Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

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Materials Today Communications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mtcomm

A review on device architecture engineering on various 2-D materials

toward high-performance photodetectors
Anibrata Mondal , P.V. Karthik Yadav , Y. Ashok Kumar Reddy *
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Kancheepuram, Off Vandalur-Kelambakkam Road, Chennai 600127,
India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The recent decade of sensor technology has witnessed tremendous achievement in the development of photo­
Photodetector detectors. To fabricate the photodetectors, two-dimensional (2-D) materials of graphene derivatives, black
2-D material phosphorous, and transition metal dichalcogenides have attracted enormous attention as photoactive materials
Device architecture
due to their high mobility, atomic scale thickness, and high surface-area to volume ratio. Despite of several
Figures of merit
Photo current
reviews on 2-D material-based photodetectors, the comparative study through the various architectures of the
photodetectors is not reviewed. Since the performance and application of the photodetector are highly dependent
on the device architecture. In this study, various architectures including avalanche, p-n junction, Schottky, and
metal-semiconductor-metal photodetectors based on above-mentioned materials are discussed. Herein, we focus
particularly on the root of the photocurrent generation, which significantly enhances the performance of various
photodetectors. Furthermore, the performances of the photodetector in terms of responsivity, detectivity, and
response time are reviewed through the correlation of various materials. Finally, the overall comparison of the
discussed photodetectors with various structures is studied concerning their figures of merit. Among the reported
photodetectors, WSe2-graphene-MoS2 heterostructure is achieved the highest responsivity of 104 A/W under low
bias voltage (~1 V) and it can be suitable for self-powered photodetectors. Moreover, the MoS2-based metal-
semiconductor-metal photodetector shows a rapid response time of 60 ns and it is most appropriate for fast
electronic devices. In addition, this review reveals the challenges and future aspects of the advancement and
enhancement in the application of photodetectors for ultrafast optoelectronic devices.

1. Introduction sensors, artificial vision, pollution monitoring, and communication. In

general, the photodetectors are type of sensors which convert the optical
In the era of modern and ultrafast technology, a tremendous devel­ signals (incident light) into the electrical signals (current or voltage).
opment in thin film and nanostructured based sensors has been When an incident light having equal or higher energy as compared with
observed. Such sensor technologies include, piezoelectric, thermoelec­ the bandgap of the photoactive material, it generates charge carriers
tric, optoelectronic, magnetic, and ultrasonic effects based upon their (holes and electrons), which contribute to the photocurrent as an output
area of applications [1–5]. Among the above mentioned sensor tech­ signal [10]. Based on the spectral selectivity, photodetectors are clas­
nologies, the optoelectronic sensor that involves light-matter interaction sified into three types such as ultra-violet (UV) photodetectors, visible
has drawn substantial attention due to the fact that most of the devices (Vis) photodetectors, and infrared (IR) photodetectors [11]. Primarily,
are used in our day-to-day life. Such various optoelectronic devices are the superiority of the photodetectors can be assessed based upon some
photodiodes, photodetectors, laser diodes, photoemissive detectors, figures of merit which include detectivity, responsivity, external quan­
electro-absorption modulators, charge-coupled devices, and photoelec­ tum efficiency, and noise equivalent power.
tric sensors [6–9]. Among them, the photodetectors have found wide Basically, a photodetector consists of a photoactive material to
range of applications from high temperature electronics to defence absorb and generate photocurrent and electrodes to collect the gener­
technology as shown in Fig. 1. Some of the applications of the photo­ ated current. Much research is going on based on the selection of ma­
detectors include flame detection, bio-image, optical switches, image terials for developing ultrafast and stable photodetectors [12–14].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Ashok Kumar Reddy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.105094
Received 16 August 2022; Received in revised form 4 November 2022; Accepted 1 December 2022
Available online 5 December 2022
2352-4928/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

Among the various photodetector materials, the group of versatility, high purity, high density, continuity, and stability of the
two-dimensional (2-D) materials and its derivatives are most promi­ prepared films, bottom-up based approach became a reliable process to
nently used. Among them, 2-D materials of graphene derivatives, black synthesize the photoactive materials. In this approach, the trans­
phosphorus (BP), and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have formation of nanoparticles to bulk material can be processed. From the
drawn significant attentions for photodetectors due to their exclusive reports, the photodetector devices fabricated using bottom-up approach
properties of high mobility, tunable bandgap, quick response, and wide techniques have shown the high responsivity and detectivity [27–31].
range of spectral absorption [15]. Due to high carrier mobility at room As a branch of bottom-up approach especially in CVD, where a chemical
temperature, high optical absorptivity, and high thermal conductivity, reaction takes place between the source gases, produce the high purity
graphene is found to be suitable for photodetector applications. In of thin films. Xu et al. [32] fabricated MoS2/GaAs heterostructure
addition, with the direct bandgap of 0.3 eV and hole mobility of through CVD technique and reported the high detectivity of 1.9 × 1014
1000 cm2 V− 1 s− 1 [16], BP has also emerged a significant attention to Jones under 635 nm of light. Singh et al. [33] developed a UV photo­
fabricate the photodetector. detector based on WS2 quantum dots with graphene through CVD
TMDs from the branches of 2-D materials came in focus for photo­ technique with the higher detectivity of 7.47 × 1012 Jones. Apart from
active materials due to their interesting and unique electrical, me­ the top-down and bottom-up approaches, another important process to
chanical, and optical properties [17,18]. Further, the use of TMDs in develop the photodetector is the exfoliation method. With the suitability
photodetector devices enhances the mobility, which significantly in­ for the large-scale production, exfoliation method offers a high crystal
creases the movement of the charge carriers in the photodetector devices quality of the 2-D materials in the fabrication of the photodetectors. Li
under sufficient electric field. Furthermore, TMDs consist of some et al. [34] developed InSe nanosheets based photodetector by liquid
unique physical characteristics such as direct bandgap, atomic scale exfoliation method and obtained a responsivity of 3.3 μA/W. Moreover,
thickness, and strong spin-orbit coupling, which make them a unique to fabricate the 2-D material based photodetector, wet transfer method
material for photodetector devices [19]. After the selection of materials, and dry transfer method are the well-grounded processes with their
another important parameter that influences the material stability, significant advantages such as good uniformity, repeatability, and
morphology, and continuity is the synthesis process. The high-quality of the prepared thin films [35]. In this view, Yu et al. [36]
above-mentioned materials were fabricated through the top-down such fabricated a flexible MoS2 based photodetector device by wet transfer
as sputtering, thermal evaporation, and pulsed laser deposition and the method, which depicted a responsivity of 20 mA/W. Through dry
bottom-up such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), spin coating, spray transfer method, Zhong et al. [37] fabricated graphe­
pyrolysis, and sol-gel approaches [20–24]. The development of ne/MoSe2/PdSe2/graphene heterojunction for self-powered photode­
nano-sized particles or structures from the bulk material is done through tector with a remarkable responsivity of 651 mA/W.
top-down based approach. Nowadays, top-down based approach is a Furthermore, the important factor that determines the photodetector
standard process to coat the photoactive materials due to its uniform performance and area of application is its architectures such as
coating throughout the large areas [25]. As an example, sputtering avalanche, p-n junction, Schottky, and metal-semiconductor-metal
technique, where the ejection of atom or molecule from the surface of (MSM). The avalanche photodetectors are very sensitive and identified
the target takes place due to the bombardment of high energetic ions, in the semiconductor analog circuit by converting the optical signal into
provides greater adhesion and homogeneity of the deposited films. Mao electrical signal. The avalanche photodetectors operate in high reverse
et al. [26] fabricated a photodetector based on graphene/MoSe2/Si bias mode [38]. When this reverse bias voltage became too high, the
heterojunction through sputtering technique and achieved the detec­ photogenerated charge carriers got accelerated due to the internal
tivity of 7.13 × 1010 Jones. In another hand, with the advantages of electric field. With high kinetic energy subjected to the impact

Fig. 1. Various applications of photodetectors with respect to device architectures.

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

ionization of the charged carriers, these accelerated charge carriers termed as transit time of the electrons, which is defined as [46],
collide with bound electrons and break the bonds. As a result, a large
l2
amount of charge carriers is accessible to enhance the photocurrent of ttransit = (1)
μVds
the photodetector [39]. Further, in a semiconductor crystal, the region
doped with acceptor impurity atoms known as p-region and the donor
where, l is the length of the semiconductor region, Vds is the voltage
impurity atoms doped region is known as n-region and the p-n junction
between source and drain, and µ is the mobility of the charge carriers.
is the metallurgical boundary between these p- and n-regions of the
This MSM structure provides less transition time of the charge carriers
semiconductor. Generally, holes and electrons get separated efficiently
with less recombinations.
due to the internal electric field and contribute to photocurrent. More
importantly, those are operating under lower or zero bias conditions and
1.1.2. Photogating effect
suitable for self-powered photodetector applications [40]. Whereas, in
Photogating effect is one of the special cases of photoconductive
the case of Schottky junction photodetectors, the junction is formed
effect. This effect can be observed in the semiconductor devices with
between the n-type semiconductor and the metal contact. In general, the
high defect density and performed as a trap for photogenerated charge
internal electric field is formed through the junction due to the work
carriers. Generally, under the illumination of the optical signal, the
function difference between the metal and the semiconductor [41]. In
electron-hole pairs generate, which again travel through the channel
MSM structure, it is worth to say that the semiconductor is arranged in
under suitable bias. Furthermore, the defects site of the defective ma­
between the electrodes. Moreover, depends upon the contact formed
terial traps one type of the majority charge carriers [47]. This trapped
between the semiconductor and the electrodes, the contact can be either
majority charge carrier acts as a local gate, which decreases the channel
ohmic or Schottky [42].
resistance and stimulates the photocurrent generation. Huang et al. [48]
In this review paper, we have focused on the performance variation
developed MoTe2 photodetector with enhanced performance, subjected
of mainly graphene, BP, and TMDs based photodetectors depending on
to the photogating effect. Under the illumination of 637 nm and
its structures which includes avalanche, p-n junction, Schottky, and
1060 nm of light, the detectivity of 3.1 × 109 cmHz1/2/W and 1.3 × 109
MSM. From avalanche-based photodetectors to MSM photodetectors,
cm Hz1/2/W, respectively were reported. Moreover, the photogating
the working principle varies depending on the process of electron-hole
effect is appropriate with low dimension materials and high surface-area
pair generation, separation and transportation, which in turn influ­
to volume ratio such as quantum dots, nanowires, and 2-D materials [49,
ence the performance of the photodetectors. Therefore, by categorizing
50].
the photodetectors subjected to their architecture are focused along with
the working principle, performance, and application of photodetectors
1.1.3. Photovoltaic effect
in the coming sections.
In addressing the working principal of a p-n junction, Schottky, and
avalanche photodetectors, the output current is generated due to the
1.1. Photodetectors mechanism photovoltaic effect. It originates at the depletion region formed between
the metal to semiconductor junction or semiconductor to semiconductor
The main purpose of the photodetectors is to convert the absorbed interface. In general, if an electromagnetic wave with energy higher
optical input signal to maximum possible output current. The output than the bandgap of the semiconductor falls on the semiconductor, it
current is generated depending upon the different types of mechanisms creates electron-hole pair. The photogenerated electron-hole pair gets
such as photoconductive effect, photogating effect, photovoltaic effect, alienated by the built-in electric field initiated in the depletion region.
and photo-thermoelectric effect. Basically, the structures of the photo­ Under this built-in electric field, the electrons and holes get separated
detectors determine the mechanism of electron-hole pair generation and effectively without recombining with each other. Further, the photo­
their transportation. In addition, the photoconductive, photogating, and excited charge carriers drift to the respective electrodes and generate
photovoltaic effects are dependent on the excitation of free charge photocurrent under the illumination of the suitable wavelength. Won
carriers due to the illumination of light. Whereas, the photo- et al. [51] studied the photovoltaic effect in graphene/hexagonal boron
thermoelectric effect is governed by the temperature difference across nitride/silicone heterostructure photodetector. Along with the detec­
the semiconductor channel. These mechanisms have been discussed in tivity of 2.83 × 1010 Jones, the Ion/Ioff ratio of 107 was also reported,
detail in the following sections. which indicate the development of this photodetector device towards
self-powered photodetector.
1.1.1. Photoconductive effect
Photoconductive effect is a key phenomenon to address the working 1.1.4. Photo-thermoelectric effect
mechanism of the photodetectors. It is superior wherever the metal Photo-thermoelectric effect is originated due to the temperature
contacts exist at the two edges of a semiconductor, which leads to the difference throughout the semiconductor channel. When the irradiated
formation of ohmic contact between the semiconductor and the metal area of the light is much less than that of the testing photodetector, the
junction [43]. Moreover, by the illumination of the light onto the temperature difference in the channel appears and it’s known as tem­
photodetector devices, the generation and separation of the photo­ perature gradient (∇T). Due to this temperature difference in the
generated charge carriers are happened. As a result, these photo­ semiconductor channel, the excited charge carriers in the semiconductor
generated charge carriers move through the semiconductor channel to diffuse from higher temperature zone to lower zone, results in creating
the respective electrodes. Due to the less effective mass of the electrons the voltage difference (∇V) in the channel [52]. This phenomenon is
than holes, the mobility of electrons is comparatively higher. Thus, known as Seebeck effect, which is expressed as the ratio of voltage dif­
electrons move faster through the material with a high drift velocity ference to the temperature difference in the semiconductor channel, i.e.,
than holes. This phenomenon is mostly suitable for MSM photodetectors ∇V– – S.∇T [53]. Gosciniak et al. [54] developed a graphene photode­
with n-type semiconductor as a photoactive material. In these types of tector based on photo-thermoelectric effect. The responsivity of
photodetectors, the semiconductor is sandwiched between the two 200 A/W was achieved at 1550 nm of light illumination, indicates
metal contacts, which results in reducing the response time of the overall a good performance of the photodetector under
photocurrent [44]. Mallampati et al. [45] studied a ZnO nanowire-based photo-thermoelectric effect.
photodetector device figures of merit through the photoconductive ef­
fect. A significant achievement in photoconductive gain of 106 and
responsivity of 105 A/W were reported. Furthermore, the time taken by
the photogenerated electrons to travel from one electrode to another is

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

2. 2-D based photodetector materials with various structures reverse bias voltage. Under this high reverse bias voltage, an electric
field is generated across the depletion region, which has been discussed
In this era of modern nanotechnology, Si-based and complementary in the working principle of p-n junction photodetectors. If the electric
metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS) sensors technology has several field is high across the depletion region, the velocity of the photo­
applications in chemical, mechanical, and electrical fields. Si has the generated charge carriers increased. As a result, with this high velocity,
advantages of high efficiency and thermal stability, which make it a the photogenerated charge carriers collide with other atoms and pro­
reliable material in the sensors technology. Besides Si, CMOS also have duce electron-hole pairs. Moreover, if the applied electric field became
some advantages include temperature stability and low power con­ too high, the exited electrons and holes gain more velocity and get
sumption, which make the CMOS superior for large scale applications in accelerated and similarly collide with the other atoms and produce more
industrial purpose. However, the Si-based and CMOS sensors technology number of electron-hole pairs. Furthermore, while the reverse bias
have some drawbacks in electronic circuit applications, which include voltage is higher, it enables the multiplication gain of photogenerated
heating effect and high response time [55]. Moreover, Si absorbs broad charge carriers and as a result a higher current can be obtained
spectrum of light from UV to visible region, which leads to the noise comparatively to the incident one. Also, it increases the sensitivity of the
current and affects the response of the photodetector devices. We can photodetectors by producing the more photocurrent even under minute
eliminate the unwanted wavelength through the many layers of band optical illumination. Moreover, an important feature of avalanche
pass optical filters, but at the same time it makes the expensiveness of photodetector (APD) is the multiplication factor [57], which is defined
the device fabrication process. In order to overcome the above as the ratio of total current of the device to the pre-multiplication cur­
mentioned problems, the researchers are trying to substitute the rent across the junction. In such a way, to increase the sensitivity of
Si-based semiconductors with some exciting 2-D materials. In addition, CMOS-based photodetectors and an advancement to new world of CMOS
the performance of photodetector devices also differs depending on the technology, Lee et al. [58] fabricated the CMOS-APD based on
various structures of the fabricated photodetector device. Based on the N+/P-well junction and achieved the photoresponsivity of 2.94 A/W
structure and working principle of the avalanche, p-n junction, Schottky, under near-IR region (850 nm). Herein, we shall start the discussion on
and MSM photodetectors, the electron-hole pair generation, separation, avalanche photodetectors with BP followed by an interesting TMD,
and transmission of charge carriers take place, which significantly MoS2, and its heterostructure configuration. Finally, we shall deliberate
enhance the photocurrent of the photodetector devices. In the following about an exciting III-IV group material of InSe and its heterostructure
section different types of photodetectors based on various materials devices.
have been reported. The schematic drawing of photodetectors with In recent years, many studies have been reported on avalanche
various architectures based on graphene and TMDs is depicted in Fig. 2. photodetectors and phototransistors based on 2-D materials [59]. These
2-D materials are having higher carrier mobility and lower ionization
energy and suitable for avalanche photodetectors. One of such inter­
2.1. Avalanche photodetectors based on 2-D material esting 2-D material is BP, which has drawn great attention in the
fabrication of fast response electronic devices due to its suitable mobility
The avalanche photodetectors are developed to overcome the junc­ and bandgap. The researchers are trying to explore the BP in various
tion heating, noise, and poor response of Si-based devices [56]. electronic circuits and devices [60,61]. Atalla et al. [62] fabricated
Avalanche photodetectors can be simply identified as p-n junction BP-based visible (532 nm) avalanche photodetectors. Firstly, on Si/SiO2
photodetectors where the avalanche breakdown occurs due to the high

Fig. 2. Photodetectors with various device ar­

chitectures based on 2-D materials. Reproduced
with permission from ref [64] (Copyright 2020,
American Chemical Society), [66] (Copyright
2021, Wiley-VCH GmbH), [75] (Copyright
2014, American Chemical Society), [77]
(Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society),
[98] (Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH Verlag
GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim), [99] (Copy­
right 2020, Wiley-VCH GmbH), [130] (Copy­
right 2017, AIP Publishing), and [139]
(Copyright 2019, Elsevier).

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

substrate, HfO2 layer of 7 nm was deposited by atomic layer deposition [64] fabricated a monolayer MoS2 sheet through CVD onto Si/SiO2
(ALD) at 300 ◦ C and transferred the exfoliated BP onto the substrate. substrate. Later, MoS2 sheet was rolling-up into MoS2 nanoscroll in situ
Finally, Ti/Au electrodes were patterned to fabricate the test-device. by the droplets of ethanol solution. To study the device characteristics,
Due to the Schottky barrier hole tunneling, the avalanche gain Ti/Au electrodes were deposited by e-beam evaporation and patterned
increased significantly and achieved the external quantum efficiency by UV-lithography. The increase in photocurrent indicates that the
(EQE) of 271.9 % along with very low dark current of 10.5 μA. Similarly, saturated charge transport is enhanced by the avalanche multiplication
to increase the performance of BP-based avalanche photodetectors, Jia and the same is represented in the Fig. 3. As- fabricated APD showed the
et al. [63] also developed exfoliated BP-based APD onto SiO2/Si sub­ photoresponsivity of 104 A/W under the illumination of 532 nm of light.
strate. The test-device contain Ti/Au electrodes deposited by e-beam On the other hand, Sanchez et al. [65] developed a photodiode with
evaporation and achieved a photoresponsivity of 2 A/W with the EQE of n-MoS2 and p-Si heterostructure onto Si/SiO2 substrate by CVD method
477 % under the illumination of visible light (λ = 520 nm). The and a gold layer was used as metal contact to fabricate the test-device.
enhanced performance of high responsivity, low power consumption, However, unlike in single-layer MoS2, n-MoS2/p-Si heterostructure
and low noise characteristics were achieved using BP avalanche pho­ achieved high responsivity of 2.2 A/W due to the inhomogeneous in­
todetectors and promising in the application of imaging system and ternal electric field along with low noise under the illumination of
optoelectronic communications. visible light (λ = 633 nm) [59,65]. Seo et al. [66] developed
Besides BP, researchers are trying to explore TMDs such as MoS2, hBN/MoS2-based ultrasensitive avalanche phototransistors onto Si/SiO2
WS2, WSe2, and ReS2 because of their outstanding optical and electrical substrate to enhance the responsivity of the photodetectors in visible
properties. Also, depending upon their many versatile properties, they spectrum. Here, MoS2 growth, hBN growth, and Au electrodes pattern
are suitable in the development of semiconductor devices. Deng et al. were carried out using CVD, mechanical exfoliation (ME), and

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic view of MoS2 APD under illumination of 532 nm light. (b) Graphical representation of responsivity Vs applied bias voltage (Vds) (inset:
Avalanche gain against Vds). Working principle of the fabricated APD at the (c) applied electric field below the avalanche critical electric field (Eava) and (d) electric
field larger than the Eava. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society.
Reproduced with permission from ref [64].

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

electron-beam lithography, respectively. When a high electric field was photoactive material applications [68]. In such type of semiconductors,
applied to the device, avalanche breakdown happened and the contact the optical absorption cross-section is low and it causes the lower output
barrier became thin. As a result, the tunneling of the electrons and holes photocurrent. Therefore, to increase the output gain of such materials,
happened quite easily and the same is depicted in the Fig. 4. Due to the, researchers are trying to decrease the contact resistance in the
avalanche breakdown and the band alignment of Au metal with MoS2 metal-semiconductor junction.
semiconductor, the responsivity and EQE of the device enhanced. The To increase the photoresponsivity, reduce the dark current, and
fabricated hBN/MoS2 APD achieved a very low dark current of nearly decrease the response time of the photodetector device, Lei et al. [68]
100 nA and excellent responsivity, detectivity, and EQE of 3.4 × 107 developed an avalanche photodetector based on atomically thin InSe
A/W, 4.3 × 1016 Jones, and 8.1 × 1019%, respectively under illumina­ material. On the Si/SiO2 substrate, exfoliated InSe from a bulk InSe
tion of 520 nm of light. The performance of the fabricated phototran­ crystal was transferred by scotch tape method, followed by the deposi­
sistor signified the device as a promising candidate for atomically thin tion of the electrodes of Al by e-beam evaporation. In addition, a large
ultrasensitive photodetector. Schottky barrier was created between InSe and Al electrode. To over­
Furthermore, to increase the performance of the photodetector in IR come this barrier, a large electric field is needed, leads to the occurrence
region, Bullock et al. [67] developed a mid-wave IR detectors using of avalanche effect in the photodetector device. Moreover, the dark
BP/MoS2 heterostructure onto Si/SiO2 substrate. Due to the bandgap current is reduced and increases the photocurrent due to the reverse bias
difference between MoS2 and BP, asymmetric band offsets occur, which applied in the junction. As a result, under the illumination of visible light
allow the electrons flow towards the MoS2 electrode. The photodetector (λ = 500 nm), the EQE of about 866% along with the fast response time
showed the responsivity of 0.9 A/W and the EQE of 35 % at the illu­ of 87 μs were achieved. In addition, the InSe-based heterostructure
mination of 2.7 µm wavelength of IR light. Unlike the MoS2/hBN het­ showed some decent result as photoactive material in photodetector
erostructure, these structures have response even in IR region and also devices. To reduce the contact resistance, Gao et al. [69] developed an
work under zero-bias condition. Besides the use of BP and TMD, another avalanche photodetector based on the heterojunction of InSe/BP by dry
type of 2-D materials is III-VI group semiconductors. For example, ma­ transfer method followed by the growth of Ti/Au electrode through
terials such as InSe, GeS, GeSe, and In2S3 also came in focus for e-beam evaporation. In general, the high reverse bias causes the

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic of the MoS2 fabricated device with metal contact. (b) Photoresponsivity and detectivity representation under the illumination of 520 nm light
(Inset: Variation of photoresponsivity of the device at the intensity of 2.5 μW cm− 2). The energy band diagram of the semiconductor and metal junction, respectively
in (c) region A, (d) region B, and (e) region C. Copyright 2021, the authors under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, published by Wiley-VCH
GmbH.
Reproduced with permission from ref [66].

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

breakdown, but due to the high mobility of BP, avalanche breakdown is and WS2, WS2 and MoS2, and MoS2 and hBN will be followed by the
relatively small in this device. The photodetector showed photo­ heterostructure configuration of BP/ReS2.
responsivity of 80 A/W and EQE of 2480% at the illumination of 4 µm The p-n junction photodetectors have a great use in the field of
light, which provide a new strategy in the development of the photo­ nanotechnology and optoelectronic devices. To broaden the usefulness
detectors at the nanoscale. of the p-n junction photodetectors in above mentioned fields, Cheng
Dark current is one kind of a large noise in a photodetector. Hence, to et al. [75] developed a p-n heterojunction diode with vertically stacked
reduce the dark current of the photodetector, Ouyang et al. [70] monolayer of p-type WSe2 and n-type MoS2. On Si/SiO2 substrate WSe2
developed an APD with MoTe2/WS2/MoTe2 heterojunction and Ti/Au was grown using physical vapor deposition (PVD), followed by the
as the two metal contacts deposited by e-beam evaporation. The transfer of mechanically exfoliated MoS2 flake onto the WSe2. The
bandgap difference between the semiconductor and the metal caused to photodetector test-device was fabricated with Au and Ni/Au electrodes
form a larger Schottky barrier. Owing to the barrier between WS2 and by e-beam deposition method. Under the illumination of 514 nm light,
MoTe2, the avalanche effect can be observed due to the large applied the EQE of the device reached to 12 % even at zero-bias voltage. As
electric field near the MoTe2-WS2-MoTe2 junction, which increased the presented in Fig. 5, the current enhancement is happened due to the
photocurrent. As a result, the dark current also decreased. Moreover, the band alignment of the heterojunction structure under different bias
photoresponsivity of 6.02 A/W and EQE of 1406% were reported with voltages. In a similar way, to decrease the response time of the photo­
the illumination of light from visible to IR range. detectors, Lee et al. [76] developed a p-n heterojunction with WSe2/­
In this section, avalanche photodetectors with monolayer of MoS2, MoS2 on Si/SiO2 substrate by co-lamination and mechanical transfer
WS2, and BP, heterostructure avalanche photodetectors of MoS2 and BP, technique. Further, the metal contacts of Al were deposited as an elec­
and another exciting 2-D material of InSe and its heterostructure-based tron carrier on n-type MoS2 and Pd as a hole carrier on p-type WSe2.
avalanche photodetectors have been reported. In case of MoS2/Si and Under zero-bias voltage, interlayer tunneling recombination across the
MoS2/BP heterostructure based avalanche photodetectors, the photo­ van der Waals interface resulted in the responsivity of 10 mA/W and the
responsivity of 2.2 A/W and 0.9 A/W, respectively have been reported. response time of 1 μs, under the illumination of 532 nm light.
Whereas, WS2 device was exhibited a high responsivity of 6.02 A/W. Further, Long et al. [77] fabricated graphene sandwiched
Similarly, APD with InSe/BP heterostructure showed the high respon­ MoS2/WSe2 heterostructure using ME method. For developing the
sivity of 80 A/W. In addition, a highest responsivity of 3.4 × 107A/W photodetector device, the Pd/Au electrodes were deposited using
was reported in hBN/MoS2 based avalanche photodetectors. The e-beam evaporation method. The photodetector performance of the
photodetector performances of different 2-D based avalanche photode­ test-device was evaluated from 400 nm to 2400 nm of light illumination.
tectors are compared in Table 1. The highest photoresponsivity of 104 A/W and the detectivity of 1015
Jones were achieved in the visible region at a bias voltage of 1 V. The
structural configuration of the p-n photodetector along with sandwiched
2.2. p-n junction photodetectors based on 2-D materials graphene dominates the photo-gain mechanism and induces fast
response speed as presented in Fig. 6. In this device, the photo­
The p-n junction is a very important component in semiconductor responsivity was increased in a significant amount than other reported
technology with its large applications in optoelectronic devices. In studies [75,76], which can be attributed to the p-g-n structure of the
general, if p- and n- type of material come in contact, diffusion occurs fabricated photodetector device.
due to the difference in concentration of the majority charge carriers on Apart from MoS2/WSe2 heterostructure, Huo et al. [78] reported
both sides [71]. Due to the high concentration of holes on p-side, they WSe2/WS2 heterostructure on SiO2/Si substrate through exfoliation
diffuse to n-side leaving the negatively charged ions and vice versa. As a technique. The test-device was fabricated with the metal contacts of Au
result, a space charge region is formed and an internal electric field is deposited by thermal evaporation. In this device, photovoltaic effect
developed from n- to p- direction [71]. If the light illuminated in the p-n plays a significant role to produce the photogenerated current. Under
junction, these photoexcited charge carriers move due to the high the 633 nm wavelength of light illumination, the rise time of 20 ms and
electric field and generate photocurrent, even no bias is applied. The the Ion/Ioff ratio of 400 were obtained at zero-bias voltage condition. To
research on p-n junction based self-powered photodetectors and fast achieve the fast response from the photodetector device, Duan et al. [79]
optoelectronic devices have increased significantly [72,73]. On the developed a p-n heterojunction with WS2 and WSe2 fabricated by CVD
other side, its response speed is bit low in electrical devices as it can’t method onto Si/SiO2 substrate. Later, metal contacts of Ti/Au on WS2
create ohmic contact although it is preferable for fast electronic devices. and Au on WSe2 were deposited using e-beam evaporation. The rise time
However, depending on the various exciting assets of 2-D materials like of 100 μs was obtained under the illumination of 514 nm light. The
high carrier mobility and large gain with good responsivity, researchers performance in rise time was enhanced significantly from the earlier
are trying to apply these 2-D materials based p-n junction photodetec­ report [78], subjected to the current rectification property of the het­
tors in various fields of electronics and imaging techniques [74]. To erojunction semiconductor.
discuss about the p-n junction photodetectors based on different mate­ Wu et al. [80] developed a p-n junction photodetector device based
rials, heterostructure of attracting TMDs such as WSe2 and MoS2, WSe2

Table 1
Avalanche Photodetectors Performance Reports based on various 2-D materials.
Photoactive material Fabrication technique Wavelength (nm) Responsivity (A/W) Detectivity EQE (%) Ref
(Jones)

MoS2 ME – 7.5 × 10− 3 – – [59]

BP ALD 532 – – 271.9 [62]
BP ME 520 2 – 477 [63]
MoS2 CVD 532 104 2 × 1012 – [64]
MoS2/Si CVD 633 2.2 – – [65]
hBN/MoS2 CVD & ME 520 3.4 × 107 4.3 × 1016 8.1 × 109 [66]
BP /MoS2 ME 2700 0.9 1.1 × 1010 35 [67]
InSe ME 500 – – 866 [68]
InSe/BP Dry transfer method 4000 80 – 2480 [69]
WS2 Wet transfer method 532 6.02 7.24 × 109 1406 [70]

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic drawing and (b) gate-tunable output characteristics of the WSe2/MoS2 heterojunction p-n diode. Energy band diagram of the device under (c)
small forward bias, (d) large forward bias. (e) Photoresponse of the photocurrent generation at 514 nm illumination. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.
Reproduced with permission from ref [75].

on MoS2 and WS2 to show a new path in self-powered photodetectors. NW exhibited a piezoelectric potential, which significantly increased the
The n-type WS2 and p-type MoS2 layers were patterned using e-beam charge transportation in MoS2 channel. The device showed a respon­
lithography technique and followed by the coating of the Cr/Au elec­ sivity of 734.5 A/W, short response time of 5 ms, and the Ion/Ioff ratio of
trodes by e-beam evaporation technique. Further, the current-voltage about 105 under visible light illumination (λ = 550 nm). This MoS2
(I-V) characteristics of the device depicted the rectification property photodetector was exhibited a self-alignment property. Zhuo et al. [82]
and thus confirmed the p-n junction behavior. At a zero-bias voltage, the developed MoS2/GaN photodetectors onto Si substrate by spin coating
photoresponsivity of 4.36 mA/W and the detectivity of 4.36 × 1013 technique to improve the performance of the photodetectors at zero-bias
Jones were obtained upon illumination of visible (λ = 532 nm) light. voltage condition, which showed the responsivity of 187 mA/W and rise
The MoS2 exhibits interesting properties such as high gain and good time of 46.4 μs under the UV light illumination (λ = 265 nm). The
responsivity only at nanometer regime. However, it has some drawbacks performance of the photodetector at zero-bias voltage indicated a great
such as ambient absorption and interface trap density, which make development in self-powered photodetector. From the obtained results,
impact on the performance of the photodetectors [80]. To overcome the it can be concluded that the better performance attributed to the
above mentioned difficulties, Liu et al. [81] developed a p-n junction piezo-phototronic effect from GaN NWs.
photodetector based on CVD grown MoS2 acting as n-type and trans­ With further development of the p-n junction photodetector devices,
ferred GaN nanowire (NW) acting as p-type. The applied strain on GaN Lv et al. [83] reported a p-n junction diode of WS2/GaSe heterojunction.

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

Fig. 6. (a) Schematic of the MoS2/graphene/WSe2 vertical heterojunction. (b) Rise and (c) fall time of the device under the light illumination. (d) I-V characteristics
of the fabricated heterojunction p-n diode. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.
Reprinted with permission from ref [77].

Firstly, a graphene layer was developed on copper substrate using CVD et al. [85] reported MoS2/GaTe heterostructure photodetector by using
method and transferred it onto SiO2/Si substrate. Later, the exfoliated ME technique. Further, to fabricate the test-device, Cr/Au electrodes
WS2/GaSe was transferred onto the prepared graphene/SiO2/Si sub­ were deposited using e-beam evaporation method and patterned the
strate via site-controllable transfer method. The metal contacts of Ti/Au device by e-beam lithography. The self-conducted current is caused by
were fabricated by thermal evaporation. In response of the incident light the electron-hole pair separation due to built-in electric field and type-II
of 410 nm, a high responsivity of 149 A/W and the rise time of 37 μs band alignment development in MoS2/GaTe junction. Under zero-bias
were achieved under the bias voltage of 2 V. The significant develop­ voltage and the illumination of 633 nm light, the responsivity of
ment in photoresponsivity and photocurrent is attributed to the vertical 1.365 A/W, response time of 10 ms, and the Ilight/Idark of 340 were
structure configuration of the photodetector device. achieved. The electrical properties confirm the self-switching behavior
Moreover, type-II band alignment between the semiconductors helps of the photodetector device.
in fast charge transfer and interlayer coupling [84]. In this view, Yang Furthermore, to provide high-frequency rectification along with the

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

development of the photodetector device, Pezeshki et al. [86] developed overcome the above mentioned constraints, researchers are further
a novel MoS2/MoTe2 heterostructure onto the Si/SiO2 substrate. Firstly, exploring towards some attractive structures. For example, to optimize
MoS2 and MoTe2 were mechanically exfoliated and transferred on the EQE and dark current noise, Schottky junction-based semi­
Si/SiO2 substrate followed by deposition of the asymmetric contacts of conductors are being used in commercial semiconductor devices.
Ti/Au and Pt onto n-MoS2 and p-MoTe2, respectively. Due to the Schottky barrier is typically a potential barrier formed in metal-
photovoltaic effect occurred in the p-n junction, the enhancement of the semiconductor region. In n-type semiconductors, if the work function
photocurrent was observed. The fabricated device showed the respon­ of the semiconductor is small compared to the work function of the
sivity of 322 mA/W with the illumination of 800 nm of light. metal, the electrons move to the metal surface from the semiconductor
The researchers are exploring various types of photodetectors based because of their high energy as compared with a semiconductor. As a
on BP to form van der Waals heterostructure configuration [87,88]. In result, negatively charged region is formed on metal surface and posi­
such a way, Cao et al. [87] fabricated BP/ReS2 p-n junction photode­ tively charged region is formed in semiconductor due to loss of elec­
tector. Mechanically exfoliated BP and ReS2 were transferred onto trons. It causes to the formation of a depletion region in semiconductor
HfO2/Si substrate. The metal contacts of Ni/Au were deposited by using surface and which gives the nonlinear I-V characteristics. This type of
e-beam evaporation technique. Depending on the current rectification contact between semiconductor and metal is known as Schottky contact
property, it can be concluded that the heterostructure device acts as a or rectifying contact. On the other side, when the work function of the
p-n junction photodetector, which showed the responsivity of 4120 A/W metal is lower to the work function of the semiconductor, the electrons
under the irradiation of UV light (λ = 365 nm). This high responsivity of move to the semiconductor from the metal and there will be no such
the photodetector device can be attributed to the effective tunneling of depletion region and even a small bias voltage causing of a large bias
the carrier concentration of both the BP and ReS2 channel. The enhanced current, known as ohmic contact or non-rectifying contact. In Schottky
device responsivity signifies that the BP/ReS2 photodetector is suitable barrier, noise disturbance is also low compared to the p-n junction
for nano-optoelectronic applications. diode. With Schottky contact, we can make the higher performance di­
In this section, p-n junction photodetectors with 2-D materials have odes and transistors. There are several studies on Schottky photodetec­
been reported. The p-n junction heterostructure of MoS2/GaN, MoS2/ tors made of heterostructure configuration are reported such as MoS2/
WS2, WSe2/MoS2, and WS2/WSe2 have shown some promising behavior graphene, [92,93] WSe2/graphene/WS2, [94] and graphene/In2S3, [95]
in the responsivity and response time of the photodetector. Among those which showed some satisfactory performance in the optoelectronics
materials, MoS2/GaN had shown much better responsivity of 187 mA/W field. In the Schottky contact photodetectors, we can discuss more
even at zero-bias condition. The enhanced performance signifies to use detailed results about the MoS2-based Schottky photodetectors. Later,
this device as a self-powered photodetector. In addition, a novel struc­ we shall confer about BP with the continuation of some novel IV-V group
ture of p-g-n had exhibited the highest responsivity of 104 A/W with p-n material and their heterostructure. Finally, conclude with the hetero­
junction photodetector architecture. Furthermore, MoTe2/MoS2 and structure configuration of graphene and GeSe monolayer.
GaSe/InSe [89] heterostructure exhibited better performance of p-n Li et al. [96] fabricated a hot electron assisted waveguide based MoS2
junction photodetector. Moreover, graphene oxide/Si heterostructure photodetector. The metal contact of Au was created as a Schottky
and lateral graphene p-n junction [90,91] had shown a promising junction with MoS2, developed through dry-transferred method. Due to
responsivity especially under the visible light range. Various figures of the low Schottky barrier between Au and MoS2, hot electrons generated
merit such as responsivity, EQE, and response time along with the on the Au could easily shift towards the MoS2 and caused to enhance the
fabrication process of 2-D based p-n junction photodetectors are photodetector performance. The responsivity of 15.7 mA/W achieved at
compared in the Table 2. a bias voltage of − 0.3 V and 1550 nm illumination of light, attests the
suitability of material towards self-powered applications. Saenz et al.
[97] developed a MoS2-based Schottky photodetector ranging from
2.3. Schottky photodetectors based on 2-D materials
visible to IR region. On Si/SiO2 substrate mechanically exfoliated MoS2
was transferred. A high responsivity of 1.4 × 104 A/W, detectivity about
The p-n junction photodetector devices have shown some tremen­
2.3 × 1011 Jones along with the response time of < 100 µs were ach­
dous performance in the development of optoelectronic and self-
ieved under the illumination of 700 nm of light. This ultra-high device
powered devices. However, the p-n junction photodetectors also have
performance is attributed to the suspended nature of the MoS2 device
some drawbacks such as junction heating, noise, and less detectivity. To

Table 2
Comparison of p-n Junction Photodetectors Performance based on 2-D based Materials.
Photoactive material Fabrication Wavelength Bias Responsivity (A/ EQE Ion/Ioff Response time Detectivity Ref
technique (nm) (V) W) (%) ratio (ms) (Jones)

Si/WSe2 Lithography 532 0.5 6.4 15 – – 2.3 × 1010 [74]

p-WSe2/n-MoS2 PVD 514 0 – 12 – – – [75]
n-MoS2/p-WSe2 ME 532 0 10 × 10− 3 – – 1 × 10− 3 – [76]
WSe2-graphene/MoS2 ME 400–2400 1 104 – – – 1015 [77]
p-WSe2/n-WS2 ME 633 0 – – 400 20 – [78]
WS2/WSe2 CVD 514 – – – – 0.1 – [79]
MoS2/WS2 e-beam lithography 532 0 4.36 × 10− 3 1.02 – 4 4.36 × 1013 [80]
p-GaN/n-MoS2 Spin coating 550 – 734.5 – 105 5 – [81]
MoS2/GaN Spin coating 265 0 187 × 10− 3 – – 46.4 × 10− 3
2.34 × 1013 [82]
p-GaSe/n-WS2 CVD 410 2 149 – 103 37 × 10− 3 4.3 × 1012 [83]
n-MoS2/p-GaTe ME 633 0 1.365 266 340 10 – [85]
n-MoS2/p-MoTe2 ME 800 – 322 × 10− 3 85 – – – [86]
BP/ReS2 ME 1550 – 1.8 × 10− 3 – 5.5 – – [88]
BP/ReS2 ME 365 – 4120 – – – – [87]
p-GaSe/n-InSe ME 410 0 21 × 10− 3 9.3 – – 2.2 [89]
× 1012
Graphene oxide/Si Hummers method 600 0 1.52 – 104 2 – [90]
3
Graphene-based p-n ME 633 0 5 × 10− – – 0.9 3 × 1010 [91]
junction

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

architecture, which significantly decreases the impurity and photodetector device depict the Schottky contact behavior between the
electron-phonon scattering. metal and the semiconductor. A fast response of < 2 ms was recorded
Moreover, to utilize the heterostructure configuration in large scale with this fabricated device, which indicates that it can be used in fast
industry, Deng et al. [98] successfully constructed a lateral Schottky optoelectronic devices.
heterostructure of graphene-MoS2 by CVD technique. To study the Apart from employing different electrodes, the IV-V novel group 2-D
optoelectrical properties, the metal contacts of Ti/Au were patterned on based semiconductors such as GeAs and SiAs have some interesting
graphene-MoS2. Due to the semimetal behavior of graphene, the gra­ properties such as tunable bandgap, symmetric properties, and fast
phene/MoS2 heterojunction showed a Schottky contact near the gate electron transportation owing to their less effective mass, stability, and
region as depicted in Fig. 7. Under the illumination of laser light etc. These materials are less explored for optoelectronic, broadband
(λ = 532 nm), the maximum detectivity and photoresponsivity were region, and photonic devices. To enhance their applications in broad­
reached about 1.4 × 1014 Jones and 1.1 × 105 A/W, respectively. Here, band region and optoelectronic devices, Dushaq et al. [104] developed a
the graphene/MoS2 device was shown better responsivity subjected to Schottky photodetector with GeAs onto Si/SiO2 substrate via spin
the Schottky contact near the gate region due to the semimetal character coating method. To measure the photodetector characteristics, the
of graphene. electrodes of Cr/Au were deposited by e-beam evaporation. The larger
Among the TMDs, WS2 is an interesting material for self-powered thickness (42 nm) of GeAs flake played a very vital role to improve the
photodetectors. Gao et al. [99] designed a bottom-contacted MSM optical absorption as well as responsivity of the photodetector. Under
structure photodetector, which had been fabricated as Au-WS2-Au the illuminations of the visible (λ = 660 nm), NIR of 1064 nm, and
structure onto the Si/SiO2 substrate by polyvinyl alcohol wet transfer 1310 nm, the devices were attained a responsivity values of 905 A/W,
method. Under the illumination of 405 nm light, responsivity of 98 A/W, and 21.3 A/W, respectively. This device was exhibited a better
777 mA/W, Ion/Ioff ratio of 104, and the detectivity of 4.94 × 1011 Jones performance than the previously reported TMDs [105,106] and
were reported through the fabricated test-device. The asymmetric con­ BP-based photodetectors [107].
tact between the metal and the semiconductor results in formation of the Furthermore, along with self-driven photodetectors, for ultrafast
Schottky barrier and dominate the photocurrent in the photodetector optoelectronic devices, group IV-V semiconductors are being integrated
device as depicted in Fig. 8. with graphene to extrude both high responsivity and less response time.
Using several types of metals as source (S) and drain (D) electrodes, This type of heterostructure configuration is quite crucial in the world of
researchers [100–102] have constructed BP-based transistors for high nanotechnology as well as to enhance the performance of the photode­
performance photodetector applications. In this direction, Miao et al. tectors. Along with monolayer of GaAs, the heterostructure of GaAs/
[103] also fabricated a Schottky photodetector using mechanically graphene has drawn the attention in the fabrication of nanotechnology
exfoliated BP onto Si/SiO2 substrate with Au as a source electrode and Al devices. Wu et al. [108] developed a GaAs/graphene nanowire array for
as drain electrode, which were patterned via e-beam lithography. Schottky junction photodetectors. In this photodetector device, the light
Extremely low-dark current along with the non-ohmic behavior of the absorption and separation of the charge carriers take place at the

Fig. 7. (a) Schematic of lateral graphene-MoS2 heterostructure Schottky photodetector. (b) Photoresponse representation of the device under the 532 nm light. (c)
Ids-Vds output characteristic curve (Schottky behavior) of detector. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
Reproduced with permission from ref [98].

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

Fig. 8. (a) 3D-schematic image of the Au-WS2-Au asymmetric bottom-contacted photodetector. (b) Rise and decay time of the device under illumination of 405 nm
light. The energy band diagram of the fabricated device in (c) zero bias, (d) negative bias, and (e) Ids–Vds curves (Schottky contact behavior) of the fabricated
photodetector under different wavelengths of light illumination. Reproduced with permission from ref [99], Copyright 2020, Wiley-VCH GmbH.

Schottky junction. This enables the efficient photoelectric conversion current than the previous reports [108]. The fabricated device exhibited
and causes to increase the photocurrent significantly. Under the irradi­ the responsivity of 231 mA/W and the response time of 85 μs under the
ation of 532 nm light, it exhibited the 1.54 mA/W of responsivity along illumination of visible light (λ = 532 nm), which is attributed to the
with rising and falling times of 71 μs and 194 μs, respectively. The ob­ high surface-area to volume ratio of the GaAs nanowires. It can be
tained results reveal that the device can act as a self-powered photo­ concluded that in GaAs photodetector, the planner structure configu­
detector. Similarly, to increase the performance of the photodetector ration was the key of increasing the separation and transportation of the
devices in self-powered photodetectors application, Luo et al. [109] charge carriers, resulted in much better performance than its hetero­
developed a single GaAs/graphene nanowire-based photovoltaic device structure configuration.
with Schottky junction. Single-layer graphene was developed by CVD To enhance the performance of the photodetectors in IR region, Zeng
method. The electrodes of Ti/Pt/Au were deposited by magnetron et al. [110] fabricated germanium (Ge)/graphene Schottky junction
sputtering with GaAs nanowire. To complete the fabrication process, photodetectors. The n-type Ge wafer was used as an insulating surface.
graphene was directly transferred to the GaAs nanowire by The monolayer graphene was grown by CVD method onto the Cu sub­
UV-lithography technique. The device behaves as a Schottky junction strate. Further, the monolayer graphene was separated from Cu sub­
formation due to the bandgap alignment and leads to the built-in electric strate. Later, the graphene film was spin coated onto Ge wafer.
field. As a result, this electric field causes to enhance the photogenerated Ge/graphene photodetector device showed the photovoltaic effect due

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

to the difference in energy band levels. As fabricated Ge/graphene de­ the concentration of the majority charge carriers and resulted the larger
vice exhibited the responsivity of 51.8 mA/W, Ion/Ioff ratio of about photocurrent. The responsivity of 3.5 A/W and the rise time 100 ms
2 × 104 and the response time as 23 μs, upon the illumination of IR light were achieved with the illumination of NIR light (λ = 808 nm). This
(λ = 1550 nm). Similar heterostructure was developed by Lv et al. [111] photodetector device shows a promising performance, which make to­
based on Si/graphene for IR photodetector application with high Ion/Ioff wards the application of photoelectric switches and nanotechnology.
ratio and less dark current. On Si/SiO2 substrate, monolayer graphene In above section, Schottky photodetectors with various 2-D based
was developed by using CVD method and followed by the deposition of materials have been reported. Along with some interesting TMDs, gra­
Au metal contacts. As a result, a Schottky junction was formed between phene and BP also showed good behavior as a photoactive material to
the n-type Si layer and graphene layer, showed a photovoltaic behavior, fabricate the Schottky photodetectors. GeAs exhibited better respon­
leads to the enhancement of current. This device exhibited 29 mA/W of sivity from visible to IR region than heterostructure configuration sub­
the responsivity under the illumination of 850 nm light. The ultra-low jected to the Schottky behavior between electrode and semiconductor.
response time of 93 μs was recorded along with the Ilight/Idark of 106, Multilayered MoS2 had shown a great responsivity of 1.4 × 104 A/W in
which indicated the enhanced performance in NIR to IR region. visible region attributed to suspended device architect of MoS2, which
To further explore the same type of heterostructure in visible region, reduce the electron-phonon and impurity scattering. In addition, gra­
Periyanagounder et al. [112] constructed a Schottky junction photode­ phene/MoS2 showed the highest responsivity of 1.1 × 105 and a high
tector diode based on Si/graphene heterostructure. Bi-layer graphene Ion/Ioff ratio of 106 under visible region attributed to the semimetal
was coated directly onto the n-type Si substrate through atmospheric behavior of graphene and the heterostructure configuration. Finally,
pressure chemical vapor deposition (APCVD). To increase the contact various figures of merit of the Schottky photodetectors are listed in
quality, Ti/Au electrodes were coated by e-beam evaporation. The Table 3.
built-in electric field due to the Schottky barrier played a significant role
to elevate the performance of the device. The fabricated photodetector
2.4. MSM photodetectors based on 2-D materials
device exploited a promising responsivity of 510 mA/W, very high
Ilight/Idark ratio of 105, and the ultra-fast response time of 130 μs upon
In previous sections, we have seen some significant performance of
the visible light (λ = 532 nm) illumination. The van der Waals contact of
avalanche, p-n, and Schottky photodetectors. Moreover, in modern
graphene and Si prevents the recombination and increases the separa­
technological applications such as self-powered photodetectors, optical
tion of charge carriers, which significantly increases the responsivity
communications, and imaging systems, the previously discussed pho­
over a broad region. In addition, the enhanced performance of the de­
todetectors indicate a new window. Although to overcome the draw­
vices through the single layer graphene also reported [113,114].
backs of low responsivity, complicated structure, and slow response in p-
To develop the ultrafast photodetectors, Luo et al. [115] fabricated a
n junction, avalanche, and Schottky diodes, some improvements in the
Schottky junction photodetector by ME of WSe2 from the bulk form of
structure and the photocurrent generation are still needed. In finding the
WSe2. Here, WSe2 was pasted in between the two electrodes of Au and
way, the researchers developed MSM structure photodetectors to fulfill
ITO. Due to the vertical structure configuration and Schottky barrier, the
the requirements [117–119]. Depending on the alignment of the elec­
photodetector showed the photoresponsivity of 0.1 A/W under the
trodes, the structure of MSM photodetectors can be of two types. In the
illumination of 637 nm of light. The device exhibited the rise time of
first one, the electrodes consist of four (4) metal strips, which lie in the
50 μs and Ilight/Idark of 104 and reveals the potentiality of the device for
same side of the semiconductor. This type of devices are called planar
ultrafast sensor applications.
structured [120] MSM photodetectors. The second one is the vertical
As part of developing prominent non-graphene 2-D material,
structured [121] MSM photodetectors where the semiconducting ma­
Mukherjee et al. [116] fabricated GeSe monolayer photodetector onto
terial is sandwiched between bottom and top metal contact. In planar
Si/SiO2 substrate by using CVD technique. The Au electrodes were
structured MSM photodetectors, the semiconductor is directly exposed
deposited onto GeSe nanosheets using sputtering technique. Due to the
to the optical signal. Whereas, in vertical structure of MSM photode­
non-uniform thickness of the GeSe nanosheets, an uneven contact with
tector, the semiconductor exists in between the two metal electrodes. As
the electrodes leads to the formation of two different Schottky barriers
a result, the thickness of the electrodes must be very small to enable the
between the nanosheets and the electrodes. Upon the illumination of
transmission of optical signal towards the semiconductor. A better
light, the electron-hole pairs were generated, which causes to increase
photocurrent with fast response can be achieved in vertical structured

Table 3
Schottky Photodetector Characteristics based on various 2-D materials.
Photoactive material Fabrication technique Wavelength (nm) Responsivity (A/W) Detectivity Ion/Ioff ratio Response time (ms) Ref
(Jones)

MoS2/Graphene CVD 1440 1.26 4.2 × 1010 – – [92]

WSe2/Graphene/WS2 ME 633 429 × 10− 3 1.58 × 1012 – 0.3 [94]
Graphene/In2S3 CVD 808 0.49 × 10− 3 3.05 × 107 – – [95]
MoS2 ME 1550 15.7 × 10− 3 – – – [96]
MoS2 ME 700 1.4 × 104 2.3 × 1011 – 0.1 [97]
Graphene/MoS2 CVD 532 1.1 × 105 1.4 × 1014 106 – [98]
Au-WS2-Au ME 405 777 × 10− 3 4.94 × 1011 104 – [99]
BP ME 635 15.33 – 105 – [102]
BP ME 650 – – – 2 [103]
GeAs Spin coating 660 905 8.6 × 1012 – – [104]
1064 98 1.4 × 103 –
1310 21.3 7.8 × 102 –
GaAs/Graphene Metal organic CVD 532 1.54 × 10− 3 – – 71 × 10− 3 [108]
GaAs/Graphene CVD 532 231 × 10− 3 1.6 × 109 – 85 × 10− 3 [109]
Ge/Graphene CVD 1550 51.8 × 10− 3 1.38 × 1010 2 × 104 23 × 10− 3 [110]
Si/Graphene CVD 850 29 × 10− 3 3.9 × 1011 106 93 × 10− 3 [111]
Si/Graphene APCVD 532 510 × 10− 3 – 105 13 × 10− 2 [112]
Au-WSe2-ITO ME 637 0.1 – 104 5 × 10− 2 [115]
GeSe CVD 808 3.5 – – 100 [116]

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

photodetectors. In this case, the distance between the electrodes is much the metal contacts of Cr/Au/Cr and Pd to enhance the performance of
easier to control and bring them closer to each other than that of planar MSM photodetectors. The fabricated photodetector device showed the
structured photodetectors. Moreover, these MSM structure photodetec­ high responsivity of 117 A/W and the response time of 74 ms. The
tors can have two type of contacts between the semiconductor and the performance of the optical properties can be explained by the photo­
metal i.e., Schottky-contact and ohmic-contact. In addition, the MSM gating effect, which considerably enhances the photocurrent in the
photodetectors have high responsivity, low capacitance, and fast photodetector device. To decrease the response time of the photode­
response speed and also they are comparatively easy to fabricate with tectors than the increase of responsivity, Khadka et al. [130] developed
less complicated structure [122]. Herein, starting with graphene, a brief MoS2 thin film on Si/SiO2 substrate by CVD process and interdigitated
comparison on important TMDs such as MoS2, WS2, WSe2 and their electrodes of Mo were deposited onto the MoS2 layer (Fig. 9a) through
heterostructure configuration will be followed. Further, BP and its het­ DC sputtering. The fabricated MSM photodetector showed a photo­
erostructure will be covered. Moreover, 2-D material based MSM pho­ responsivity of 15 A/W, as well as fast rise time of 2 μs under the applied
todetectors are discussed depend on their unique bandgap and high bias voltage of 8 V (Fig. 9b). The fabricated device revealed fast
carrier mobility. response comparatively to the earlier one, which can be attributed to the
Graphene is one of the most explored 2-D materials due to its long lived trap states or photo-thermoelectric effect in the
interesting electrical properties. In addition, graphene is suitable to metal-semiconductor junction of the MSM photodetector. The photo­
make fast response devices owing to its higher carrier mobility with current generation mechanism was described through the photoelectric,
well-designed electrodes structure. In this route, Liu et al. [123] fabri­ photovoltaic, photo-thermoelectric, and photogating effects. The
cated micro-cavity enhanced graphene photodetectors with detailed mechanisms are illustrated in Fig. 9(c-f). In order to achieve
sub-wavelength grating electrodes of Ag. Such fabricated device showed ultra-fast response, Maeso et al. [131] constructed few layer vertical
a decent responsivity of 1.23 A/W under the illumination of IR light MoS2 based photodetectors with the electrode contact of Au by thermal
(λ = 1.55 µm) along with the fast response speed of some picoseconds. evaporation. At an incident photon energy of 1.7 eV (729.3 nm), the
The promising performance of the photodetector can be attributed to the photodetector displayed the responsivity of 0.11 A/W and the EQE of 30
structural architect including height, width, and period of the slit, which % along with a fast rise time of 60 ns. In the vertically stacked structure,
significantly influence the response time and transmission of the charge the semiconductor channel length can be tuned and causes to shorten
carriers. To enhance the performance of photodetectors, Bencherif et al. the channel length. Therefore, the charge carriers can be collected by the
[124] developed a UV photodetector by developing interdigitated gra­ semiconductor prior to the recombination. This phenomenon helps to­
phene electrodes on p-type 4H-SiC material followed by the insertion of ward the faster response of the device. Based on the results, the photo­
isolated SiO2 layer on the outside of the graphene electrodes. Due to the detector device can perform as a highly sensitive device under the
patterning of interdigitated electrodes, the photocurrent was increased visible light illumination.
along with the increase in response time. A photoresponsivity of Along with the monolayer MoS2-based MSM photodetectors, Li et al.
430 mA/W and a high detectivity of 1.3 × 1014 Jones along with high [132] fabricated the heterostructure (MoS2/WS2) by CVD process and
response speed of 4.7 μs were reported under UV (λ = 325 nm) illumi­ later the electrodes of Ti/Au were patterned onto MoS2/WS2 by e-beam
nation. The fabricated MSM photodetector was utilized in ultra-sensitive lithography. Under illumination of 405 nm of light, the photo­
and ultrafast optoelectronic devices even at high temperature regions. responsivity of 567.6 A/W and the detectivity of 7.17 × 1011 Jones were
Due to the great mechanical and electronic properties and broad achieved. This heterostructure photodetector device is showed the
spectral range of MoS2, it became the most desirable material in opto­ comparatively higher responsivity attributed to the modulation and
electronic devices and flexible self-powered photodetectors [125]. Kang enhancement of the photocurrent occurs depend on the photogating
et al. [126] developed a device with MoS2 via CVD method, included the effect. In addition to MoS2, WSe2 is another exciting TMD 2-D material
asymmetric contact of Mo2C and Au. An asymmetric contact formed due in the development of self-powered photodetectors. Zhou et al. [133]
to the work function difference between Mo2C and Au, which enabled developed a self-driven MSM photodetector using WSe2. On Si/SiO2
the light detection without any external power. The photodetector substrate, the exfoliated WSe2 flakes were grown and further the elec­
properties such as responsivity of 0.1 mA/W with rise time of 23 s under trodes of Au/Ni were deposited. The photovoltaic effect can be typically
the 600 nm light irradiation were reported. Further, to increase the observed in p-n junction, whereas, even in this MSM structure also
responsivity of the photodetector with asymmetric electrodes, Liu et al. photovoltaic effect appears due to the asymmetric contact between the
[127] developed a monolayer Ag-MoS2-Pt MSM photodiode having the electrodes and semiconductor. In this test-device, the photoresponsivity
van der Waals bonding in both semiconductor-metal junctions. In van of 2.31 A/W at zero-bias voltage, a minor dark current of about 1 fA, and
der Waals bonding, the contact between the semiconductor and the the detectivity of 9.16 × 1011 Jones were obtained under the light range
metal is too important for optimizing the performance of the fabricated of 405–980 nm, indicate that it can act as a self-driven photodetector.
photodiode. Initially, exfoliated MoS2 was transferred to the Si/SiO2 To achieve the better performance along with low dark current, Ma
substrate followed by the patterning of Ag and Pt metal contacts using et al. [134] deposited WSe2 thin film on Si/SiO2 substrate and the
e-beam lithography. By optimizing the van der walls asymmetric electrodes of Au were deposited onto the WSe2 layer. When Au comes
bonding between the semiconductor and the electrodes, the contact into the contact of the semiconductor, a Schottky barrier and a built-in
barrier height can be tuned, which results in modification of the electric field formed. Under illumination of light, the electron-hole pairs
photocurrent. With such configuration, the 7.2 mA/W of photo­ got separated in the region due to the built-in electric field and produce
responsivity was obtained under the illumination of 532 nm light. the photocurrent. Under 650 nm light illumination, the photodetector
Hence, it can be a useful photodiode device for high performance elec­ exhibited the photoresponsivity and detectivity of 2.46 A/W and
tronic devices toward high efficiency and low energy loss. To achieve 0.76 × 1011 Jones, respectively with the lower dark current of 1 nA,
the similar goal, Xie et al. [128] reported the most broadband ranging which indicate that this can be a superior device in photodetectors ap­
photodetectors by developing MoS2 thin film along with the electrodes plications. In addition to the low dark current, Zhou et al. [135] also
of Au. Depending upon the formation of conduction band and valance developed self-driven MSM WSe2 photodetectors using graphene and Au
band of the MoS2, the transfer of charge carriers varies, which contribute as a two contact electrodes. The enhancement in the responsivity is
to the variation and enhancement of the optical properties of the caused by the two factors i.e., (i) photovoltaic effect- it appeared due to
photodetector. Under the irradiation of 447–2717 nm wavelength of the asymmetric contact between the semiconductor and the electrodes
light, the photodetector displayed the photoresponsivity and detectivity and (ii) photoconductive effect- here, the properties of photocurrent
of 50.7 mA/W and 1.55 × 109 Jones, respectively. Further, Liu et al. enhanced. At zero-bias voltage, the responsivity of 7.55 A/W, detectiv­
[129] developed a monolayer MoS2 photodetectors by CVD process with ity of 3 × 1012 Jones, and the Ilight/Idark of 108 were observed. The

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

Fig. 9. (a) 3D schematic view of the MoS2 fabricated device. (b) Measurement of the rise and fall time under 532 nm light during the generation of the photocurrent.
Energy band diagrams compiles (c) without illumination and bias, (d) bias applying without illumination, (e) under the illumination of light energy larger than the
bandgap energy of the MoS2 semiconductor, and (f) generation of photocurrent under photogating effect. Copyright 2017 provided by AIP Publishing and Copyright
Clearance Center.
Reproduced with permission from ref [130].

obtained results showed much better performance from the previous of bending, offers toward the flexible optoelectronic devices.
report attributed to the asymmetric band alignment and the electrode Zeng et al. [140] fabricated WS2 film with the metal contact of Ti/Au
configuration of the fabricated photodetector. Another interesting by magnetron sputtering. Under UV light (λ = 365 nm), a very high
member of metal selenides group is GeSe2, which also showed promising responsivity of 53.3 A/W was recorded, which can be a good device in
photodetector performance in the UV region. Yan et al. [136] developed sensors technology. For the passivation of TMDs-based photodetectors,
a mechanically exfoliated monolayer GeSe2 photodetector operates in Kwon et al. [141] fabricated a MSM photodetector through mechani­
the UV region. This device exhibited 200 mA/W of the photo­ cally exfoliated WS2 along with the electrodes of Ti/Au to get the high
responsivity and the rise time of 300 ms at 266 nm light illumination. responsivity. Due to the charge transfer effect and photogating effect,
In the group of TMD, WS2 is an exciting member with broad range of the performance of the device in photocurrent enhanced. By the illu­
light detection [137]. Moreover, WS2-based photodetectors create a new mination of 455 nm light, the photoresponsivity and detectivity were
path in the fabrication of the optoelectronic devices with low-cost laser recorded about 2 × 103 A/W and 7 × 1012 Jones, respectively. This
patterning [138]. Li et al. [139] developed WS2 nanosheets using the hybrid structure device showed the greater performance attributed to
electrodes of Cu by vacuum filtration method with broadband range of the charge carriers trapping at the channel of the photodetector device.
wavelength (534–1064 nm) absorption. Here, the photogenerated Other than the WS2-based MSM photodetectors, Chen et al. [142]
charge carriers were increased by increase in the applied power and fabricated graphene-WS2-graphene heterostructure photodetector using
depending upon the distance between the electrodes and as a result CVD method followed by the deposition of Cr/Au electrodes through
photocurrent also increased as shown in Fig. 10. At 534 nm light irra­ thermal evaporation. Due to the contact resistance and small Schottky
diation, the photoresponsivity and detectivity reached maximum of barrier, electron transfer efficiency between metal and semiconductor
4.04 mA/W and 2.55 × 109 Jones, respectively. It was further reported junction was increased along with photoresponsivity. This device
that this device showed 80 % of initial photocurrent even after 200 fold exhibited the maximum photoresponsivity of 121 A/W at the irradiation

15
A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic of the WS2 nanosheets photodetector test-device. (b) Rising and falling time of the photodetector under the illumination of 534 nm of light. (c)
I–V curves under the different wavelengths. The inset of (c) shows optical photograph of the device. Copyright 2019 provided by Elsevier and Copyright Clearance
Center.
Reproduced with permission from ref [139].

of 532 nm of light, which can be explored further in optoelectronic was increased to 2.42 A/W with the rise time of 2.5 ms, which can be
devices and showed much better performance than some of the mono­ fabricated further as an ultrafast photodetector. The BP photodetectors
layer WS2 photodetector. achieved much better responsivity from the multilayered BP attributed
In the applications of photonic sensors, BP became an interesting 2-D to the photoconductive effect of the device.
material due to the higher carrier mobility and tunable bandgap. Guo Depending upon the work function difference of the semiconductor
et al. [143] developed a BP photodetector and it responded in the mid-IR and the metal contact of the fabricated device, the Schottky contact is
region. The electrodes of Cr/Au were deposited onto the BP, which also achieved in MSM structure. In addition, asymmetric and symmetric
showed the responsivity of 82 A/W. The enhancement in photocurrent band diagram can be developed based on the contact between semi­
of the photodetector device is attributed to the photoconductive effect. conductor and electrodes. Liu et al. [146] reported an asymmetric band
Depending on the performance of the photodetector device, it can be alignment self-powered photodetector, which can response in broad
optimized as image sensors in the IR region. To broaden the application spectra of light from 450 nm to 900 nm. The heterostructure of gra­
of the photodetectors with wide temperature range, Huang et al. [144] phene and MoSe2 were developed onto the Si/SiO2 substrate by ME
reported a mechanically exfoliated BP-based MSM photodetector. Later, method. Later, the electrodes of Ti/Au were deposited onto the heter­
Ni/Au metal contacts were deposited onto photoactive layer by e-beam ostructure by e-beam evaporation. Due to the asymmetric contact be­
evaporation. Here, the photocurrent was increased by the decrease of tween the contact surface of semiconductor and the electrodes, the
the channel length due to the large transverse electric field and smaller photovoltaic effect is generated. As a result, the charge carriers got
transit time. This affected the higher responsivity of 7 × 106 A/W and excited and photocurrent increased under applied electric field. At
fast response time of 5 ms under the illumination of 900 nm light. zero-bias voltage, 89.5 mA/W of responsivity was achieved. Moreover,
Furthermore, Hou et al. [145] developed a multilayered BP photode­ due to high mobility of graphene, the photogenerated charge carriers got
tector, which responds at near-IR region. Based on the fine tuning of the excited and as a result the photodetector showed fast rise time of 9.6 ms.
photodetector device, the responsivity was increased by the increase of The obtained results are quite interesting in the field of optoelectronics
the applied bias voltage. This caused the creation and separation of the devices as well as in the advanced energy world.
photogenerated charge carriers, which produced the current in the In summary, various experiments have been carried out by many
photodetector. Under the 830 nm light illumination, the responsivity researchers to develop the MSM structure photodetectors depend on

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

different photoactive materials and metal contacts. Among them, MoS2 bias voltage and can be most suitable for self-powered photodetector.
and WS2 had shown much promising behavior. MoS2/WS2 hetero­ MoS2/GaN heterostructure showed better responsivity under zero-bias
structure also had shown great result in photoresponsivity of 567.6 A/W voltage and suitable for self-powered photodetectors. Under visible
subjected to the photogating effect. From the above stated materials, Au- light, MoS2/graphene/WS2 structure had shown the great performance
MoS2-Au MSM photodetector had shown a best response time of 60 ns, with p-n junction device attributed to the p-g-n structure configuration,
signified the application in fast optoelectronic devices. In addition, few which dominated the photo-gain mechanism. In other side, although p-n
layer of BP had shown the highest responsivity of 7 × 106 A/W attrib­ junction diodes are using in large amount in modern devices, but as an
uted to the large transverse electric field generated in the channel. electrical device it has some drawbacks of junction heating effect and
Table 4 represents the responsivity, detectivity, response time, and Ion/ slow response. Further, the noise in p-n junction photodetectors was
Ioff performance of different structure of MSM photodetectors in various high as compared with the other existing devices. To overcome these
materials. From the obtained research results, one can endorse that the drawbacks, Schottky photodetectors were developed. Schottky junction
MSM photodetector is a main centric device to develop the optoelec­ is formed between n-type semiconductor and metal. Moreover, in
tronic devices and fast imaging methods. Schottky photodetectors, the current conduction happens due to the
movement of the electrons only. MoS2 Schottky junction device showed
3. Conclusions a great responsivity (1.4 × 104 A/W) attributed to the suspended nature
of the photoactive material. In addition, graphene/MoS2 heterostructure
In this review, we have evenly summarized the modifications in with the Schottky contact exhibited the better responsivity (1.1 × 105)
working principal of photodetectors with various architectures such as due to the semimetal character of graphene. Despite of being good
avalanche, p-n junction, Schottky, and MSM photodetectors. In addition, performance in many electronics and electrical devices for fast and
we have focused on graphene, BP, and TMDs based materials as pho­ advanced technologies, the main problem is to fabricate it in large scale
toactive materials due to their unique optoelectronic properties. More­ to achieve the wide-scale-integrated photodetectors. Also, the response
over, the different structure and the working principle of the fabricated speed in Schottky photodetectors is less than the requirement for ul­
device significantly influenced the overall performance of the photo­ trafast devices. Furthermore, for the fast response of the photodetector
detectors. These enhancements on the performance of the photodetec­ devices with high photocurrent, MSM photodetectors became hot device
tors broaden their applications in optoelectronic devices and many architecture. Due to the fast response of the MSM photodetectors, it is
modern technologies. The avalanche photodetectors are highly sensitive the most superior type of photodetectors in fast optoelectronic devices.
devices and converts the optical signal to electrical signal in a quick MoS2-based MSM photodetectors have been shown expeditious
response time. With avalanche breakdown mechanisms, the fabricated response. Along with this, BP-based MSM photodetector was exhibited
devices had shown promising performances in some interesting 2-D the highest responsivity (7 × 106 A/W) in the near-IR region attributed
materials of TMD, BP, and among others. hBN/MoS2 heterostructure to the smaller channel length and transverse electric field. Such fabri­
was shown the highest responsivity (3.4 × 107 A/W) through the cated MSM photodetectors are suitable for IR sensing technology and
avalanche mechanism and pointed to the application in 2-D optoelec­ high temperature electronics.
tronics. In general, avalanche photodetectors can also be anticipated as
p-n junction photodetectors. Here, a high reverse bias voltage has to be 4. Future challenges and aspects
applied to achieve the avalanche gain in photocurrent. The noise
disturbance is also high in avalanche photodetectors as compared to the Though MSM photodetectors have shown some great performance in
p-n junction photodetectors. Furthermore, the avalanche photodetector the application of wearable photodetectors, self-switching devices, and
devices suffer from low reliability and make it unsuitable for the fabri­ high sensitive detectors, still responsivity, detectivity, and EQE of pho­
cation of the stable electronics devices. In other view, p-n junction todetectors should be increased from visible to IR regions. In MSM
photodetector can respond even at zero-bias voltage to very less positive structure, the performance of the photodetectors can be increased

Table 4
Comparison of various MSM photodetector properties based on 2-D materials.
Photoactive material Fabrication technique Wavelength (nm) Responsivity (A/W) Detectivity Ion/Ioff Response Ref
(Jones) ratio time (ms)

Graphene – 1550 1.23 – – – [123]

Graphene/4 H-SiC/Graphene – 325 430 × 10− 3 1.3 × 1014 – 4.7 × 10− 3
[124]
In-MoS2-In Spin coating White light 22 × 10− 3 – – – [125]
Mo2C-MoS2-Au CVD 600 0.1 × 10− 3 – – 23 [126]
Ag-MoS2-Pt ME 532 7.2 × 10− 3 – – – [127]
Au-MoS2-Au Pulsed laser deposition 447–2717 50.7 × 10− 3 1.55 × 109 – – [128]
Cr/Au/Cr-MoS2-Pd CVD 532 117 – – 74 [129]
Mo-MoS2-Mo CVD 405 15 – – 2 × 10− 3 [130]
Au-MoS2-Au ME 729.3 0.11 – – 6 × 10− 5 [131]
Ti/Au-MoS2/WS2-Ti/Au CVD 405 567.6 7.17 × 1011 – – [132]
Au/Ni-WSe2-Au/Ni ME 405–980 2.31 9.16 × 1011 – – [133]
Au-WSe2-Au ME 650 2.46 7.6 × 1010 – – [134]
Graphene-WSe2-Au ME 405–780 7.55 3 × 1012 108 – [135]
Au/GeSe2/Au ME 266 0.2 1.6 × 1015 – 300 [136]
PtSe2-WS2-PtSe2 CVD 532 1.6 × 10− 3 – 155 – [138]
Cu/WS2/Cu ME 534 4.04 × 10− 3 2.55 × 109 – – [139]
Ag/WS2/Ag CVD 512 1.76 8.97 × 1011 100 [137]
Ti/Au-WS2-Ti/Au Sputtering 365 53.3 1.22 × 1011 – – [140]
Ti/Au-WS2-Ti/Au ME 455 2 × 103 7 × 1012 – – [141]
Graphene-WS2-graphene CVD 532 121 – 457 – [142]
Cr/Au-BP-Cr/Au ME 3390 82 – – – [143]
Ni/Au-BP-Ni/Au ME 900 7 × 106 – – 5 [144]
Au/BP/Au ME 830 2.42 1.833 × 108 – 2.5 [145]
Ti/Au-graphene/ MoSe2-Ti/Au ME 450–950 89.5 × 10− 3 – – 9.6 [146]

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A. Mondal et al. Materials Today Communications 34 (2023) 105094

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