Subject Name: Computer Networking Unit No: 02 Subject Code: 4340703

UNIT 2 The Reference Model for Network Communication

What is OSI Model?

➢ The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the process of
transmitting data between computers.
➢ It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialized network functions, allowing for
a more systematic approach to networking.

If we go from bottom to top the 7 layers of this model are as given below

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

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1. Physical Layer

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
• It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them
to the Data Link layer

❖ Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network
i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices.
The various transmission modes possible are simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

2. Data link layer

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the
wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

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Functions of the Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of
bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses)
of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer
of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

3. Network Layer
• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

4. Transport Layer
• The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It
also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.

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Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet
or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission,
the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.

5. Session Layer
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and
also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted
here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

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• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted
data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred
over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

❖ TCP/IP model
o he TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data
link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are
represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level protocols.

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❖ Functions of TCP/IP layers:

❖ Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same
network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by
the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

❖ Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

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o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive
at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

o IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part
o of the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork
routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer
protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data
into message known as IP datagram .
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer
protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than
the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over
the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver
side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is
known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various
devices such as routers.

❖ ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts
the ARP request to the network.

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o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the
request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the
form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to
the datagram header

❖ ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems back
to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route
the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network
congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or
not.
o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP
datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed to.

❖ Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent
over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.

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User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user
datagram has been damaged.

UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has created the
message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application program that
receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data
segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the transmission.

TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all
the segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and a
virtual circuit is discarded.

At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each segment
contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.

At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers.

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❖ Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards
its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the
application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor
cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over
the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a
Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are
rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing
the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail
is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e -mail
address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host
to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the
system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local
computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the
remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting
the files from one computer to another computer.

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❖ Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Full Form OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery Delivery of the package is guaranteed Delivery of the package is not

in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement Replacement of tools and changes can Replacing the tools is not easy as it is
easily be done in this model. in OSI Model.

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model. It is more reliable than OSI Model.

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Differences between TCP and UDP

The main differences between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are:

Transmission Control
Basis Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

TCP is a connection-oriented UDP is the Datagram-oriented

protocol. Connection protocol. This is because
orientation means that the there is no overhead for opening a
communicating devices should connection, maintaining a
Type of Service
establish a connection before connection, or terminating a
transmitting data and should connection. UDP is efficient for
close the connection after broadcast and multicast types of
transmitting the data. network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees The delivery of data to the

Reliability the delivery of data to the destination cannot be guaranteed
destination router. in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error-

checking mechanisms. UDP has only the basic error-
Error checking mechanism
It is because it provides flow checking mechanism using
control and acknowledgment of checksums.
data.

An acknowledgment segment is
Acknowledgment No acknowledgment segment.
present.

Sequencing of data is a feature There is no sequencing of data in

of Transmission Control UDP. If the order is required, it
Sequence
has to be managed by the
Protocol (TCP). this means that
application layer.
packets arrive in order at the

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Transmission Control
Basis Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

receiver.

TCP is comparatively slower UDP is faster, simpler, and more

Speed
than UDP. efficient than TCP.

Retransmission of lost packets There is no retransmission of lost

Retransmission is possible in TCP, but not in packets in the User Datagram
UDP. Protocol (UDP).

TCP has a (20-60) bytes UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-length

Header Length
variable length header. header.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

Uses handshakes such as SYN, It’s a connectionless protocol i.e.

Handshaking Techniques
ACK, SYN-ACK No handshake

TCP doesn’t support

Broadcasting UDP supports Broadcasting.
Broadcasting.

TCP is used by HTTP, UDP is used by DNS, DHCP,

Protocols
HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet. TFTP, SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.

The TCP connection is a byte UDP connection is a message

Stream Type
stream. stream.

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Transmission Control
Basis Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.

This protocol is primarily

This protocol is used in situations
utilized in situations when a
where quick communication is
safe and trustworthy
necessary but where dependability
Applications communication procedure is
is not a concern, such as VoIP,
necessary, such as in email, on
game streaming, video, and music
the web surfing, and in military
streaming, etc.
services.

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