.
Hysteresis loss can be given by Steinmetz formula:

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Dielectric Losses
This loss occurs in the dielectric or insulating material of the transform er namely
the transformer oil and in solid insulation materials.

Stray Losses
The stray losses occur due to the leakage field . Leakage field being small stray
losses are very small when compared to copper and iron losses and hence can be
neglected.

Efficiency of transformer
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
η𝒗 = 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 x100
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕+𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔+𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Full Load efficiency = 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕+𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔+𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎

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 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅
Efficiency = 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠∅+𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠+𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑥100

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅2
=𝑉𝐼 𝑥100
2 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 2 +𝑃𝐶 +𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿

Where 𝑃𝐶 is the core loss of the transformer

And 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿 = Full load copper loss of the transformer
Efficiency of the transformer at fractional load :-
Let n be the fraction of full load

𝑛𝑥 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅2
Then η == 𝑛𝑥 𝑉 𝐼 2𝑃 𝑥100 ………………………..(1)
2 2 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 2 +𝑃 𝐶 +𝑛 𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿

N=1 for full load, 0.5 for half load,0.25 for quarter load.

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Condition for maximum Efficiency

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅2
Equation (1) can be rewritten as η = 𝑃 𝑥100
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅2 +( 𝐶+𝑛𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿 )
𝑛

𝑃𝐶
For maximum efficiency +( + 𝑛𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿 ) is minimum
𝑛
𝒅 𝑃𝐶
or ( + 𝑛𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿 ) =0
𝒅𝒏 𝑛

𝑃
That is − 𝑐2 +𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿 =0
𝑛
2
Or 𝑃𝑐 =𝑛 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿

At full load n=1 which means 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿

For maximum efficiency core loss = copper losses of a transformer.

otherwise maximum efficiency occurs when constant losses = variable losses

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Output kVA corresponding to maximum efficiency = n times
rated kVA

𝑃𝑐
=n x Rated kVA= n x
𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿
Therefore load current
𝐼2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦

𝑃𝑐
𝐼2 = 𝐼2𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑥 𝑃𝐶𝑢𝐹𝐿

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Transformers are rated in kVA

 KVA is the unit of apparent power.

 It is a combination of real power and reactive power.
 Transformers are manufactured without considering the load being connected.
 Any kind of electrical load can be connected to it (either resistive, capacitive, inductive or combination
loads).
 Losses occurring in the transformer is independent of power factor.
 If the transformer is rated in KW, there may be confusions regarding the type of load being connected.
 Hence the transformer is rated in KVA. By doing so we can eliminate the confusions regarding the type of
load being connected.

Copper losses (I²R) depend on current which passes through transformer winding while Iron losses or core
losses or Insulation losses depend on Voltage. i.e. total losses depend on voltage (V) and current (I) which
are expressed in Volt ampere (VA) and not on the load power factor (P.F). That’s why the transformer rating
may be expressed in VA or kVA, not in W or kW.

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Transformers tests
Polarity test
• Current flows from high voltage point to low
voltage point due to the potential difference
between them
• We use dot convention to identify the voltage
polarity of the mutual inductance of two
windings. The two used conventions are:
1.If a current enters the dotted terminal of one
winding, then the voltage induced on the other
winding will be positive at the dotted terminal
of the second winding.
2.If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one
winding, then the polarity of the voltage
induced in the other winding will be negative at
the dotted terminal of the second winding.

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Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding
of the transformer. If the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should
be known for the proper connection of the transformer. There are two types of polarity one is
Additive, and another is Subtractive.

1.Connect the circuit as shown above with a voltmeter (Va) across primary winding
and another voltmeter (Vb) across the secondary winding.
2.If available, take down the ratings of the transformer and the turn ratio.
3.We connect a voltmeter (Vc) between primary and secondary windings.
4.We apply some voltage to the primary side.
5.By checking the value in the voltmeter (Vc), we can find whether it is additive or
subtractive polarity.

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 TRANSFORMER TESTS
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
• The main objectives of the open circuit test are to determine the no-load current and iron loss. The
components of the no-load current are used to determine the no-load circuit resistance and reactance.
• In an open circuit test, the high voltage side is considered to be open circuit, and the low voltage coil is
connected to the source, where all measuring instruments are connected in the low voltage side. A specific
alternating voltage is applied to the low voltage winding. Then the wattmeter will measure the iron loss and
small amount of copper loss. The ammeter and voltmeter will measure the no-load current and the voltage,
respectively. Since, the no-load current is very small, the copper losses can be neglected.

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NO LOAD COMPONENTS OF TRANSFORMER

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Q. A 200/400V, 50Hz single-phase transformer has the no-load test data of 200V, 0.6A, 80W. Calculate the
no-load circuit resistance and reactance.

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Short Circuit Test
• The main objectives of the short circuit test are to determine the equivalent resistance, reactance,
impedance and full load copper loss.
• The supply voltage and the measuring instruments (e. g,. wattmeter, ammeter) are connected to the
high voltage side and the low voltage winding is connected with ammeter. The voltage is adjusted until
the current in the low voltage winding is equal to the rated low voltage side current. Under this
condition, the wattmeter will measure the full load copper loss.

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SHORT CIRCUIT COMPONENTS OF TRANSFORMER

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Q. A 25kVA, 2200/220V, 50Hz single-phase transformer’s low voltage side is short-circuited and
the test data recorded from the high voltage side are P=150W, I1=5A and V1=40V. Determine the
equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance referred to primary.

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 Sumpner’s Test
• Sumpner's test or back to back test
• Is another method for determining transformer efficiency, voltage regulation and heating under loaded
conditions.
• Short circuit and open circuit tests on transformer can give us parameters of equivalent circuit of
transformer, but they can not help us in finding the heating information.
• Actual loading is simulated in Sumpner's test.
• Sumpner's test give more accurate results of regulation and efficiency than O.C. and S.C. tests.

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Circuit Diagram

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Equivalent Circuit

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Q. A 2.5 kVA, 200V/40V single-phase transformer has the primary resistance and reactance of 3 and 12 Ω, respectively. On the
secondary side, these values are 0.3 and 0.1 Ω, respectively. Find the equivalent impedance referred to the primary and the
secondary

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Q. A 30 kVA transformer has the iron loss and full load copper loss of 350 and 650 W, respectively.
Determine the (i) Full load efficiency, (II) 0.8 load efficiency, (iii) Output kVA corresponding to
maximum efficiency, and (iv)Maximum efficiency. Consider that the power factor of the load is 0.6
lagging.

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Transformers- solved problems

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Regulation of Transformer

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Q1. The test results of 2.5kVA, 230/115V single-phase transformer are as follows: OC Test : 115V, 1.2A, 60W SC Test : 12V,
10.86A. 120W Find (i) efficiency at 50% full load, 0.8 pf ( ii) regulation at 30% full load, 0.8 pf lag and lead.

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Q6.A 600W single phase transformer working at unity power factor has an efficiency of 95 percent at both half full load and
full load. Determine the efficiency at 70 percent of full load

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Q7.The following test results were obtained on a 20kVA, 2200/220V, 50Hz single phase transformer
OC Test(LV side) 220V 1.1A 125W
SC Test(HV side) 52.7V 8.4A 287W
The transformer is loaded at unity power factor on secondary side with a voltage of 220V. Determine the maximum efficiency and load at which
it occurs.

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 Module V

Autotransformer – saving of copper –rating of autotransformers. Three phase

transformer – construction- difference between power transformer and
distribution transformer-Different connections of 3-phase transformers. Υ-Υ, Δ-
Δ,Υ-Δ, Δ-Υ, V-V. Vector groupings – Yy0, Dd0, Yd1, Yd11, Dy1, Dy11.Parallel
operation of three phase transformers. Three winding transformer – stabilization
by tertiary winding. Tap changing transformers - no load tap changing, on load
tap changing, dry

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AUTOTRANSFORMER
Autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of winding is common to both the primary and
secondary circuits. Sttepup and stepdown autotransformers are shown in Fig. (i) and (ii).

• N1 turns is the primary winding and

• N2 turns is the secondary winding.
• The primary and secondary windings are connected electrically as well as magnetically.
• Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the secondary conductively as well as inductively.

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 𝑉2 𝐼1 𝑁2
Transformation ratio K= = = =𝐾
𝑉1 𝐼2 𝑁1

Advantages of autotransformer

i. Higher efficiency
ii. Small size
iii. Less costly
iv. Voltage regulation higher than two winding transformer

Disadvantages

i. The stress suffered in any side due to disturbances will affect both sides.
ii. As the voltage ratio increases the common coil is much smaller when compared with
the entire winding . This means economy gained is only a small part of the transformer
and hence advantage is minimised.

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Power transformed = input (1-K) and the rest power is directly from source to load
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Uses
1. Used as voltage regulators
2. Used as furnace transformers for getting a convenient supply to suit the furnace
winding
3. Used to give a boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop
4. To obtain partial line voltages for starting induction and synchronous motors with
squirrel cage windings.
5. For tying transmission /distribution circuits of slightly different voltages.
6. Used in testing laboratories.

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Q. The load of 12kW is supplied by an autotransformer at 240V and at upf. If the primary voltage is
480V determine: (i) transformation ratio (ii) Secondary current (iii)Power transformed (iii)Power
conducted directly from supply to load(iv) Number of secondary turns if primary turns is 560.

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 Power transformer Distribution Transformer
Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher
Distribution transformers are used for lower
voltages for step-up and step down application (400 kV, 200
voltage distribution networks as a means to end user
kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV) and are generally rated connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V) and are
above 200MVA generally rated less than 200 MVA
[PC1]
A power transformer usually has one primary and one
A distribution transformer may have one primary and one
secondary as well as one input and output setup. divided or “Tapped” secondary, or two or more secondaries.
Power transformers generally operate at nearly full – loadA distribution transformer operates at light loads during major
parts of the day
The performance of the power transformers is generally Whereas, the performance of a distribution transformer is
analysed by commercial or maximum efficiency because they judged by all day efficiency because they are designed to be
are designed for maximum efficiency at full load operated for maximum efficiency at 60-70% load as they are
normally doesn’t operate at full load all the day as there are
peak hours for load in 24 hrs which are not same at once all the
time

The flux density is higher than the distribution transformer Flux density is less
Power transformers, primary winding always connected in star In distribution transformers, primary winding connected in
and secondary winding in delta connections delta and secondary in star connection
Power transformers are a common feature in power generation Installation of distribution transformers is mainly in
distribution stations, from this point, power is distributed for
stations and transmission substations industrial or domestic purposes.
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 Three-Phase Transformer Construction
A three phase transformer is used to transfer a large amount of power. The three phase
transformer is required to step-up and step-down the voltages at various stages of a
power system network. The three phase transformer is constructed in two ways.
1. Three separate single phase transformer is suitably connected for three phase operation.
2. A single three-phase transformer in which the cores and windings for all the three phases are merged into a single
structure.

3 PHASE SHELL TYPE

3 PHASE CORE TYPE

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Core type
• The core of the three phase transformer is usually made up of three limbs in the same plane. This can be built
using stack lamination. The each leg of this core carries the low voltage and high voltage winding. The low
voltage windings are insulated from the core than the high voltage windings.
• The low windings are placed next to the core with suitable insulation between the core and the low voltage
windings. The high voltage windings are placed over the low voltage windings with suitable insulation
between them. The magnetic paths of the leg a and c are greater than that of leg b, the construction is not
symmetrical, and there is a resultant imbalance in the magnetising current.

Shell type
• The shell type 3-phase transformer can be constructed by stacking three single phase shell transformer as
shown in the figure. The winding direction of the central unit b is made opposite to that of units a and c. If
the system is balanced with phase sequence a-b-c, the flux will also be balanced.
• The magnitude of this combined flux is equal to the magnitude of each of its components. The cross section
area of the combined yoke is same as that of the outer leg and top and bottom section of the yoke. The
imbalance in the magnetic path has very little effect on the performance of the three shell-type transformers.
The windings of the shell type three phase transformer are either connected in delta or star as desired.

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Three Phase Transformer Connections

• Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-star, (ii)
delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv) delta-star, (v) open delta and (vi) Scott connection.
Star-Star (Y-Y)
• Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of star connection,
number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line
voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to the transformation
ratio of the transformers.
• Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
• This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

Disadvantages
• Unbalanced secondary shifts the neutral point.
• The third harmonic causes triple frequency currents in secondary
• Regulation poor if the star points are not earthed.

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Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ)
• This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater
than that for star-star connection.
• The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
• This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
• Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is disabled, system can continue to operate in
open delta connection but with reduced available capacity.
Advantages
1. The delta-delta transformer is satisfactory for a balanced and unbalanced load.
2. If one transformer fails, the remaining two transformers will continue to supply the three-phase power. This is called an open delta
connection.
3. If third harmonics present, then it circulates in a closed path and therefore does not appear in the output voltage wave.

Disadvantages
• In comparison with Y-Y connection this requires more insulation.
• No star point . If online gets earthed due to fault, maximum voltage between windings and core will be full line voltage.

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Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y-Δ)
• The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the secondary winding is delta
connected.
• This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end of the transmission line.
• The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio.
• There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

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Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (Δ-Y)
• The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with neutral
grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.
• This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
• The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio.
• There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

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Open Delta (V-V) connection
Two transformers are used and primary and secondary connections are made as shown
in the figure below. Open delta connection can be used when one of the transformers in
Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until the faulty transformer is
repaired or replaced. It can also be used for small three phase loads where installation of
full three transformer bank is un-necessary. The total load carrying capacity of open
delta connection is 57.7% than that would be for delta-delta connection

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Vector Groupings
• Three phase transformer consists of three sets of primary windings, one for each phase, and three sets of
secondary windings wound on the same iron core. Separate single-phase transformers can be used and
externally interconnected to yield the same results as a 3-phase unit.

• The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common configurations are
the delta, in which the polarity end of one winding is connected to the non-polarity end of the next, and
the star, in which all three non-polarities (or polarity) ends are connected together.
• The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3-phase transformer can have its
primary and secondary windings connected the same (delta-delta or star-star), or differently (delta-star or
star-delta).
• The secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary waveforms when the primary and
secondary windings are connected the same way. This condition is called “no phase shift.” When the
primary and secondary windings are connected differently, the secondary voltage waveforms will differ
from the corresponding primary voltage waveforms by 30 electrical degrees.

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POLARITY
An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked by a magnetic
path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way round the coils are connected. The
voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 deg.
When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil voltages can be in
phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in the case of a star winding, have the star
point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or not.
When Pair of Coil of Transformer have same direction than voltage induced in both coil are in same direction from
one end to other end.
When two coil have opposite winding direction than Voltage induced in both coil are in opposite direction.

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NOTATIONS
 First Symbol: for High Voltage: Always capital letters.
 D=Delta, Y=Star, Z=Interconnected star, N=Neutral
 Second Symbol: for Low voltage: Always Small letters.
 d=Delta, y=Star, z=Interconnected star, n=Neutral.
 Third Symbol: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number (1,6,11)
 Example – Dyn11
Transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star connected secondary (y) with the star point brought out (n)
and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11).
 The point of confusion is occurring in notation in a step-up transformer. As the IEC60076-1 standard has stated, the
notation is HV-LV in sequence. For example, a step-up transformer with a delta-connected primary, and star-connected
secondary, is not written as ‘dY11’, but ‘Yd11’. The 11 indicates the LV winding leads the HV by 30 degrees.

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Phase displacement
 The vector for the high voltage winding is taken as the reference vector. Displacement of the vectors of other windings from
the reference vector, with anticlockwise rotation, is represented by the use of clock hour figure.
 IS: 2026 (Part 1V)-1977 gives 26 sets of connections star-star, star-delta, and star zigzag, delta-delta, delta star, delta-zigzag,
zigzag star, zigzag-delta. Displacement of the low voltage winding vector varies from zero to -330° in steps of -30°,
depending on the method of connections.
 Hardly any power system adopts such a large variety of connections. Some of the commonly used connections with phase
displacement of 0, -300, -180″ and -330° (clock-hour setting 0, 1, 6 and 11).
 Symbol for the high voltage winding comes first, followed by the symbols of windings in diminishing sequence of voltage.
For example a 220/66/11 kV Transformer connected star, star and delta and vectors of 66 and 11 kV windings having phase
displacement of 0° and -330° with the reference (220 kV) vector will be represented As Yy0 – Yd11.
 The digits (0, 1, 11 etc) relate to the phase displacement between the HV and LV windings using a clock face notation. The
phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference and set at 12 o’clock. Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise.
(International adopted).
 Use the hour indicator as the indicating phase displacement angle. Because there are 12 hours on a clock, and a circle
consists out of 360°, each hour represents 30°.Thus 1 = 30°, 2 = 60°, 3 = 90°, 6 = 180° and 12 = 0° or 360°.
 The minute hand is set on 12 o’clock and replaces the line to neutral voltage (sometimes imaginary) of the HV winding.
This position is always the reference point.

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 Example:
 Digit 0 = 0° that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor
Digit 1 =30° lagging (LV lags HV with 30°) because rotation is anti-clockwise.
 Digit 11 = 330° lagging or 30° leading (LV leads HV with 30°)
.

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Star-Star (Yy0 or Yy6)
• No phase difference between primary and secondary V.
• Amount of insulation required is less
• Mainly used for large system tie-up Transformer.
• Most economical connection in HV power system to interconnect
between two delta systems and to provide neutral for grounding both of
them.
• Tertiary winding stabilizes the neutral conditions.
• Insulation cost is highly reduced. Neutral wire can permit mixed
loading.
• Triple harmonics are absent in the lines.

Delta – Delta (Dd 0 or Dd 6)

•This is an economical connection for large low voltage transformers.(
1
Cross section of conductor reduced since phase current is times line
3
current
•Large unbalance of load can be met without difficulty.
•Delta permits a circulating path for triple harmonics thus attenuates the
same.
•It is possible to operate with one transformer removed in open delta or
V connection meeting 57.7 percent of the balanced load.
•More insulation required.
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Yd1/Yd11
• Used for stepping down.
• Neutral of primary is earthed.
1
• The line voltage ratio is times transformer
3
turns ratio.
• The secondary side has a phase shift of
± 30° 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.
• On the Hv side the insulation stress is limited
to 57.7% of line voltage, hence cost of
insulation can be saved.
Dy1/Dy11
• Used when voltage has to be stepped up the
V.
• Insulation on HV side stress is limited to
57.7% of line voltage.
• Neutral point is stable.
• Third harmonics circulates in the delta
winding.
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Parallel Operation of 3 phase transformers
Parallel operation of three phase transformer is very common in three phase power generation, transmission and
distribution. It is advantageous to use two or more Transformer units in parallel instead of using a single large
unit. This offers flexibility for maintenance as well as operation.

Advantage of Parallel Operation of Three Phase Transformers

•It increases the reliability of supply system. Let us try to understand how this happens. Suppose a fault occurs
in any one of the Transformer unit. In such case, the faulty transformer may be taken out of service while the
remaining transformers will feed the power supply. If there were only one large transformer unit is installed for
supplying the load, the supply to the entire load will be interrupted during breakdown of the transformer. Thus
the reliability of supply system is increased by parallel operation of transformers.

•The size of transformer increases with the increase of its rating. Therefore, a larger transformer will be bigger
in size. Therefore, its transportation form manufacturer to the Site will be difficult. Whereas, transportation and
installation of small sized transformers are comparatively easy.

•The maintenance opportunity in case of parallel operation is increases. One or more transformers may be taken
under maintenance while the remaining transformers will supply the load at reduced power.

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 Condition for Parallel Operation of Three Phase Transformers

• The line voltage ratio of the transformers must be same.

• The transformers should have equal per unit leakage impedance.
• The ratio of equivalent leakage reactance to equivalent resistance should be same for all the
transformers.
• The transformers should have the same polarity.
• The relative phase displacement between the secondary line voltages of all transformers should be zero.
• The phase sequence of secondary line voltages of all the transformers should be same.

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Q. A 3 phase stepdown transformer is connected to 6.6kV supply and takes 80A. Calculate its
secondary line voltage and line current for the following connections if the turn ratio per phase is 16
(i)Y-Y (ii)Y-Δ (iii) Δ-Y (iv) Δ-Δ

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Tertiary Winding
In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary and secondary
winding is used. This additional winding, apart from primary and secondary
windings, is known as Tertiary winding of transformer. Because of this third winding,
the transformer is called three winding transformer or 3 winding transformer.
Advantages of Tertiary Winding

Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet one or more of

the following requirements-
1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three phase load.
2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.
3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage level in
addition to its main secondary load. This secondary load can be taken from tertiary
winding of three winding transformer.
4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding transformer, it
assists in limitation of fault current in the event of a short circuit from line to neutral.
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Stabilizing Tertiary Winding
A delta-connected auxiliary winding used particularly in wye-wye connected three phase
transformers for the following purposes:
a) To stabilize the neutral point of the fundamental frequency voltages (line to line voltages
remaining same, phase voltages in individual phases varying drastically. This can happen if star
neutral is not earthed.)
b) To minimize third-harmonic voltage and the resultant effects on the system (over voltages
can develop with resonance between zero sequence capacitance of primary/secondary system
and transformer third harmonic inductance)
c) To mitigate telephone influence due to third-harmonic currents and voltages ( i.e. neutral
current from the winding to source neutral through the ground, inducing disturbing signals in
nearby communication cables)
d) To minimize the residual direct-current magneto motive force (residual magnetism) in the
core
e) To decrease the zero-sequence impedance of transformers with Y-connected windings ( ie to
get sufficient fault current to actuate relays during a line to ground fault and also to limit X0/X1

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Stabilizing winding is the third winding, delta connected, unloaded and normally
innermost, near to core, with or without the line terminals, brought out through oil
to air bushings. When terminals are not brought out, it is called a buried stabilizing
winding. All the three terminals may be brought out or sometimes only one
terminal will be brought out. Another alternative is to bring one corner of delta
outside through two bushings and delta formed outside through a link between the
two bushings. In some cases, a reactor may be connected in series inside the delta
connection to get higher impedance to other windings. If only 3L fault is critical,
the reactor can be outside the delta in series to line terminals. If the primary or
secondary winding is delta connected, there is no need for a stabilizing delta
tertiary.

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Tap-changing Transformers

The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns of the transformer provided with taps. For
sufficiently close control of voltage, taps are usually provided on the high voltage windings of the
transformer. There are two types of tap-changing transformers
1.Off-load tap changing transformer
2.On-load tap changing transformer
Off-load tap-changing transformer
Here, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply when the tap setting is to be changed. The tap
setting is usually done manually. The off load tap changing transformer is shown in the figure below

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On-load tap-changing transformer
On-load tap-changers (OLTCs) are indispensable in regulating power
transformers used in electrical energy networks and industrial applications.
OLTCs enable voltage regulation and/or phase shifting by varying the
transformer ratio under load without interruption.
Such a transformer is known as a tap-changing under load transformer.
While tapping, two essential conditions are to be fulfilled.
•The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and prevent the
damage of contacts.
•No parts of the windings should be short–circuited while adjusting the tap.

The tap changing employing a centre tapped reactor R show in the figure
below. Here S is the diverter switch, and 1, 2, 3 are selector switch. The
transformer is in operation with switches 1 and S closed. To change to tap 2,
switch S is opened, and 2 is closed. Switch 1 is then opened, and S closed to
complete the tap change. It is to be noted that the diverter switch operates on
load, and no current flows in the selector switches during tap changing.
During the tap change, only half of the reactance which limits the current is
connected in the circuit.

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