Haliç University

Faculty of Engineering

EEE213

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Lecture-3: ’’Passive Components:Resistors’’

Lecturer: Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan

 This chapter introduces several of the most common types of electronic
components, including ‘resistors’, ‘capacitors’, and ‘inductors’. These are often
referred to as passive components as they cannot, by themselves, generate voltage
or current. An understanding of the characteristics and application of passive
components is an essential prerequisite to understanding the operation of the
circuits used in amplifiers, oscillators, filters, and power supplies.

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 Topics

 Resistors
 Preferred Values
 Power Ratings
 Resistor Markings
 BS 1852 Coding
 Resistor Construction
 Series & Parallel Combinations of Resistors
 Resistance & Temperature
 Thermistors
 Light-Dependent ,Voltage-Dependent & Variable Resistors

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  Capacitors
 Capacitance
 Charge, Capacitance & Voltage
 Energy Storage
 Capacitance and Physical Dimensions
 Capacitor Specifications
 Capacitor Markings
 Series & Parallel Combination of Capacitors
 Variable Capacitors

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  Inductors
 Inductance
 Energy Storage
 Inductance & Physical Dimensions
 Inductor Specifications
 Inductor Markings
 Series & Parallel Combinations of Inductors
 Variable Inductors
 Surface-mounted Components (SMCs)

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 RESISTORS

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 Resistors 𝑽
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = =𝑹
Conventional forms of resistors obey a straight line 𝑰

law when voltage is plotted against current and this allows

us to use resistors as a means of converting current into a

(V)
corresponding voltage drop, and vice versa (note that
doubling the applied current will produce double the
voltage drop, and so on). Therefore resistors provide us
with a means of controlling the currents and voltages
present in electronic circuits. They can also act as loads to
simulate the presence of a circuit during testing (e.g. a
(I)
suitably rated resistor can be used to replace a loudspeaker
Voltage plotted against current for three different
when an audio amplifier is being tested). values of the resistor.

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 The specifications for a resistor usually include the value of resistance expressed in ohms (Ω), kilohms
(𝑘Ω), or megohms (𝑀Ω), the accuracy or tolerance (quoted as the maximum permissible percentage deviation
from the marked value), and the power rating (which must be equal to, or greater than, the maximum expected
power dissipation).

Other practical considerations when selecting

resistors for use in a particular application include
temperature coefficient, noise performance, stability,
and ambient temperature range. The figure shows a
typical selection of fixed resistors with values from
15 Ω to 4.7 𝑘Ω. A selection of resistors including high-power metal clad,
ceramic wire-wound, carbon, and metal film types with
values ranging from 15 Ω to 4.7 𝑘Ω.

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 Characteristics of common types of resistor

This table summarizes the properties of six of the most common types of resistors.

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 Preferred Values

The value marked on the body of a resistor is not its exact

resistance. Some minor variation in resistance value is
inevitable due to production tolerance. For example, a resistor
marked 100 Ω and produced within a tolerance of ±10% will
have a value which falls within the range 90 Ω to 110 Ω. A
similar component with a tolerance of ±1% would have a value
that falls within the range 99 Ω to 101 Ω. Thus, where accuracy
is important it is essential to use close tolerance components.

Preferred Resistor Values

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 Resistors are available in several series of fixed decade values,
the number of values provided with each series being governed by the
tolerance involved. In order to cover the full range of resistance
values using resistors having a ±20% tolerance it will be necessary to
provide six basic values (known as the 𝐸6 series). More values will be
required in the series which offers a tolerance of ±10 % and
consequently, the 𝐸12 series provides 12 basic values. The 𝐸24 series
for resistors of ±5% tolerance provides no fewer than 24 basic values
and, as with the 𝐸6 and 𝐸12 series, decade multiples (i.e. × 1, × 10,
× 100, × 1 k, × 10 𝑘, × 100 𝑘, and × 1 𝑀) of the basic series. Figure
shows the relationship between the 𝐸6, 𝐸12, and 𝐸24 series.

The E6, E12 and E24 series

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 Power Ratings

Resistor power ratings are related to operating

temperatures and resistors should be derated at high
temperatures. Where reliability is important resistors
should be operated at well below their nominal
maximum power dissipation.
The tolerance of the resistor is given by:

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

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Example: A resistor has a marked value of 220 Ω. Determine the tolerance of the resistor if it has a measured
value of 207 Ω.

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a marked value of 220 Ω. Determine the tolerance of the resistor if it has a measured
value of 207 Ω.

Solution: The tolerance of the resistor is given by,

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 100 %
𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 220  − 207  = 13 

13 
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 100% ≅ 5.9 %
220 

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Example: A resistor has a marked value of 470 Ω. Determine the tolerance of the resistor if it has a measured
value of 455 Ω.

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a marked value of 470 Ω. Determine the tolerance of the resistor if it has a measured
value of 455 Ω.

Solution: The tolerance of the resistor is given by,

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 100 %
𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 470 Ω − 455 Ω = 15 Ω

15 
𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 100% ≅ 3.19 %
4700 

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Example: A 9 V power supply is to be tested with a 39 Ω load resistor. If the resistor has a tolerance of 10 %
find:
(a) the nominal current is taken from the supply;
(b) the maximum and minimum values of supply current at either end of the tolerance range for the resistor.

Solution:

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Example: A 9 𝑉 power supply is to be tested with a 39 Ω load resistor. If the resistor has a tolerance of 10 %
find:
(a) the nominal current is taken from the supply;
(b) the maximum and minimum values of supply current at either end of the tolerance range for the resistor.

Solution:

(a) If a resistor of exactly 39 Ω is used the current will be:

𝑉 9𝑉
𝐼= = ≅ 0.231 𝐴 = 231 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 39 

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Solution:
(a) If a resistor of exactly 39 Ω is used the current will be:
𝑉 9𝑉
𝐼= = ≅ 0.231 𝐴 = 231 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 39 

(b) The lowest value of resistance would be (39 Ω − 3.9 Ω) = 35.1 Ω.

In which case the current would be:
𝑉 9𝑉
𝐼= = ≅ 0.2564 𝐴 = 256.4 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 35.1 

At the other extreme, the highest value would be (39 Ω + 3.9 Ω) = 42.9 Ω.
In which case the current would be:

𝑉 9𝑉
𝐼= = ≅ 0.2098 𝐴 = 209.8 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 42.9 
*The maximum and minimum values of supply current will thus be 256.4 mA and 209.8 mA, respectively.

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Example: A 12 𝑉 power supply is to be tested with a 12 Ω load resistor. If the resistor has a tolerance of 10 %
determine:
(a) the nominal current taken from the supply;
(b) the maximum and minimum values of supply current at either end of the tolerance range for the resistor.

Solution:

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Solution:
(a) If a resistor of exactly 12 Ω is used the current will be:

𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼= = ≅1𝐴
𝑅 12 
(b) The lowest value of resistance would be (12 Ω − 1.2 Ω) = 10.8 Ω.
In which case the current would be:

𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼= = ≅ 1.11 𝐴
𝑅 10.8 

At the other extreme, the highest value would be (12 Ω + 1.2 Ω) = 13.2 Ω.
In which case the current would be:

𝑉 12 𝑉
𝐼= = ≅ 0.91 𝐴
𝑅 13.2 

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 Resistor Markings

Carbon and metal oxide resistors are normally

marked with colour codes which indicate their value and
tolerance.
Two methods of colour coding are in common use;
one involves four coloured bands (see in the first figure)
while the other uses five colour bands (see in the second
figure).

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: brown, black, red, silver. What is its value and
tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: brown, black, red, silver. What is its value and
tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: red, violet, orange, gold. What is its value and
tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: red, violet, orange, gold. What is its value and
tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: green, blue, black, gold. What is its value and
tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: green, blue, black, gold. What is its value and
tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: red, green, black, black, brown. What is its
value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked with the following colored stripes: red, green, black, black, brown. What is its
value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor value of 2.2 𝑘Ω of ±2% tolerance is required. What four-band color code does this resistor
correspond to?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor value of 2.2 𝑘Ω of ±2% tolerance is required. What four-band color code does this resistor
correspond to?

Solution:
2.2 𝑘Ω (±2% tolerance)

Furthermore;

1 𝑘Ω = 103 

2.2 𝑘Ω = 2200 

Red (2), red (2), red (2 zeros), red (2% tolerance).

Thus all four bands should be red.

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Example: The resistor symbols on the circuit
diagrams on this screen have been substituted
for their equivalent color codes. One of the
resistors used in each circuit does not equate to
the value beside it. Please try to figure out
which resistor it is.

Solution:

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Example: The resistor symbols on the circuit
diagrams on this screen have been substituted
for their equivalent color codes. One of the
resistors used in each circuit does not equate to
the value beside it. Please try to figure out
which resistor it is.

Solution:

This resistor is incorrect. The correct colours for

47 𝑘Ω ± 5 % should be: Yellow Violet Orange Gold.
The colours: Yellow Red Orange Gold = 42 𝑘Ω ± 5 %

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 BS 1852 Coding

Some types of resistor have markings based on a

system of coding defined in BS 1852. This system
involves marking the position of the decimal point with a
letter to indicate the multiplier concerned, as shown in
Table 2.2. A further letter is then appended to indicate the
tolerance, as shown in Table 2.3.

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 4𝑅7𝐾. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 4𝑅7𝐾. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

4.7 Ω ± 10%

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 330𝑅𝐺. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 330𝑅𝐺. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

330 𝛺 ± 2%

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 𝑅22𝑀. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 𝑅22𝑀. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

0.22 𝛺 ± 20%

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 6𝑅8𝐾. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 6𝑅8𝐾. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

6.8 𝛺 ± 10 %

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 470𝑅𝐺. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 470𝑅𝐺. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

470 𝛺 ± 2 %

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 220𝐾𝑀. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor is marked coded with the legend 220𝐾𝑀. What is its value and tolerance?

Solution:

220 𝑘𝛺 ± 20 %

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 Resistor Construction

 Carbon Resistor
The simple form of a carbon resistor consists of a
tubular rod of carbon enclosed in an insulating ceramic
tube. The value of resistance and the tolerance is usually
marked on the surface of the component using colored
bands. Values from 10  to 1 𝑀 are typical.

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  Wirewound Resistor
The simple wirewound resistor consists of a length of
resistance wire spiral wound onto a tubular ceramic former
and covered with a heatproof ceramic or vitreous enamel
coating. The value of resistance and the power rating are
usually marked on the surface of the component. Values
from 0.1  to 10 𝑘 are typical.

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  Variable Resistor
The simple variable resistor consists of a circular
carbon track fitted with a sliding metal contact driven by a
rotary control shaft. With three terminals (two fixed
connections at the extreme ends of the track and one
connection to the slider) a component of this type is more
correctly known as a potentiometer. Values from 1 𝑘 to
1 𝑀 are typical.

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 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors
In order to obtain a particular value of resistance, fixed resistors may be arranged in either series or
parallel as shown in the figures. The effective resistance of each of the series circuits shown in the
figure is simply equal to the sum of the individual resistances. For the parallel circuits, the reciprocal of
the effective resistance of each circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

1 1 1 𝑅1 × 𝑅2
= + 𝑅=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel
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Example: Resistors of 22 Ω, 47 Ω, and 33 Ω are connected
(a) in series
(b) in parallel
Please determine the effective resistance in each case.

Solution:

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Example: Resistors of 22 Ω, 47 Ω, and 33 Ω are connected
(a) in series
(b) in parallel
Please determine the effective resistance in each case.

Solution:

(a) In the series circuit: 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝑅 = 22  + 47  + 33  = 102 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(b) In the parallel circuit: = + + = + + ≅ 0.097 
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅 22  47  33 

𝑅 ≅ 10.31 

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Example: Determine the effective resistance of the  

circuit shown in the figure.


Solution:

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Example: Determine the effective resistance of the  

circuit shown in the figure.


Solution: The circuit can be progressively simplified as shown in the figures. The stages in this simplification are:

1) 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are in series, they can be replaced by a single resistance (𝑅𝐴 ) of

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 12  + 27  = 39 

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Example: Determine the effective resistance of the  

circuit shown in the figure.


Solution: The circuit can be progressively simplified as shown in the figures. The stages in this simplification are:

1) 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are in series, they can be replaced by a single resistance (𝑅𝐴 ) of

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 12  + 27  = 39 

2) 𝑅𝐴 appears in parallel with 𝑅2 . These two resistors can be replaced by a

single resistance (𝑅𝐵 ) of

𝑅2 × 𝑅𝐴 47  × 39 
𝑅𝐵 = = ≅ 21.3 
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐴 47  + 39 

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Example: Determine the effective resistance of the  

circuit shown in the figure.


Solution: The circuit can be progressively simplified as shown in the figures. The stages in this simplification are:

1) 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are in series, they can be replaced by a single resistance (𝑅𝐴 ) of

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 12  + 27  = 39 

2) 𝑅𝐴 appears in parallel with 𝑅2 . These two resistors can be replaced by a

single resistance (𝑅𝐵 ) of

𝑅2 × 𝑅𝐴 47  × 39 
𝑅𝐵 = = ≅ 21.3 
𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐴 47  + 39 

3) 𝑅𝐵 appears in the series with 𝑅1 . These two resistors can be replaced by a

single resistance (R) of 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐵 = 4.7  + 21.3  = 26 

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Example: A resistance of 50 Ω rated at 2 W is required. What parallel combination of preferred value resistors
will satisfy this requirement? What power rating should each resistor have?

Solution:

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Example: A resistance of 50 Ω rated at 2 W is required. What parallel combination of preferred value resistors
will satisfy this requirement? What power rating should each resistor have?

Solution: Two 100 Ω resistors may be wired in parallel to provide a resistance of 50 Ω as shown below:

𝑅1 × 𝑅2 100  × 100  10000 

𝑅= = = = 50 
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 100  + 100  200 

*Note from this that when two resistors of the same value are connected in parallel the resulting resistance will be half that of a single resistor.

Having shown that two 100 Ω resistors connected in parallel will provide us with a resistance of 50 Ω we now need to
consider the power rating. Since the resistors are identical, the applied power will be shared equally between them. Hence
each resistor should have a power rating of 1 𝑊.

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 Resistance and Temperature

The figure shows how the resistance of a metal conductor

(e.g. copper) varies with temperature. Since the resistance
of the material increases with temperature, this
characteristic is said to exhibit a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC). Not all materials have a PTC
characteristic. The resistance of a carbon conductor falls
with temperature and it is therefore said to exhibit a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC).

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The resistance of a conductor at a temperature, 𝑡, is given by the equation:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2 + 𝛾𝑡 3 …

where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾, etc. are constants and 𝑅0 is the resistance at 0 °𝐶. The coefficients, 𝛽, 𝛾, etc. are quite small
and since we are normally only dealing with a relatively restricted temperature range (e.g. 0 °𝐶 to 100 °𝐶)
we can usually approximate the characteristic shown in the previous figure to the straight line law shown. In
this case, the equation simplifies to:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡

where 𝛼 is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance. The table shows some typical values for 𝛼
(note that 𝛼 is expressed in Ω/Ω/°𝐶 or just /°𝐶).

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.001 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 1.5 𝑘Ω at
0 °𝐶, determine its resistance at 80 °𝐶.

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.001 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 1.5 𝑘Ω at
0 °𝐶, determine its resistance at 80 °𝐶.

Solution:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡

1 𝑘 = 103 

𝑅𝑡 = 1500  × 1 + 0.001 /°𝐶 × 80 °𝐶 = 1620 

𝑅𝑡 = 1620  = 1.62 𝑘

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.0005 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 680 Ω at
20 °𝐶, what will its resistance be at 90 °𝐶?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.0005 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 680 Ω at
20 °𝐶, what will its resistance be at 90 °𝐶?

Solution:
𝑅𝑡
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 𝑅0 =
1 + 𝛼𝑡

680 Ω
𝑅0 = ≅ 673.3 
1 + 0.0005 /°𝐶 × 20 °𝐶

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡

𝑅90 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 = 673.3  × 1 + 0.0005 /°𝐶 × 90 °𝐶 ≅ 704 

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Example: A resistor has a resistance of 40 Ω at 0 °𝐶 and 44 Ω at 100 °𝐶. Determine the resistor’s temperature
coefficient.

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a resistance of 40 Ω at 0 °𝐶 and 44 Ω at 100 °𝐶. Determine the resistor’s temperature
coefficient.

Solution:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 1 𝑅𝑡
𝛼= −1
𝑡 𝑅0

1 𝑅𝑡 1 44 Ω
𝛼= −1 = − 1 = 10−3 /°𝐶 = 0.001 /°𝐶
𝑡 𝑅0 100 °𝐶 40 Ω

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.002 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 2.2 𝑘Ω at
0 °𝐶, determine its resistance at 60 °𝐶.

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.002 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 2.2 𝑘Ω at
0 °𝐶, determine its resistance at 60 °𝐶.

Solution:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡

1 𝑘 = 103 

𝑅𝑡 = 2200  × 1 + 0.002 /°𝐶 × 60 °𝐶 = 2464 

𝑅𝑡 = 2464  = 2.464 𝑘

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.0008 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 470 Ω as
20 °𝐶, what will its resistance be at 70 °𝐶?

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a temperature coefficient of 0.0008 /°𝐶. If the resistor has a resistance of 470 Ω as
20 °𝐶, what will its resistance be at 70 °𝐶?

Solution:
𝑅𝑡
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 𝑅0 =
1 + 𝛼𝑡

470 Ω
𝑅0 = ≅ 462.6 
1 + 0.0008 /°𝐶 × 20 °𝐶

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡

𝑅70 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 = 462.6  × 1 + 0.0008 /°𝐶 × 70 °𝐶 ≅ 488.5 

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Example: A resistor has a resistance of 18 Ω at 0 °𝐶 and 36 Ω at 125 °𝐶. Determine the temperature
coefficient of resistance.

Solution:

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Example: A resistor has a resistance of 18 Ω at 0 °𝐶 and 36 Ω at 125 °𝐶. Determine the temperature
coefficient of resistance.

Solution:
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 × 1 + 𝛼𝑡 1 𝑅𝑡
𝛼= −1
𝑡 𝑅0

1 𝑅𝑡 1 36 Ω
𝛼= −1 = − 1 = 8 × 10−3 /°𝐶 = 0.008 /°𝐶
𝑡 𝑅0 125 °𝐶 18 Ω

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 Thermistors
With conventional resistors, we would normally
require resistance to remain the same over a wide range of
temperatures (i.e. α should be zero).
On the other hand, there are applications in which we
could use the effect of varying resistance to detect a
temperature change. Components that allow us to do this
are known as thermistors. The resistance of a thermistor
changes markedly with temperature and these components
are widely used in temperature sensing and temperature
compensating applications. Two basic types of thermistors
are available: NTC and PTC.
Characteristics of (a) NTC and (b) PTC thermistors
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 Typical NTC thermistors have resistances that vary from a
few hundred (or thousand) ohms at 25 °𝐶 to a few tens (or
hundreds) of ohms at 100 °𝐶. PTC thermistors, on the other hand,
usually have a resistance-temperature characteristic which remains
substantially flat (typically at around 100 Ω) over the range 0 °𝐶 to
around 75 °𝐶. Above this, and at a critical temperature (usually in
the range 80 °𝐶 to 120 °𝐶) their resistance rises very rapidly to
values of up to, and beyond, 10 𝑘Ω.

Characteristics of (a) NTC and (b) PTC thermistors

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 A typical application of PTC thermistors is over-current
protection. Provided the current passing through the thermistor
remains below the threshold current, the effects of self-heating will
remain negligible and the resistance of the thermistor will remain
low (i.e. approximately the same as the resistance quoted at 25 °𝐶).
Under fault conditions, the current exceeds the threshold value by
a considerable margin and the thermistor starts to self-heat. The
resistance then increases rapidly and, as a consequence, the current
falls to the rest value. Typical values of threshold and rest currents
are 200 𝑚𝐴 and 8 𝑚𝐴, respectively, for a device which exhibits a
nominal resistance of 25 Ω at 25 °𝐶.

Characteristics of (a) NTC and (b) PTC thermistors

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 Light Dependent Resistors
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use a
semiconductor material (i.e. a material that is neither a
conductor nor an insulator) whose electrical characteristics
vary according to the amount of incident light. The two
semiconductor materials used for the manufacture of LDRs
are cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium selenide
(CdSe). These materials are most sensitive to light in the
visible spectrum, peaking at about 0.6 𝜇𝑚 for CdS and
0.75 𝜇𝑚 for CdSe. A typical CdS LDR exhibits a
Characteristic of a light-dependent resistor (LDR)
resistance of around 1 𝑀Ω in complete darkness and less
than 1 𝑘Ω when placed under a bright light source.

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 Voltage-Dependent Resistors
The resistance of a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR)
falls very rapidly when the voltage across it exceeds a
nominal value in either direction. In normal operation, the
current flowing in a VDR is negligible; however, when the
resistance falls, the current will become appreciable and a
significant amount of energy will be absorbed. VDRs are
used as a means of ‘clamping’ the voltage in a circuit to a
predetermined level. When connected across the supply
rails to a circuit (either A.C. or D.C.) they are able to offer
Characteristic of a voltage-dependent resistor (VDR)
a measure of protection against voltage surges.

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 Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are available in several forms
including those which use carbon tracks and those which
use a wirewound resistance element. In either case, a
moving slider makes contact with the resistance element.
Most variable resistors have three (rather than two)
terminals and as such are more correctly known as
potentiometers. Carbon potentiometers are available with
linear or semi-logarithmic law tracks (in the figure) and in
rotary or slider formats.
Characteristics for linear and semilogarithmic
law variable resistors

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 Ganged controls, in which several potentiometers
are linked together by a common control shaft, are also
available. The first figure shows a selection of variable
resistors.
You can also encounter various forms of preset A selection of common types of carbon and wirewound variable

resistors that are used to make occasional adjustments resistors/potentiometers

(e.g. for calibration). Various forms of preset resistor are

commonly used including open carbon track skeleton
presets and fully encapsulated carbon and multi-turn
cermet types, as shown in the second figure.
A selection of common types of standard and miniature preset
resistors/potentiometers

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 83

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 84
 Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
8th Block, Floor: 2
Office: 2521

[email protected]

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 85