INTRODUCTION

• Synchronous machines is an ac rotating machine whose speed under

steady state condition is proportional to the frequency of the current in its
armature.
• It converts the mechanical energy to electrical energy and feeds it into the
power network or in the case of a motor, it draws electrical power from
the network and converts it into the mechanical form.
• The machine excitation which is controllable determines the flow of VARs
into or out of the machine.
• In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding
producing a rotor magnetic field.
– The field winding on the rotor is energized from a controllable DC
excitation source.
• The rotor is driven by external means producing a rotating magnetic field,
which induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator winding.
– Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field
(rotor windings for synchronous machines);
– armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is
induced (stator windings for synchronous machines).
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
 Synchronous Generator
• All generators in any power system are synchronous type (Induction
Generators are used for wind power).
- Two types of synchronous generators
 Cylindrical rotor type: Small diameter, long rotor, small no. of poles, high
speed.
- used in thermal power stations.

 Salient pole machine: projected poles, unequal air gap, large diameter,
short rotor, low speed.
- used in Hydro electric power plants

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Rotor of a salient pole alternator
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Rotor of a Non salient pole alternator
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Cylindrical rotor Synchronous generator

Salient pole rotor Synchronous generator

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Generator
• The cylindrical rotor alternator , as shown, has a two pole structure.
• The rotor is excited from a controllable DC excitation source.
• The rotor contains p “belts” of slots (p=2 for the fig.) in which are placed the
field-winding conductors.
• The rotor field conductors belonging to the same belt carry currents in the
same direction, while the current direction alternating in the p belts.
• The resulting rotor mmf will thus alternate around the periphery , in effect
forming p magnetic rotor poles.
– For the two pole case the resulting magnetic flux paths are shown
dashed.
– The magnetic axis of the rotor field winding is referred to as the direct
or d-axis and perpendicular to the d-axis is found the quadrature or q-
axis.
• the rotor winding is so arranged on rotor periphery that the field excitation
produces nearly sinusoidal distributed flux/ pole  f in the air gap.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Generator
• The stator has a balanced three phase winding - aa’, bb’ and cc’.
• The winding shown is a concentrated one while the winding in an actual
machine is distributed across the stator periphery (refer to fig.)
• The stator winding or armature is placed in equidistant slots which are
located around the total inner stator surface. ( only the slots belonging to
phase a are shown here).
• The armature is divided into three identical phase windings which are
placed in 3p phase belts, each of which spans 120/p degrees of the stator
surface.
– In the two pole machine thus there will be a total of six belts , each
spanning 60°.
• The three identical phase windings are interconnected to form a “ generator
neutral” which is normally grounded.
• As the rotor rotates, three phase emfs are produced in stator winding.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Angle in Electrical and Mechanical Units
• Consider a synchronous machine with two magnetic poles.
• The idealized radial distribution of the air gap flux density is sinusoidal
along the air gap.
• When the rotor rotates for one revolution, the induced emf, which is also
sinusoidal, varies for one cycle as illustrated by the waveforms in the
diagram in the next slide.
• If we measure the rotor position by physical or mechanical degrees or
radians and the phase angles of the flux density and emf by electrical
degrees or radians, in this case, it is ready to see that the angle
measured in mechanical degrees or radians is equal to that measured in
electrical degrees or radians, i.e.
  m
• Where  is the angle in electrical degrees or radians and  m the
mechanical angle.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
 we
As the rotor rotates for one consider a
revolution (m  2 ) , the four pole
induced emf varies for two machine.
cycles (  4 ) and hence,
  2m
For a general case, if a machine
has P poles, the relationship
between the electrical and
mechanical units of an angle can
be readily deduced as
p
  m
2
Taking derivatives on the both
side of the above equation, we
obtain
p
  m
2 Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
• Where  is the angular frequency of emf in electrical radians per second
and  the angular speed of the rotor in mechanical radians per second.
m
• When converted into cycles per second or Hz and revolutions per minute
respectively, we have

• frequency of the induced emf is proportional to the rotor speed.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Generator
• Since the machine is a balanced one and balanced loading will be considered,
it can be modeled on per phase basis for the reference phase a.
• On no load the voltage E f induced in the reference phase a lags 90° behind  f
which produces it and is proportional to it if the magnetic circuit is assumed
to be unsaturated.
• As balanced steady load is drawn from the f
stator winding, the stator currents produce
synchronously rotating flux per pole  a / p o le
( in the direction of rotation of rotor).
this flux , called the armature reaction flux, is therefore stationary Ef
with respect to the field flux  f .
 a is in phase with phase a current Ia which causes it.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Generator
• Since the magnetic circuit is assumed unsaturated, the resultant air gap flux is
given by the phasor sum
r   f  a

• Further assuming armature leakage reactance and resistance are negligible,  r

induces armature emf which equal the terminal voltage V t .

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
A turbo-generator feeds 0.25 p.u. power to infinite bus at 1 p.u.
voltage. The excitation voltage is 1.5 p.u. and synchronous
reactance is 1 p.u. Calculate the load angle and reactive power
output of the generator. Calculate the changes in active &
reactive Power if
(a) The turbine valve opening is increased corresponding to 100
% increase in turbine torque keeping the excitation constant.
(b) The turbine valve opening is kept constant at the initial value
and the excitation is increased by 20%.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
 Operations of Synchronous Generators
• Synchronous operations of generators represent a stable system state.
– Synchronization can take place if the following conditions are satisfied.
 Generator and network frequencies are equal.
 The phase sequence of generator matches that of the network.
 The generator emf E and network voltage V are of equal magnitude.
 E and V have equal phase.
• Once a generator has been synchronized onto a network,
electromechanical forces build up in the machine that tend to keep it
running at the same speed as the rest of the network.
• Once the speed of the generator is locked to the rest of the system, we
may control its real power generation by controlling the torque from its
prime mover.
• By opening the steam valve and thus increasing the steam pressure on the
turbine blades, we apply greater torque to the generator thereby tending
to accelerate the generator.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Operations of Synchronous Generators
• However, its speed is tied to the rest of the system, and what happens is
that its rotor advances its running angle a few degrees.
• This results in an increase in delivered current and power, and at the same
time the current builds up a decelerating torque within the machine that
exactly counteracts the accelerating torque.
• Within each generator we thus have a delicate and automatic torque
balancing mechanism. If all generators have a perfect torque balance,
their speed, and thus the frequency remains constant.
• Unfortunately, the fluctuations in the system load are random in nature
and it is indeed impossible to accomplish a perfect instant by instant
match between generation and demand.
• There will always be a small surplus or deficiency in the generation, and
this ever-present mismatch will cause frequency fluctuations.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

 Operations of Synchronous Generators
• Let us consider what would happen if we were running at 50 Hz perfectly
power matched and suddenly experience a sudden load drop.
1. The prime mover valve settings will remain unchanged, meaning the drive
torques are unchanged.
2. The decrease in load results in a current decrease which will be distributed
among all generators resulting in a slight decrease in electromechanical
torques in each machine.
3. Every generator would thus experience a small surplus accelerating torque,
with an ensuing speed (and frequency) increase.
4. The rate at which the speed (and frequency) increased depends upon the
total moment of inertia of the running equipments.
5. All tens of thousand of motors which during these moments were being
supplied by the network would likewise experience increase in frequency.
6. Their speeds would go up, and they would all meet higher load torques, thus
requiring the motors to pull power from the network.
7. The resulting load increase would soon balance out the load decrease that
started this chain of events, and the frequency would level off to a new
value.
However in real life the prime mover power settings would not remain fixed in
face of shifting frequency.Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
 Load Frequency Control / Automatic Generation
Control

• The need for constant frequency has been explained earlier.

• The maximum permissible change in power frequency in in India is ± 2.5
Hz. If it exceeds this value then AGC will come into play.
• The excitation of generators must be continuously regulated to match the
reactive demand with reactive generation, otherwise the voltages at
various system buses may go beyond the prescribed limits.

Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.

Load Frequency Control / Automatic Generation
Control

Schematic of LoadAyan
Frequency and Excitation
Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U. Voltage regulator.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.
Ayan Kr. Tudu, E.E. Department, J.U.