Unit 6: Nanotechnology
6.2.1 Introduction to nanoparticles and nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about
1 to 100 nanometers. It is about the study and manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular
scale.
6.2.2 Quantum confinement, surface to volume ratio and properties
Quantum confinement: A bulk material or solid has three dimensions. If only one length of three-
dimensional nanostructure is in nanoscale (1-100 nm), the structure is known as a quantum well.
Instead if two sides are of nanoscale (1-100 nm), the resulting structure is known as quantum wire.
A nanoparticle is often referred to as a quantum dot as its all three dimensions are in the nanoscale
(1-100 nm).
Surface to volume ratio: As the size of materials approaches nanoscale, the percentage of atoms
at the surface of a material becomes significant. Nanoparticles have a very high surface area to
volume ratio.
Significance of nanoscale and change in properties of nanoparticles:
Many properties of solids such as optical, electrical, mechanical, etc depend on its size. As compared
to its bulk form, properties of materials change when at least one of the dimensions of material is
reduced to naosclale (1-100 nm), mainly due to following reasons:
(i) Upon reaching quantum confinement at nanoscale energy levels of nanoparticles become
discrete (as shown in the figure). This increases or widens up the band gap and the band gap
energy. This results into change in the properties of material at nanoscale.
(ii) Nanoparticles have a relatively larger surface area when compared to its bulk form. This makes
the nanoparticles more chemically reactive compared to bulk form and it thus modifies its
properties.
(iii) Physical properties of materials such as electrical are characterized by the mean free path
(path of the electron collision due to atoms or ions). This mean free path changes at
nanoscale.
(iv) Bulk properties of materials such as hardness changes at nanoscale. Nanoparticles are much
harder and tougher as compared to their bulk form.
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6.2.3 Optical properties of Nanoparticles
(a) Optical properties of metallic nanoparticles
The color of nanoparticles is different from bulk material. One of the daily life examples is of glass.
Glasses are transparent, but when doped with different nanoparticles, adopt different colors like
red, pink, blue, green, etc depending upon the dissolved nanoparticles.
Metal Color for bulk Color at nano-level
Gold Yellow Bright red
Silver Colorless Pale yellow
G. Mie Theory for change in optical properties
- G. Mie explained the phenomenon using Maxwell’s equation in 1908. When electromagnetic
radiation incidents on spherical particles of uniform size a part of the radiation is absorbed and
a part is scattered. Thus the intensity of transmitted light changes.
- If incident light has wavelength , intensity I0,
length of medium x, then The intensity of
transmitted radiation is given by:
𝐼 = 𝐼0𝑒−𝜇𝑥
Where,𝑁
𝜇 = 𝐶 is extinction coefficient
𝑉 𝑒𝑥𝑡
N is number of particles in medium,
V- Volume of colloidal particles
Cext – extinction cross section of a particle
- At nanoscale, as size of the nanoparticles change, there is change in the length of medium
and thus the values of µ and x changes.
- This changes the intensity of transmitted light and it depends on the wavelength of incident
light.
- This changes the color of nanoparticles at different nanoscale region.
- Mie theory successfully explained absorption of light of visible wavelength for nano-
particles, but for particle size less than ~10 nm, there is need to consider dielectric constant
which depends also on particle size.
Drude theory for optical properties [Additional Information]
- Free electrons can be considered as plasma.
- When electromagnetic radiation interacts with metals, it is responsible for oscillation of
electrons coherently. These oscillations are quantized and known as plasmons.
- A resonance occurs if frequency of incident radiation is same as that of plasmon frequency.
At nanoscale electrons oscillates coherently with a resonant frequency resulting in to
variation of color at nano-scale.
Optical properties of semiconductor nanoparticles [Additional Information]
- Every material has a characteristic size only below which size dependent properties are
realized. In semiconductors this size is the size of the exciton.
- In semiconductor nanoparticles, as the particles become smaller and smaller, the energy gap
increases and absorption peak shifts towards higher energy/frequency values.
- This leads to shift in the absorption spectrum and change in color of particles.
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6.2.3 Electrical properties of Nanoparticles
Electrical properties are characterized by the mean free path of electron (path of the electron
collision due to atoms or ions). The mean free path changes at nanoscale due to collision and
tunneling within the conductor.
I-V Characteristics of bulk conductor: When voltage V is applied across the conductor, current I
flowing through it is governed by Ohm's Law and has a linear variation.
I-V Characteristics at nanoscale: If dimensions of conductor are in nanoscale (1-100 nm), there
appears a region around zero voltage for which there is no current. A single electron is transferred
by tunneling when the voltage is e/2C. Therefore, when the voltage is less than this electron
cannot be transferred. This gives a region of zero current at low bias voltage and is known as
'Coulomb blockade region'. The electrons are transferred when the voltage is e/2C. The repeated
tunneling of single electron produces 'Coulomb staircase'.
Electrical resistivity: The materials of nano-sized grains have larger number of grain boundaries than
corresponding polycrystalline materials. Electrical resistivity of materials having nano-sized grain is
larger than the polycrystalline materials due to scattering of electrons at grain boundaries.
6.2.5 Mechanical properties of Nanoparticles
Mechanical properties of materials depend upon the composition
of material, bonds between the atoms and presence of impurity.
When the size of materials is reduced to nano-scale (1-100 nm),
materials tend to be single crystal. The measurements of
elasticity, hardness, ductility show different behavior as
compared to the bulk material. For example, in the case of metallic nanocrystalline materials, elastic
modulii reduce dramatically.
Material Form Grain Young’s modulus
size
Mg Nanocrystal ~12 nm Y = 3900 N/mm2
Polycrystalline > 1m Y = 4100 N/mm2
Plastic deformation in nanocrystalline materials
strongly differ from that of polycrystalline bulk material i.e. if stress is removed the recovery to
original shape/size is recovered more effectively.
Hardness of materials is also related to the grain size. In the nanometer size range, the hardness
increases with decrease of particle size. (Shown in figure for copper)
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6.2.4.1 Applications in medicine (targeted drug delivery)
- The traditional drug delivery system, the drug is distributed to the affected tissues or organs
of the patient’s body as well as to the healthy tissues or organs. This leads to the side
effects.
- In the targeted drug delivery system, the drug is dissolved, entrapped, encapsulated or
attached to a nano particle. The system is then embedded in a capsule which is guided
towards the affected part of the body.
- The capsule is opening at the specific tissues or organs controlled by externally applied
magnetic field or infrared light or physiologically. Then drug can be delivered in controlled
manner.
Drug is dissolved, Nanoparticles and
The system is injected
entrapped, durgs are actived at the
in the body and guided
encapsulated or location of tissues or
towards targeted
attached to a nano organ and drugs are
tissues or organs body
particle delivered
Carriers for targeting drug
Depending on the treatment required and nature of the drug, following are few examples of carriers
are used for targeted drug delivery:
Sr. Carriers of drug Applications
1 Poly (alkyl cyanoacrylate) nanoparticles with anti cancer agents Cancer therapy
2 Poly (methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles with vaccines Vaccine delivery
3 Poly(alkyl cyanoacrylate) polyester nanoparticles with anti parasitic Intracellular targeting
4 DNA- gelatin nanoparticles DNA delivery
6.2.4.2 Applications of nanotechnology in Electronics
In the spin-electronic devices, the spin property of electrons (instead of charge) is taken into
consideration. Advantage with spin is that it cannot be easily destroyed by scattering from collisions
with other charges, impurities or defects. The electronic devices with typical dimensions of few
nanometers in either of three directions display unique properties. Such devices are fast, compact,
and relatively cheap. Such devices are typically known as spin-electronic (spin-electronic) devices.
Few applications are listed as below:
1. Single electron transistor (SET)
The single electron transistor is a switching device in which a quantum dot is placed between
the source and the drain. It uses controlled electron tunneling to amplify current. They offer
low power consumption and high operating speed.
2. Spin valves
Spin values are commercially used in computer read heads. Their use has enabled to
increase the data storage capacity of magnetic memory devices due to their ability to detect
small magnetic fields.
3. Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR)
GMR effect is the change in magnetic field of certain materials after application of magnetic
field. This is very effective in observing small changes in the magnetic field and useful as a
read device of the magnetically stored data. The data storing and reading in computer hard
disks is the direct application of GMR.
4. Spin polarized Field Effect Transistor (S-FET)
In S-FETPolarized beam of light was used to obtain spin polarized electrons from the source.
It is expected that this will help in faster and efficient data processing.
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5. Nanophotonics
In nanophotonics, nanostructures (quantum dots, nanowires or 2-D thin films) or
nanocomposites are used to produce light or detect light. They can be used for light
production, propagation, manipulation like amplification, filter, detection etc.
6. Display technologies for TV and monitor
The flat panel television or computer monitors are products of nanotechnology. Even the
coatings used on screens of TV or monitors can be of nanoparticles, which have better
properties in terms of color quality and resolution than micro particle coatings.
6.2.4.3 Applications of nanotechnology in Space and defense
Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in space defense. Nanomaterials in various forms
are used for reduction of weights of space vehicles, improving efficiency of solar cell, insulation of
space vehicle, ignitior and propellents, etc. A few of them are listed below:
1. Aerogels
Aerogels are designed using nanomaterials and have very low density typically 0.01–0.8
g/cm3. They are very light weight and poor conductor of heat and have potential
applications in designing spacecrafts, defense equipment, suits, jackets to reduce the
weight.
2. High efficiency light weight solar cells
Satellites or spacecrafts are mainly powered by solar energy. Currently solar cells have
reached an efficiency of 30 - 40 %. Using luminescent dye sensitized nanoparticle based or
nanoparticle-based solar cell arrays have potential to reduce the weight of solar cells as well
as increase in efficiency.
3. Insulation for space vehicles
Space vehicles should withstand harsh and extreme environments during launching and in
space. Materials should also sustain high or low temperature and high or low pressure. Use
of silica fibers and nanoparticles provide insulation in solid rocket motors and also they are
better radiation protectors.
4. Better ignitors and propellants
Nanocrystalline materials such as alumina particles are better propellants than conventional
one. A nanocomposite of Fe2O3 and aluminium burns much faster and is more sensitive than
conventional thermites.
5. Fatigue resistant materials
Fatigue strength in aircraft usually decreases with time. Some nanomaterials have better
fatigue strength and life is increased by 200–300 %.
6. Detection of biological weapons
Biological weapons may use dangerous microbes or viruses as weapons. Some nanoparticle
oxides like CaO, Al2O3 and MgO interact with such chemicals much faster than microparticles
and are ideally suited for fast decomposition of warfare chemicals
6.2.4.4 Applications of nanotechnology in Automobiles
Nanotechnology has a wide range of applications in automobiles. Nanomaterials in various forms are
used for designing sturdy structural parts, smooth and non-scratch paints, self-cleaning windows,
better tires, reduction of harmful emission, etc. A few of them are listed below:
1. Sturdy structural parts
Various body parts of vehicles are made up of steel, some alloys, rubbers, plastics etc.
Nanotube composites have mechanical strength better than steel.
2. Smooth and non-scratch Paints
Cars are spray painted with fine particles. Nanoparticle paints provide smooth, non-scratch
thin attractive coating.
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3. Self cleaning glass for windows
Self cleaning glass can be made by dissolving small amount of titania (TiO2) nanoparticles
while manufacturing glass. Titania is able to dissociate organic dust in presence of UV light
available in the sunlight. Drops of waters on glass give hazy look, but TiO2-containing glass
can spread water evenly giving clear sight.
4. Small motor parts
Small motors are needed in vehicle (such as wipers, window glass movements, etc). Very
powerful electric motors are made using shape memory alloys using nanoparticles of
materials like Ni–Ti. They require less power and gives better performance.
5. Better tires
Tires of vehicles undergo wear and tear with use and also increase its weight. By using
nanoparticle clay, better, light weight, less rubber consuming thinner tires are possible that
can reduce the overall weight, increase in fuel consumption and speed.
6. Controlling harmful emission
Use of efficient nanomaterial catalysts is one solution to convert harmful emission into less
harmful gases. Large surface area of nanoparticles is useful to produce better catalysts. They
are capable of absorbing emission of particles and poisonous gases like CO and NO from
vehicle exhausts.
7. Hydrogen fuel
Instead of using conventional petro fuels, there are numerous advantages of using hydrogen
as a fuel. When hydrogen fuel is burned it can only produce harmless water vapor. Hydrogen
gas is normally stored in a metal cylinder under high pressure. Nanocylinders of carbon
nanotubes have potential to store hydrogen in very small space.
Questions on Nanotechnology
6 Marks
1. What is nanotechnology? Explain quantum confinement and surface to volume ratio in case
of nanoparticles. How this affects the properties of nanoparticles?
2. Explain electrical and mechanical properties of nanoparticles. [Dec 19, 6m]
3. What is nanotechnology? Explain any two properties of nanoparticles.
4. What are applications of nanotechnology? Explain any two applications of nanoparticles.
3/4 Marks
1. What is nanotechnology? Explain applications of nanotechnology in electronics field.
[Dec 19, 4m]
What is quantum confinement? How does it affects the properties of nanoparticles?
[Dec 19, 3m]
2. Explain optical properties of nanoparticles.
3. Explain electrical properties of nanoparticles.
4. Explain mechanical properties of nanoparticles.
5. What are applications of nanotechnology? Explain any one application of nanoparticles.
Explain how nanotechnology is employed in targeted drug delivery. [Dec 19, 4m]
6. Explain applications of nanoparticles in automobiles.
7. Explain applications of nanoparticles in the field of space and defense.
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