THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Objectives
1.Describe the construction of a three phase
induction motor
a)Stator
b)rotor
2.Explain the principle operation of three phase
induction motor
i)Production of rotating field
ii)Production of torque
iii)slip
iv)relationship between speed pole pairs and
frequency So the stator consist of:
a)stator frame (steel frame)
v)power stages and power losses
b)Stator core
3)Describe the startless three phase induction
c)Stator windings- 3phase distributed windings
motor d)End –covers
a)Direct on line starter e)Bearings
b)Star delta-starter The stator frame- is made up of cast iron and
4)Describe the characteristics of three phase holds the stator core
induction motor The stator core – is made up of thin sheets of steel
i)Torgue/speed laminations, stacked together to reduce hysteresis
ii)Torgue slip and eddy currents. The stator core has slots for
iii)torgue current providing three phase distributed a,c windings in it
5)State the applications of three phase induction
motor The end covers are also made up of a cast –iron
i)Industrial/commercial The stator windings consists of insulated copper
wire. The three phase are connected in either star
ii)Domestic
or delta fashion.
The stator windings are done for specific number of
CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION poles as per our requirement, the greater is the
MACHINES number of poles, lesser is the speed.
A 3 – phase motor has main parts
a)Stator
Rotor
b)Rotor The rotor is mounted on a shaft, it is hollow
The rotor is separated from the staor by asmall air- laminated core having slots on its outer periphery.
gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm depending The windings placed in these slots (called rotor
on the power of the motor. windings) may be of the following two types:
Stator
Consist of the steel frame that encloses a hollow i)Squirrel cage type –
cylindrical core made up of thin laminations of -In this type, copper or aluminium bars are placed
silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current in the slots on the rotor core.
losses. -These bars are shor-circuited at both ends, using
end rings (metal rings )
-In many small size squirrel cage induction motor,
the rotor bars, the end rings and the cooling fans
are cast at the same time using a mould.
-The entire construction resembles a squirrel cage
and hence the name. They are the most widely used
in industries.
-The rotor slots are skewed, to ensure smooth and
adjust operation of induction motor.
It suffers the disadvantage of low starting torque

26 | P a g e
ii)Wound type or Slip-ring induction motor
-In this case, the rotor contains windings similar to
that used on the stator Advantages of connecting external resistance
–So the rotor windings are also a 3-phase windings a)Allows for speed control of induction motor
and uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually b)It also provides –control over starting torque
star –connected.
-The three terminals of the star-connected Comparison of both types of induction motor
windings, are connected to the three slip –rings Squirrel cage Wound type induction
(or collector rings). The slip rings are on the induction motor motor
shaft, but are insulated from it. i)Economical and i)Costly
-Slip rind allow for connections of external simpler in construction
resistance, in series with the rotor windings, using
carbon brushes. ii)More rugged so
requires less ii)Need more maintenance
maintenance

iii)No control over

starting torque iii)starting torque can be
controlled using external
iv)Speed cannot be resistance connection
controlled using
resistance iv)Easily control speed using
external resistance
The three brushes are connected to a 3-pase star –
connected rheostart.At starting, the external
Principal operation of induction motors
resistance are included in the rotor circuit to give a
-Induction motors works on the principle of
large starting torque.
electromagnetic induction
↓
These resistances are gradually reduced to Zero as
-When a 3-phase ac supply is given to the stator 3-
the motor runs up to speed
phase distributed winding, a rotating magnetic
field is created.
↓
-This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor
conductors, inducing an emf in it.
↓
-The induced emf causes a current to flow in the
rotor as rotor circuits is short –circuited.
↓
-as per the lenz’s law, the effect oppose the cause.
↓
NOTE: the external resistances are used during -The effects is that, the current in the rotor the cause is
starting period only. When the motor is attains the flux cutting by the rotating magnetic field
normal speed, the three brushes are short-circuited ↓
so that the rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor. -So this cause of flux cutting can be reduced if the rative
speed between the rotating magnetic field and rotor
conductors decreases
↓
-So a torque is produced, which rotates the rotor
in the same direction, as that of rotatating magnetic
field. This reduces the relative flux cutting, as
relative speed of flux cutting decreases.
↓

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If we change two supply phases, the direction of
rotation of magnetic field reverses and so the
rotation of induction motor also reverse.

NOTE: The rotor of induction rotor can never

attain synchronous speed, 𝑁𝑠 as in that case relative
speed will be zero and there will be no flux –
cutting. So there will be no induced emf and no
developed torque in this case.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF 3-PHASE One of the phase lags the reference line (horizontal
INDUCTION MOTOR by 120 while the other by 240)
In 3-phase induction motor, the stator winding is
connected to 3-phase supply and the rotor is short-
circuited.
The energy is transferred magnetically to the short-
circuited rotor winding. Thus induction motor may
be considered to be a transformer
With rotating secondary (short –circuited)
This can be illustrated as shown below:

The figure below is the equivalent circuit of a 3- At instant 1

phase induction motor. 𝜔𝑡 = o and thus
∅𝑅 = 0
√3
∅𝑌 = ∅𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−120) = − ∅𝑚
2
√3
∅𝐵 = ∅𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛(−240) = ∅𝑚
2

Where:
𝑽𝟏 = per-phase terminal voltage to the stator wind.
𝑹𝟏 = per-phase stator winding resistance
𝑿𝟏 = Per-phase stator leakage reactance
𝑬1 = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
𝑿𝒎 = per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
𝑹𝒄 = per-phase stator core loss resistance
𝑬𝟐 = Per-phase induced voltage in rotor at standstill ⃗ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∅
∅ ⃗ 𝑅+∅
⃗ 𝑌+∅
⃗𝐵
referred to the primary (i.e stator) √3 √3
= 0 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 30 + Cos 30 = 1.5∅𝑚
𝑹𝟐 = Per –phase rotor circuit resistance referred to 2 2
the primary So, resultant flux is 1.5 times (1.5∅𝑚 ) of the
𝑿𝟐 = per-phase leakage reactance referred to the maximum flux, and at instant 1, it is directed along
primary to the primary reference line.
s = Slip of induction motor This value is constant , where ∅𝑚 is the maximum
flux in any phase, and this flux rotates around the
sator winding at synchroneous speed
Rotating magnetic field 120𝑓
𝑁𝑠 = 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
-When a three –phase ac supply is given to a three 𝑃
–phase distributed windings,a raotating magnetic
field is created. Frequency (f) and the synchronous speed( 𝒏𝒔 )
-Rotating magnetic field means that the poles on If ‘f’ is the frequency of the currents in the stator
the stator are not stationary but rotating in space. windings and the stator is wound to be equivalent
Proof for production of rotating magnetic field to ‘p’ pairs of poles, the speed of revolution of
-A two- pole , three phase distributed winding is rotating magnetic field, i.e the synchronous speed
taken on stator. 𝑛𝑠 is given by :
-A balanced three-phase supply is given to it 120𝑓
𝑛𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠
𝑝
3 –Phase a.c supply Where p = is the number of pairs of poles.
Slip (s)
When there is no load on the rotor, the resistive
forces due to windage and bearing friction are

28 | P a g e
small and the rotor runs very nearly at synchronous 𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓
b)Since slip, s = ( ) x 100 %
𝒏𝒔
speed, As the rotor is loaded, the speed falls and
𝟔𝟎 − 𝒏𝒓
this causes an increase in the frequency of induced 2=( ) x 100 %
𝟔𝟎
emf in the rotor bars and hence the rotor current, 𝟐 𝒙 𝟔𝟎
= 60 - 𝒏𝒓
force and torque increase. 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐 𝒙 𝟔𝟎
Slip speed – is the difference between the rotor i.e 𝑛𝑟 = 60 − = 58.8 rev/s
𝟏𝟎𝟎
speed, 𝑛𝑟 and the synchronous speed 𝑛𝑠 So the rotor runs at the speed of 58.8 x 60 = 3528
Slip speed =( 𝒏𝒔 - 𝒏𝒓 ) rev/s rev/min
c)The rotating magnetic field/ slip speed
NOTE: That the slip or fractional slip ‘s’ is Slip speed = ( 𝑛𝑠 - 𝑛𝑟 )
therefore the ratio
(𝒏𝒓 − 𝒏𝒔 )
x 100 % Slip speed = (60 – 58.8) = 1.2 rev/s
𝑛𝑠
(𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 )
Hence the frequency induced in the rotor bars is
I.e Slip (s) = x 100 % 1.2Hz.
𝒏𝒔
Rotor frequency Example
The rotor e.m.f is induced by an alternating flux A three –phase induction motor is supplied from
and the rate at which the flux passes the conductors a 50Hz supply and runs at 1200 rev/min when
is the slip speed.Thus the frequency of the rotor the slip is 4%. Determine the synchronous
e.m.f is given by: speed.
𝑓𝑟 = (𝑛𝑠 - 𝑛𝑟 )p Sln
(𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 )
(s) = x 100 %
𝒏𝒔
In terms of slip, this can be re-written as: 1200
𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 The rotor speed, = 20 rev/s
𝑓𝑟 = ( )𝒏 p 60
𝒏𝒔 𝒔
And slip s = 4
𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓
Where : ( ) , is the slip ‘s’ 4=(
𝒏𝒔 − 𝟐𝟎
) x 100 %
𝒏𝒔 𝒏𝒔
And 𝒏𝒔 p = is the supply frequency ‘f ‘ 𝒏𝒔 − 𝟐𝟎
0.04 = ( ) x 100 %
Hence , 𝒏𝒔

Rotor frequency, 𝒇𝒓 = sf 0.04 x𝒏𝒔 = 𝒏𝒔 - 20

And collecting like terms:
Example 𝒏𝒔 - 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝒏𝒔 = 20
The stator of a 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor 𝒏𝒔 (𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒) = 20
𝟐𝟎
is connected to a 50 Hz supply. The rotor runs at 𝒏𝒔 = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝒓𝒆𝒗/𝒔
𝟏−𝟎.𝟎𝟒
1455 rev/min at full load. Determine: = (20 .83 x 60 ) rev/min = 1250rev/min
a)the synchronous speed
b)The slip at full load Effects of slip on the rotor circuit
At stand stationary, s = 1 and the per –phase rotor
Sln emf is 𝐸2 . At any slip s, the relative speed between
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 4
a) p = = =2 stator field and the rotor is decreased.
2 2
But 𝑛𝑠 = =
𝑓 50
= 25 rev/s Consequently, the rotor emf and frequency are
𝑝 2 reduced proportional to: 𝑠𝑬𝟐 and sf respectively.
1455
b)The rotor speed, = 24.25 rev/s Example
60
(𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 ) Consider a 6-pole, 3-phase,50Hz induction motor.
The slip, s = x 100 %
𝒏𝒔 Its synchronous speed is
(𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟒.𝟐𝟓)
S= x 100 % = 3% or 0.03 120𝑓
𝟐𝟓 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
𝑃
120𝑓
𝑁𝑠 = = 1000 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
6

NOTE:
Example -So at stand still, the ralative speed of the rotor is
A – 3-phase , 60Hz induction motor has 2-poles. 1000r.p.m i.e 1000 – 0 = 1000 r.pm
If the slip is 2% at acertain load, determine -However at full load speed of 960 r.p.m then,the
a)The synchroneous speed relative speed is (s-Slip) will be
b)The speed of the rotor
c)The frequency of the inducecd e.m.f in the
rotor (𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 ) 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎−𝟗𝟔𝟎
Slip (s) = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒
𝒏𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
sln
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 2 i)If the rotor e.m.f , 𝑬𝟐 , it will reduce it to 0.04𝑬𝟐
a)f = 60 Hz and p = = =1 or simply 𝒔𝑬𝟐
2 2
𝑓 60
𝑛𝑠 = = = 60 rev/s ii)The supply frequency will be reduced to 0.04f
𝑝 1
or simply sf
or 60 x 60 =3600 rev/min
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iii)If 𝑿𝟐 is the rotor reactance at stand still, the it is 𝑰𝟐 = rotor e.mf at stand still
reduced to 𝒔𝑿𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐 = rotor p.f at stand still
Generally, the slip reduces the rotor parameters
to Starting torque ( 𝑻𝒔 )
a) Rotor emf /phase 𝒔𝑬𝟐 Let 𝐸2 = rotor e.mf per –phase at stand still
b) 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝒔𝑿𝟐 𝑋2 = rotor reactance per -phase at standstill
c) 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝒔𝒇 𝑅2 = rotor resistance per phase
Rotor impedance/phase 𝑍2 = √(𝑅2 )2 + (𝑋2 )2
Rotor impedance and current 𝐸
Rotor current /phase 𝐼2 = 2 =
𝐸2
2 2
𝑍2 √(𝑅2 ) +(𝑋2 )
𝑅2 𝑅2
1)At standstill Rotor p.f Cos ∅𝟐 = =
𝑍′2 √(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2
Therefore Starting torque 𝑻𝒔 ∝ 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐
𝑻𝒔 = 𝐾𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐
Now this can be re-writen as:
𝐸2 𝑅2
𝑻𝒔 = 𝐾𝐸2 × 2 2
× 2 2
√(𝑅2 ) +(𝑋2 ) √(𝑅2 ) +(𝑋2 )
𝐾𝐸 2 2 𝑅2
=
(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2
It is clear that the magnitude of starting torgue
would depend upon the relative values of 𝑅2 and
𝑅2 values per-phase at standstill.
At stand still: 3
a)Rotor resistance It can be shown that K =
2𝜋𝑁𝑠
The rotor resistance 𝑅2 is unaffected by frequency 3 𝐸 2 2 𝑅2
And thus 𝑻𝒔 = .
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 (𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2
or slip, and hence remains constant.
At standstill, starting current: Where ; 𝑁𝑠 is in r.p.s

b)Rotor current Condition for maximum starting torque

𝐸2 𝐸2 Maximum starting torque will attained when the:
𝐼2 = = Rotor reactance /phase = Rotor resistance /phase at
𝑍2 √(𝑅2 )2 + (𝑋2 )2
stand still
𝑅2 𝑅2
i.e when 𝑅2 = 𝑋2
And rotor p.f = Cos ∅𝟐 = = This can be proven as shown below:
𝑍2 √(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2
𝐾1 𝑅2
𝑻𝒔 = 2 2
(𝑅2 ) +(𝑋2 )
2. When running at slip s
Differentiating 𝑇𝑠 with respect to 𝑅𝑠 and equating
results to zero, we have
𝑑𝑻𝒔 1 𝑅2 (2𝑅2 )
= 𝐾1 [ − 2 ]= 0
𝑑𝑹𝒔 𝑅2 2 +𝑋2 2 (𝑅2 2 +𝑋2 2 )
𝑅2 2 + 𝑋2 2 = 2𝑅2 2
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑿𝟐

When running, Emf and the reactance per phase 𝐸2

𝑋2 will be affected by the slip s and becomes:
d) Rotor emf /phase 𝒔𝑬𝟐
e) 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝒔𝑿𝟐
Note: Under condition of max. starting torque, ∅𝟐
f) 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝒔𝒇
And the current at running and the p.f changes to = 450 and the rotor p.f = 0.707 lagging.
𝑠𝐸2 𝑠𝐸2
𝐼′2 = =
𝑍′2 √(𝑅2 )2 + (𝑠𝑋2 )2
𝑅2 𝑅2
And rotor p.f = Cos ∅𝟐 = =
𝑍′2 √(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2

ROTOR TORQUE
The torque T developed by the rotor is directly
proportional to:
i)rotor current (T ∝ 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐 )
ii)rotor e.m.f (T ∝ 𝐸2 𝐼2 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅𝟐 ) Effect of change of supply voltage
iii)Power factor of the rotor current. 𝐾𝐸 2 2 𝑅2
Where : 𝑰𝟐 = rotor current at stand still 𝑻𝒔 =
(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2

30 | P a g e
Since , 𝐸2 ∝ 𝑉 2 It can be shown that K =
3
2𝜋𝑁𝑠
𝐾𝑉 2 2 𝑅2
𝑻𝒔 = 𝟑 𝒔𝑬𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2 And thus 𝑻𝒓 = .
2 𝟐𝝅𝑵𝒔 (𝑹𝟐 )𝟐 +(𝒔𝑿𝟐 )𝟐
This shows that 𝑻𝒔 = 𝑉 ,
Where ; 𝑁𝑠 is in r.p.s
This implies that torque is directly proportional to
At starting, s = 1 and thus the starting torque is
supply voltage V. This means that a drop of 10%
given by
voltage supply would lead to a decrease of torque
by 20% and may make the motor not to start. 𝟑 𝑬𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝒔𝒕 = .
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝒔 (𝑹𝟐 )𝟐 +(𝑿𝟐 )𝟐
MOTOR UNDER LOAD
The behaviour of 3-phase induction motor on load NOTE: It may be seen that running torque is:
is that: i)Directly proportional to slip s, i.e if slip increases
i)When mechanical load is applied to the shaft of , (motor speed decreases), the torque will increase
the rotor, it begins to slow down and rotating flux and vice versa.
will cut the rotor conductors at a higher and higher
ii)directly proportional to square of supply voltage
rate, the resulting current in rotor conductor will
increase progressively, producing greater torque.
The increased rotor current produces higher torque Condition for maximum torque under running
to meet the increased load on the motor. conditions
ii)The motor and mechanical load will soon reach a It occurs when 𝑅2 = 𝑠 𝑋2
state of equilibrium when motor torque equals to And substituting 𝑅2 = 𝑠 𝑋2
load torque. When this is reached, speed cease to 3 𝑠𝐸 2 2 𝑅2
Into 𝑻𝒓 = .
drop and the motor runs at the new speed at 2𝜋𝑁𝑠 (𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2
𝑅2
constant rate. Slip corresponding to maximum torque, s =
𝑋2
iii)When load on the motor increases, the slip And therefore the equation becomes:
increases slightly (motor speed decreases slightly) 3 𝐸2 2
This results in greater relative speed between the Then 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = .
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 2𝑋2
rotating flux and rotor conductors. Consequently, NOTE:
rotor current increases producing high torque to It is evident that :
meeat the increased load. The reverse ins true. i. The value of rotor résistance does not alter the
value of the max torque
ii. The value of torque depends on stand still
reactance, so should be kept as low as possible.
iii. To obtain max torque at starting (s = 1) the
rotor resistance must be made equal to rotor
resistance at standstill.

Example
Torque under Running conditions
A 12-pole, 3-phase, 600V, 50Hz, star –
Under running conditions, slip will affects the
connected, induction motor has rotor-resistance
parameters as shown below:
and stand still reactance of 0.03 and 0.5 ohm per
Generally, the slip reduces the rotor parameters
phase respectively. Calculate:
to
a)Speed of maximum torque
a)Rotor emf /phase 𝒔𝑬𝟐
b)Ratio of full- load torque to maximum torque
𝒃)𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝒔𝑿𝟐
if the full load speed is 495 rpm.
c) 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝒔𝒇
𝑠𝐸 𝑠𝐸2 Sln
d) 𝐼′2 = 2 = 2 2 a)Synchroneous speed, 𝑁𝑠 =
120𝑓
=
120 𝑥 50
= 500 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
𝑍′2 √(𝑅2 ) +(𝑠𝑋2 ) 𝑃 12
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2 0.03
And rotor p.f = Cos ∅𝟐 = = Slip at maximum torque, s = a = = = 0.06
𝑍′2 √(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2 𝑋2 0.5
𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓
S=( )
𝒏𝒔
500 − 𝑛𝑟
0.06 = ( ) and
500
500 − 𝑛𝑟 = 500 x 0.06
𝑛𝑟 = 500 – (500 x 0.06) = 470 r.p.m

Therefore torque at running,torque Or 𝑛𝑟 = 500 (1- 0.06) = 470 rpm

𝑻𝒓 ∝ ∅𝐼′2 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅′𝟐
𝑻𝒓 = 𝐾∅𝐼′2 𝐂𝐨𝐬 ∅′𝟐 b) At full load speed, slip s = 0.01 and according
Now this can be re-written as: to the question, full load speed is 495 rpm
𝑠𝐸2 𝑅2 𝟓𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟗𝟓
𝑻𝒓 = 𝐾∅ × × i.e slip s at full load = S = ( ) = 0.01
2 2
√(𝑅2 ) +(𝑠𝑋2 ) 2 √(𝑅2 ) +(𝑠𝑋2 )2 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝐾∅𝑠𝐸2 𝑅2
𝑻𝒓 = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
=
2 𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑇 𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙.𝑠𝑝
=
2𝑎𝑠
(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2 𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑇+𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎2 +𝑠 2

31 | P a g e
 2 𝑥 0.06 𝑥 0.01 𝑃𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑟 𝑇
= = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟒
(0.06)2 + (0.01)2 = 2𝜋(24)(78.05) = 1170 W
Example
Hence power out-put = 𝑃𝑚 – mechanical losses
A 746 –kW, 3-phase, 50Hz,16-pole induction
= 11770 – 770 = 11000 W
motor has a rotor impedance of (0.02 + j0.15)Ω
at a standstill. Full load toque is obtained at 360 = 11kW
rpm. Calculate e) Thus the maximum torque occurs when rotor
a)The ratio of maximum to full load torque resistance and rotor reactance are equal
b)The speed of maximum torque 𝑹𝟐 = 𝒙𝒓 = 0.35 Ω
c)The rotor resistance to be added to get 𝑅2 0.35
Slip = = = 0.1
𝑋2 3.5
maximum starting torque. 2
𝑁
Sln 𝑚( 2 ) 𝑠𝐸1 2 𝑅2
𝑁1
a)Synchroneous speed, 𝑁𝑠 =
120𝑓
=
120 𝑥 50
= 375 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
Full load torque T = [ ][ ]
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 (𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2
𝑃 16
𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 𝟑𝟕𝟓 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎
Slip s at full load = ( )=( ) = 0.04 0.1 ( 239.6)2 𝑥 0.35
𝒏𝒔 𝟑𝟕𝟓 T = 0.01380[ ]
𝑅2 0.02 2 (0.35)2 +( 0.35)2
Slip at maximum torque, s = a = = = 2009.29
𝑋2 0.15 15 T = (0.01380)[ ] = 113.18 Nm
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑇 𝑥 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙. 𝑠𝑝 0.245
=
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑇 + 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2𝑎𝑠 f) For maximum torque, slip s = 0.1
= 2
𝑎 + 𝑠2 𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟
2 𝑥 0.04 Slip s = ( ) x 100 %
2𝑥 𝑛𝑠
= 15 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓 25 − 𝑛𝑟
2 )2 + (0.04)2 0.1 = ( )
( 25
15 (0.1)(25) = 25 - 𝑛𝑟
𝑅 0.02 2
b)At max. torque = s = a = 2 = = And rotor speed, 𝑛𝑟 = 25 – (0.1)(25)
𝑋2 0.15 15
2 = 22.5 rev/s
𝑁𝑟 = 375 – (375 x ) = 325 r.p.m
15
c)For maximum, starting torque, 𝑅2 = 𝑋2 .Hence, Or 22.5 rev x 60 = 1350 rev/min
total rotor resistance per phase = 0.15Ω.
external resistance required/ phase g)At the start i.e at standstill, slip s = 1
𝑁 2
= 0.15 – 0.02 = 0.13Ω 𝑚( 2 ) 𝐸1 2 𝑅2
𝑁1
Hence starting torque = T = [ ][ ]
Example R 2𝜋𝑛𝑠 (𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2
A 415 V, three –phase , 50 Hz, 4 pole, star – 0.1 ( 239.6)2 𝑥 0.35
connected induction motor runs at 24 rev/s on T = 0.01380[ ]
(0.35)2 +( 3.5)2
full load. The rotor resistance and reactance per 2009.29
T = (0.01380)[ ] = 22.41 Nm
12.3725
phase are 0.35Ω and 3.5 Ω respectively and the
Note that the full load torgue is 78.05 Nm while the
effective rotor –stator turns ratio is 0.85:1
starting torque is only 22.41 Nm
Calculate:
a)The synchronous speed
Example N
b)The slip
Determine for the induction motor in problem
c)The full load torque
10 at full load:
d)The power output if mechanical losses amount
a)The rotor current
to 770W
b)The rotor copper loss
e)The maximum torque
c)The starting current
f)The speed at which maximum torque occurs
Sln
g)starting torque 𝑁
𝐸𝑟 𝑠( 2 ) 𝐸1
𝑁1
a)Rotor current 𝐼𝑟 = =
𝑍𝑟 √(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2
Sln 0.85
𝑓 60 𝐸𝑟 (0.04)( 1 ) (239.6)
a)𝑛𝑠 = = = 60 rev/s 𝐼𝑟 = =
𝑝 1 𝑍𝑟 √(0.35)2 +(0,04 𝑥 3.5)2
(𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 ) 8.1464
b)s = x 100 % = = 21.61 A
𝒏𝒔 0.37696
S=
(𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟒)
x 100 % = 4% or 0.04 b)Rotor copper los per phase = 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑅2
𝟐𝟓
415 = (21.61)2 (0.35)= 163.45 W
c)Phase voltage 𝐸1 = = 239.6 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 Total copper loss for 3-phase
√3
= 3 x 163 . 45 = 490.35 W
𝑁 2 𝑁
𝑚( 2 ) ( 2 ) 𝐸1
𝑁1 𝑠𝐸1 2 𝑅2 𝐸2 𝑁1
Full load torque T = [ ][ ] c) Starting current 𝐼2 = =
2𝜋𝑛𝑠 (𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2 𝑍𝑟 √(𝑅2 )2 +(𝑋2 )2
0.85
𝐸2 ( 1 ) (239.6)
0.85 2
3( ) 0.04 ( 239.6)2 𝑥 0.35 𝐼2 = = = 57.90 A
T= [ 1 ][ ] 𝑍𝑟 √(0.35)2 +(3.5)2
2𝜋(25) (0.35)2 +(0.04 𝑥 3.5)2
Note that the starting current of 57.90 A is
803.71
T = (0.01380)[ ] = 78.05 Nm considerably higher than the full load current of
0.1421
d) Output power, including friction losses, 21.61 A)

32 | P a g e
Example
For the induction motor in example R and N
above, if the stator losses are 650 W, determine
a)The power input at full load
b)The efficiency of the motor at full load
c)The current taken from the supply at full load, Or as illustrated below
if the motor runs at a power factor of 0.87
lagging
Sln
a)Out power 𝑃𝑚 = 11.770 kW
Rotor copper loss = 490.35 W = 0.49035 kW
Stator input power, 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑚 + rotor copper loss +
rotor stator loss
= 11.770 + 0.49035 + 0.650 = 12.910 kW
b)Net power output = 11kW Or simply
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝟏𝟏 P (IGMO) as shown below
and efficiency, 𝜂 = = x 100%
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝟏𝟐.𝟗𝟏𝟎
= 85.21%
c)Power input, 𝑃1 = √3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 Cos ∅
pf = Cos ∅ = 0. 87
𝑃1
Hence, supply current, 𝐼𝐿 =
√3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 Cos ∅
12.910 𝑥 1000 Where
= = 20.64 A 𝑃𝑖𝑛 - Power into the motor
√3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 Cos ∅
Example 𝑃𝑔 – Power into the air gap or power input to the rotor
For the induction motor of problem Q to N, 𝑃𝑚 – mechanical power developed in rotor
determine the resistance of the rotor winding 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 –Power output at shaft
required for maximum starting torque.
Sln Therefore in three phase system
𝑅′
At the moment of starting, slip, s = 1 𝑷𝒈 = 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 (𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟) = 3(𝐼′𝑟 )2 𝑟 )
𝑠
Maximum torque occurs when rotor reactance 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒖 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = s𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝
equals rotor resistance hence for maximum torque, 𝑷𝒎 = 𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉(𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔) = (1-s) 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝
𝑅2 = 𝑋𝑟 = s𝑥2 = 𝑥2 = 3.5 Ω 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ(𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠) – (friction+windage losses)
Thus if the induction motor was a wound rotor type
with slip rings then an external star-connected Example5
resistance of (3.5 – 0.35 ) = 3.15 Ω per phase could The power input to the rotor at 440 V, 50Hz,6-
be added to the rotor resistance to give maximum pole, 3-phase induction motor is 80kW.The
torque at starting rotor electromotive force is observed to make
100 complete alterations per minutes. Calculate:
a)slip
b)The rotor speed
c)Rotor copper losses per phase
sln
POWER FLOW a)slip
100
100 alteration /min, 𝒇𝒓 = = 1.667Hz
60
𝑓𝑟 1.6667
s= = = 0.03333 or 3.333%
𝑓 50

And still can be explained as b)The rotor speed

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟓𝟎
Synch. Speed 𝑵𝒔 = = = 1000rpm
𝑷 𝟔
(𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟 )
Slip 𝑠 =
𝑁𝑠
So that actual rotor speed i.e :
𝑁𝑟 = (𝑁𝑠 - s𝑁𝑠 ) = (1 – s) 𝑁𝑠
= (1- 0.03333)1000 = 966.67 rpm

c)Rotor copper losses per phase

𝟖𝟎𝑲𝑾
Per phase rotor input =
𝟑
This can be illustrated as shown below. 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒖 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = s𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝
𝟖𝟎𝑲𝑾
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒖 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = (0.0333)( ) = 0.8888kW
𝟑

33 | P a g e
Example v)Starting current
A 440 V, 3-phase, 50Hz, 4-pole Y connected
induction motor has a full-load torque speed of 𝐸2 𝐸2
1425 rpm. The rotor has an impedance of (0.4 + 𝐼2 = =
𝑍2 √(𝑅2 )2 + (𝑋2 )2
j4)Ohms and rotor to stator turn ratio is 0.8. 𝑁
Calculate: But 𝐸2 = ( 2)𝐸1 = k𝐸1 = 0.8𝐸1
𝑁1
i)Full load torque 𝐸2 0.8 𝑥 254
ii)rotor current 𝐼2 = = = 50.5𝐴
𝑍2 √(0.4)2 + (4)2
iii)Full load rotor Cu-loss
iv)Power output if windage and friction losses vi)Starting torque
amount to 500W At start slip s = 1
𝟑 𝑬𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐
iv)Maximum torque and the speed at which it Hence starting torque 𝑻𝒔𝒕 = .
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝒔 (𝑹𝟐 )𝟐 +(𝑿𝟐 )𝟐
occurs 𝟑 (𝟎.𝟖 𝒙 𝟐𝟓𝟒)𝟐 𝒙 𝟎.𝟒
v)Starting current 𝑻𝒔𝒕 = . = 19.5 N-m
𝟐𝝅𝑵𝒔 (𝟎.𝟒)𝟐 +(𝟒)𝟐
vi)Starting torque
sln INDUCTION MOTOR TORGUE - SPEED
i)Full load torque CHARACTERISTICS
120𝑓 120 𝑥 50
Synchroneous speed, 𝑁𝑠 = = = 1500 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑚
𝑃 4
1500
Which gives 𝑁𝑠 = = 25 𝑟. 𝑝. 𝑠
60
(𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟 ) (1500−1425)
Slip 𝑠 = = = 0.05
𝑁𝑠 1500
Since Y-connected,
440
Per phase emf 𝐸1 = = 254V/phase
√3
𝑁
So that, 𝐸2 = ( 2)𝐸1 = 0.8𝐸1
𝑁1
3 𝑠𝐸 2 2 𝑅2
Full load torque, 𝑻𝒓 = .
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 (𝑅2 )2 +(𝑠𝑋2 )2
3 (0.05)(0.8 𝑥 254)2 𝑥 0.4
𝑻𝒓 = . = 78.87 N-m
2𝜋(25) (0.4)2 +(0.05 𝑥 4)2
The speed at which maximum torque occurs is
ii)rotor current determined by the value of the rotor resistance. At
𝑠𝐸2 𝑠𝐸2 synchronous speed, slip s = 0 and toque is Zero.
𝐼′2 = = From these observations, the torque speed and
𝑍′2 √(𝑅2 )2 + (𝑠𝑋2 )2
torque characteristics of an induction motors are as
0.05 𝑥 (0.8 𝑥 254) shown above.
𝐼′2 = = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 𝑨
√(0.4)2 + (0.05 𝑥 4)2

iii)Full load rotor Cu-loss Curve P- Cuts The full load torque line at point X,
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒖 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = s𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 showing that at full load the slip is about 4 – 5%.
The Normal operating conditions are between 0
Or
and X, thus it can be seen that for normal operation
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒖 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 3(𝐼′2 )2 R= 3 x 22.742 x 0.4=620W
the speed variation with load is quite small. The
induction motors is an almost constant speed
iv)Power output if windage and friction losses
machine. Redrawing the speed-torque characteristic
amount to 500W
between 0 and X gives the characteristics below:
𝑷𝒎 = 𝑷𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉(𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔) = (1-s) 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝
Or
𝑃𝑚 = 2𝜋 (𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)x (full load torque)
1425
𝑃𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇 = 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑥78.87 W = 11745W
60
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ(𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠) – (friction + windage loss)
= 11,745 – 500 = 11245 W
iv)Maximum torque and the speed at which it
occurs
𝑅 0.4
slip at max torque = s = a = 2 = = 0.1
𝑋2 4
3 (0.1)(0.8 𝑥 254)2 𝑥 0.4
𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = . = 98.5 N-m
2𝜋(25) (0.4)2 +(0.1 𝑥 4)2 Curve Q- is a characteristic curve in case a
Slip at max. torque ,s = 0.1 maximum torque is required at starting
Hence slip speed = s𝑁𝑠 = 0.1 x 1500 = 150 rpm Curves R and S are characteristics for values of
Hence speed at max. Torque = 1500 – 150 rotor resistances between those of P and Q
= 1350rpm NOTE. A squirrel –cage induction motor would
normally follow characteristic P
A wound –rotor induction motor would follow
characteristic P when the slip – rings are short –
circuited, which is the normal running condition.
34 | P a g e
Starting methods for induction motors Advantages of squirrel –cage induction motors
a)For squirrel – cage rotor a)Cheap and more robust
the starting methods are: b)Explosion proof due to absence of a commutator or
i)Direct – on –line starting slip –rings and brushes with their associated sparking
iii)requires little or no skilled maintenance
ii)Auto transformer starting
iv)Has self-starting properties when switched to a
iii)Star –delta starting
supply
i)Direct –On – line starting : - With this method, v)Have slightly higher efficiency and power factor
starting current is high and may cause interference
with supplies to other consumers.
ii)Auto transforming starting : - With this
method, an auto transformer is used to reduce the Advantages of wound rotor induction motors
stator voltage 𝐸1 , and thus the starting current. The advantages of the wound rotor motor compared with
However, the starting torque is seriously reduced, the cage type are that they:
i)Have a much starting torque
so the voltage is seriously reduced, so the voltage is
ii)Have a much lower starting current
reduced only sufficiently to give the required
iii)Have a means of varying speed by use of external
reduction of the starting current, rotor resistance

Double cage induction motor

The advantages of squirrel –cage and wound rotor
induction motor combined is the double cage induction
motor. This type of induction motor is specially
constructed with rotor having two - cages , one inside the
other. The outer cage has high resistance conductors so
that maximum torque is achieved at or near starting. The
inner cage has normal low resistance copper conductors
but high reactance since it is embedded deep in the iron
A double –throw switch connects the auto core. The torque-speed characteristics of the inner cage is
transformer in circuit for starting, and when the that of normal induction motor. When starting, the outer
motor is up to speed the switch is moved to the run cage produces the torque but when running, the inner
position which connects the supply directly to the cage produces the torque.
motor.
iii)Star – delta starting:- with this method, the
connections to the stator phase windings are star-
connected, so that the voltage across each phase
1 This combined characteristics is as shown below
windings is = 0.577 of the line voltage. For
√3
running, the windings are switched to delta –
connection.

It is highly efficient when running.

Uses/Applications of three-phase induction

motors.
In most industrial machine drives, the 3-phase
induction motor find a wider application.

b) Wound rotor Typical applications include:

When starting on load is necessary . a wound rotor
induction motor must be used. This is because 1. Electric train engine
maximum torque at starting can be obtained by 2. Cooling of large alternators i.e used as
adding external resistance to the rotor circuit via cooling fan
slip rings. A face –plate type starter is used and 3. Printing machines
as the resistance is gradually reduced, machine 4. Rolling machines
characteristics will be as shown by the bold line. 5. In water pump machines

35 | P a g e
 6. In hydraulic for pumping the fluid Example
7. Drilling machine Two 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motors having six
8. Grinding machine and four poles respectively are cumulatively
9. Motor refrigerator cascaded, the 6-pole motor being connected to
10. Cooler motors the main supply and the set has a slip of 2%.
11. Industrial drives Determine
a)the frequency of the rotor current
12. Agricultural and industrial pumps
b) the slip referred to each stator field
Note: the squirrel cage motor is the one widely Sln
used. a)the frequency of the rotor current
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
Synch. Speed of the set N =
NOTE: KEEP THE SECTION BELOW FOR 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟓𝟎
INDUCTION MOTION IN THIRD YEAR DEE N= = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝟔+𝟒
III (𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 )
Slip (s) =
𝒏𝒔
It is not mean for Diploma (II) (𝒏𝒔 − 𝒏𝒓 ) = s𝒏𝒔
But N = 𝒏𝒔 (in this case)
Cascade or concatenation or tandem operation And thus
In this method of speed control, two motors are Actual rotor speed of the cascaded set:
used. Both are mounted on a same shaft so that 𝒏𝒓 = (𝒏𝒔 - s𝒏𝒔 )
both run at same speed. One motor is fed from a i.e : 𝑵𝒓 = (N - sN) = (1 – s)N
3phase supply and the other motor is fed from the = (1- 0.02)600 = 588 rpm
induced emf in first motor via slip-rings. 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑓
Synch. Speed of main motor A, 𝑵𝒔𝟏 =
𝑃1
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑓 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑥 50
𝑵𝒔𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝑃1 6
(𝑵 −N)
Slip referred to this stator: 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟏
𝑵𝒔𝟏
(𝑵𝒔𝟏 − N) (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 588)
𝒔𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟐
𝑵𝒔𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Frequency of the rotor current (main rotor A) with
6 pole:
𝑓1 = 𝑆1 𝑓 = 0.412 x 50 = 20.6Hz
The motor A being supplied is called the main
motor and motor B is known as the auxiliary motor.
Let: b) the slip referred to each stator field
𝑵𝒔𝟏 = Speed of motor A Sln
𝑵𝒔𝟐 = Speed of motor B (𝑵 −N)
Slip referred to this stator: 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟏
𝑵𝒔𝟏
𝑷𝟏 = Number of poles stator of motor A
(𝑵𝒔𝟏 − N) (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 588)
𝑷𝟐 = Number of poles stator of motor B 𝒔𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟐
N = speed of the and same for both motors 𝑵𝒔𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
f = frequency of the supply Which is also the frequency of stator of auxiliary
motor B with 4-pole
𝑵𝒔𝟏 −N Hence,
Now, slip of motor A, 𝑆1 = …eqtn1 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑆1 𝑓
𝑵𝒔𝟏
Synch. Speed of Motor B, 𝑵𝒔𝟐 =
Frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A, 𝑃2
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑆1 𝑓 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑥 20.6
𝑓1 = 𝑆1 𝑓 𝑵𝒔𝟐 = = = 𝟔𝟏𝟖 𝒓. 𝒑. 𝒎
𝑃2 4
Now the , the auxiliary motor B is supplied with Slip referred to the 4 –pole motor is
the rotor with the rotor induced emf (𝑵𝒔𝟐 − N) (𝟔𝟏𝟖 − 588)
Hence 𝑵𝒔𝟐 =
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑓1
=
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑆1 𝑓
……..eqtn 2 𝒔𝟐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟓
𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑵𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝟏𝟖
Now substituting the values of 𝑆1 =
𝑵𝒔𝟏 −N
into Frequency of the 4-pole motor 𝑓2 = 𝑆2 𝑓1
𝑵𝒔𝟏 𝑓2 = 0.0485 𝑥 20.6 =1.0 Hz
eqtn 2
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑆1 𝑓 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇 (𝑵𝒔𝟏 −N)
𝑵𝒔𝟐 = = Example
𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑵𝒔𝟏
At no-load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost Two 50Hz, 3-phase induction motors having, A
same as its synchronous speed 4-pole induction motor and a 6-pole induction
i.e motor are connected in cumulative cascade. The
N =𝑵𝒔𝟐 frequency in the secondary circuit of the 6-pole
The a bove equation can be obtained that: motor is observed to be 1.0 Hz. Determine :
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇 a)The combined speed of the set
Connected synchronous speed of the set N = b)The slip in each machine
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
Sln
a)The combined speed of the set
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
Synch. Speed of the set N =
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐

36 | P a g e
 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟓𝟎
N= = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝟔+𝟒
Uses/Applications of three-phase induction
motors.
b)The slip in each machine
From, Rotor frequency, 𝒇𝒓 = sf In most industrial machine drives, the 3-phase
𝑓𝑟 1 induction motor find a wider application.
s= = = 0.02
𝑓 50
Typical applications include:
So that actual rotor speed of the cascaded set:
i.e : 𝑵𝒓 = (N - sN) = (1 – s)N 13. Electric train engine
= (1- 0.02)600 = 588 rpm 14. Cooling of large alternators i.e used as
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑓
Synch. Speed of main motor A, 𝑵𝒔𝟏 = cooling fan
𝑃1
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑓 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑥 50 15. Printing machines
𝑵𝒔𝟏 = = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝑃1 4
(𝑵 −N)
16. Rolling machines
Slip referred to this stator: 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒔𝟏 17. In water pump machines
𝑵𝒔𝟏
(𝑵𝒔𝟏 − N) (𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 − 588) 18. In hydraulic for pumping the fluid
𝒔𝟏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟖 19. Drilling machine
𝑵𝒔𝟏 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
b)The slip in each machine 20. Grinding machine
21. Motor refrigerator
Frequency of the rotor current (main rotor A) with 22. Cooler motors
4 pole: 23. Industrial drives
𝑓1 = 𝑆1 𝑓 = 0.608 x 50 = 30.4Hz 24. Agricultural and industrial pumps

And the slip referred to this stator: 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟖 Note: the squirrel cage motor is the one widely
Which is also the frequency of stator of auxiliary
used.
motor B with 6-pole
Hence,
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑆1 𝑓
Synch. Speed of Motor B, 𝑵𝒔𝟐 =
𝑃2
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑆1 𝑓 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑥 20.4
𝑵𝒔𝟐 = = = 𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝒓. 𝒑. 𝒎
𝑃2 6
Slip referred to the 6 –pole motor is
(𝑵𝒔𝟐 − N) (𝟔𝟎𝟖 − 588)
𝒔𝟐 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑
𝑵𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝟎𝟖

Example
A cascaded set consist of two motors A and B
with 4 poles and 6 poles respectively. The motor
A is connected to a 50-Hz supply. Find
i)the speed of the set
ii)The electric power transferred to motor B
when the input to motor A is 25kW. Neglect
losses.
Sln
a)The speed of the set
The combined speed of the set
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
Synch. Speed of the set N =
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒙 𝟓𝟎
N= = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒓𝒑𝒎
𝟔+𝟒

b)The electric power transferred to motor B

when the input to motor A is 25kW. Neglect
losses.
Sln
Note:
The output of the two-motors are proportional to
the number of their poles.
Out-put of 4-pole motor to B
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
= input power x
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩
4
= input power x
𝟒+𝟔
4
= 25 x = 10 k W
𝟏𝟎

37 | P a g e
TOPIC 4

SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

TOPICS
1. Electric circuit analysis
2. Transients
3. Three phase induction motors
4. Three phase synchronous Machine
5. Two port network
6. Three phase systems
7. Complex waveforms
8. Dc Machines
9. Single Phase Motors
10. Special Machines
11. Three-Phase transformers

SINGLE PHASE
Objectives
a)Describe the construction of single phase motors The rotor is the rotating and invariably of the
i. Stator squirrel cage type. It has a shaft and a laminated
ii. Rotor silicon core having partly closed slots. The main
b)Explain the principle of operation of single phase stator winding and auxiliary (or starting)
ac motors winding are joined in parallel, and there is an
i. Split phase arrangement by which the polarity of only the
ii. Capacitor start starting winding can be reversed. This is
iii. Shaded pole necessary for changing the direction of rotation
iv. Repulsion induction motor of the rotor.
v. Universal motor
C) Describe the characteristics of single-phase ac
motors
Torque/speed characteristics
i. Split phase
ii. Capacitor start
iii. Capacitor run
iv. Shaded pole
v. Repulsion induction motor
vi. Universal motor
d) State the applications of single-phase ac motors

INTRODUCTION
The single phase motors are those motors
designed to operate from a single phase supply
(240V)
Constructions of Single Phase Motors
Single-phase induction motor is very simple and
robust. They have the stator and the rotor. The
stator is the stationary outer frame made of cast
or fabricated steel .It has slots for carrying stator Fig: 1.41
windings. The stator conductors have low
resistance and in addition, they have winding
called Starting winding also mounted on the
stator. This winding has high resistance and its OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE
embedded deep inside the stator slots, so that INDUCTION MOTORS
they have considerable inductance. A single-phase induction motor is not self-staring
They are laminated to reduce eddy current. due to only one single winding that cannot
produce rotating magnetic field.
When power supply for the stator is switched
on, an alternating current flows through the
stator winding. This sets up an alternating flux.
This flux crosses the air gap and links with the
rotor conductors. By electromagnetic
induction, e.m.f.’s are induced in the rotor
conductors. Since the rotor forms a closed
circuit, current is induced in the rotor bars. Due

38 | P a g e
 to interaction between the rotor induced 1)Split phase motors
currents and the stator flux, a torque is
produced. It is readily seen that if all rotor
conductors in the upper half come under a stator
N pole, all rotor conductors in the lower half
come under a stator S pole. Hence, the upper
half of the rotor is subjected to a torque which
tends to rotate it in one direction and the lower
half of the rotor is acted upon by an equal
torque which tends to rotate it in the opposite
direction. The two equal and opposite torques
cancel out, with the result that the net driving
torque is zero.

Making single phase motor self starting

All the split-phase motors have two stator

windings, a main (or running) winding and an
auxiliary (or starting) winding. Both these
windings are connected in parallel but their
magnetic axes are space displaced by 900
In order to make single phase motor to start, an electrical. The auxiliary windings are connected
additional winding know as auxiliary to the supply through centrifugal switch. When
winding/starting winding is provided at the the stator of the motor is connected to the
stator and are 𝟗𝟎𝟎 electrically apart and supply, there will a phase difference between
connected in parallel across the dingle phase the current drawn by the main winding and the
supply . The motor behaves like a two phase auxiliary and therefore produce a rotating
motor and the two current produce a revolving magnetic field and since the rotor is squirrel
flux and hence the motor is made self-starting. cage, the motor start rotating. It start rotating
when about 75% - 85% of the speed is reached,
When the motor is up to speed then the the centrifugal switch disconnect the auxiliary
auxiliary winding is cut out either winding
automatically by a centrifugal switch or by
means of a switch. Split phase motors are of following types.
a)Resistor-split phase motors
The analysis of the single phase motor can be b)Capacitor split-phase motors
made based on two theories: c)Capacitor start and run motors
a)Double revolving field theory, and d)Capacitor-run motors
b)Cross field theory.
a)Capacitor split-phase motors (or) Capacitor
Double field theory start motors:
This theory makes use of the idea that an
alternating uni-axial quantity can be
represented by two oppositely-rotating vectors
of half magnitude. An alternating sinusoidal
flux can be represented by two revolving flux
each equal to the value of the alternating flux
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
and each rotating synchronously (𝑵𝒔 = in
𝒑
opposite direction

Various types of the single phase Motors

a)Split –phase motors

a. Resistant start motors
b. Capacitor start motor
c. Capacitor start and capacitor run This has a capacitor C is connected in series with
ii. Capacitor run the starting winding as shown above. The value
iii. b)Shaded pole of capacitor is so chosen that Is leads Im by about
iv. c)Repulsion induction motor 80° (i.e., ɸ ~ 80°) which is considerably greater
v. d)Universal motor than 25° found in resistor split-phase motor [See
figure: 1.72(b).Consequently, starting torque (Ts
= k Im Is sinɸ) is much more than that of a split-
39 | P a g e
phase motor Again, the starting winding is 1.73(a).This design eliminates the need of a
opened by the centrifugal switch when the motor centrifugal switch and at the same time
attains about 75% of synchronous speed. The improves the power factor and efficiency of
motor then operates as a single-phase induction the motor.
motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches
the normal speed.

Characteristics
i)Has good starting characteristic than resistor
start
ii)The phase angle between the two currents is
about 80° compared to about 25° in a resistor
split-phase motor. Consequently, for the same
starting torque, the current in the starting
1.73a Fig 1.73b
winding is only about half that in a resistor split-
ii)In the other design, two capacitors C1 and
phase motor. Therefore, the starting winding of
C2 are used in the starting winding as shown in
a capacitor start motor heats up less quickly and
fig: 1.73(b).. The smaller capacitor C1 required
is well suited to applications involving either
for optimum running conditions is
frequent or prolonged starting periods.
permanently connected in series with the
starting winding. The much larger capacitor C2
is connected in parallel with C1 for optimum
starting and remains in the circuit during
starting. The starting capacitor C1 is
disconnected when the motor approaches about
75% of synchronous speed. The motor then
runs as a single-phase induction motor.
. Characteristics
Fig: 1.72(b) 1.The starting winding and the capacitor can be
designed for perfect 2-phase operation at any
load. The motor then produces a constant
torque and not a pulsating torque as in other
single-phase motors.
ii)Because of constant torque, the motor is
vibration free.

Applications:
a)Hospitals
b)Studios and
c)Other places where silence is important.

Applications:
Since the motors possess high-starting torque,
these motors are used for
i. Refrigerators
ii. Air-conditioners
iii. Compressors
iv. Reciprocating pumps
Other loads requiring high-starting torques.
The power rating of such motors lies between
120 W and 750W.

b)Capacitor-Start and Capacitor-Run motors: Fig: 1.73 (c)

This motor is identical to a capacitor-start motor
The power rating of such motors lies between
except that starting winding is not opened after
starting so that both the windings remain 100 to 400 watts
connected to the supply when running as well as
at starting. Two designs are generally used.
c)Capacitor-run motors:
i)In one design, a single capacitor C is used This motor is also called permanent split
for both starting and running as shown in fig: capacitor motor. The same capacitor is kept
40 | P a g e
 permanently in series with auxiliary winding
both at starting and under running conditions
as illustrated in figure below. There is no
centrifugal switch.

Fig: 1.8(a)

Operation of Shaded – Pole

At a particular desired load, the capacitor and The operation of the motor can be understood
auxiliary winding can be so designed as to by referring to figure: 1.8(b) which shows one
result in 900 time-phase displacement between pole of the motor with a shading coil.
the two winding currents. In such a case, the i)During the portion OA of the alternating-
motor would operate as a balanced two phase current cycle [See figure: 1.8(b)(i)], the flux
induction motor, backward rotating flux begins to increase and an e.m.f. is induced in the
would, therefore, be absent and the motor shading coil. The resulting current in the shading
would have improved efficiency and better coil will be in such a direction (Lenz’s law) so as
operating power factor. Since backward to oppose the change in flux. Thus the flux in the
rotating field can be reduced to zero, the shaded portion of the pole is weakened while that
pulsating torque due to interaction between in the unshaded portion is strengthened as shown
forward and backward rotating fields is absent in figure: 1.8(b)(ii)
and this results in a quiet motor. ii)During the portion AB of the alternating-
current cycle, the flux has reached almost
maximum value and is not changing.
Consequently, the flux distribution across the
pole is uniform [See figure: 1.8(b)(iii)] since no
current is flowing in the shading coil. As the flux
decreases (portion BC of the alternating current
cycle), current is induced in the shading coil so
as to oppose the decrease in current. Thus the
flux in the shaded portion of the pole is
strengthened while that in the unshaded portion
is weakened as shown in figure: 1.8(b)(iv)

(b) In these motors, the value of permanent

capacitor is so chosen as to obtain a compromise
between the best starting and running conditions. A
typical torque-speed characteristic is shown a bove
These motors are used where quiet operation is
essential as in
i. Offices Fig: 1.8(b)
ii. Class rooms
iii. Theaters i)The effect of the shading coil is to cause the
field flux to shift across the pole face from the
iv. Ceiling fans, in which the value of
unshaded to the shaded portion. This shifting
capacitance varies from 2 to 3µF. flux is like a rotating weak field moving in the
direction from unshaded portion to the shaded
2) Shaded-Pole Motor: portion of the pole.
The shaded-pole motor is very popular for ii)The rotor is of the squirrel-cage type and is
ratings below 0.05 H.P. (~40 W) because of its under the influence of this moving field.
extremely simple construction. It has salient Consequently, a small starting torque is
poles on the stator excited by single-phase developed. As soon as this torque starts to
supply and a squirrel cage rotor as shown in revolve the rotor, additional torque is produced
figure: 1.8(a). A portion of each pole is by single-phase induction-motor action. The
surrounded by a short-circuited turn of copper motor accelerates to a speed slightly below the
strip called shading coil.

41 | P a g e
synchronous speed and runs as a single-phase
induction motor.

Characteristics
i)The salient features of this motor are
extremely simple construction and
absence of centrifugal switch.
ii)Starting torque, efficiency and power
factor are very low

Applications:
These motors are only suitable for low power
applications e.g., to drive:
a)small fans
b)Toys
c)Hair driers
d)Desk fans etc.
The power rating of such motors is upto about
30 W. Fig: 1.91
Operation
3 A.C. SERIES MOTOR (or) UNIVERSAL When the motor is connected to an a.c. supply,
MOTOR: the same alternating current flows through the
field and armature windings. The field winding
A d.c. series motor will rotate in the same
produces an alternating flux that reacts with the
direction regardless of the polarity of the supply.
current flowing in the armature to produce a
One can expect that a d.c. series motor would
torque. Since both armature current and flux
also operate on a single-phase supply. It is then
reverse simultaneously, the torque always acts in
called an a.c. series motor. However, some
the same direction. It may be noted that no
changes must be made in a d.c. motor that is to
rotating flux is produced in this type of
operate satisfactorily on a.c. supply. The changes
machines; the principle of operation is the same
effected are:
as that of a d.c. series motor. Characteristics
i)The entire magnetic circuit is laminated in
order to reduce the eddy current loss. Hence an
a.c. series motor requires a more expensive The operating characteristics of an a.c. series
construction than a d.c. series motor. motor are similar to those of a d.c. series
ii)The series field winding uses as few turns as motor.
possible to reduce the reactance of the field i)The speed increases to a high value with a
winding to a minimum. This reduces the decrease in load. In very small series motors,
voltage drop across the field winding. the losses are usually large enough at no load
iii)A high field flux is obtained by using a low- that limits the speed to a definite value (1500 -
reluctance magnetic circuit. 15,000 r.p.m.).
iv)There is considerable sparking between the ii)The motor torque is high for large armature
brushes and the commutator when the motor is currents, thus giving a high starting torque.
used on a.c. supply. It is because the alternating iii)At full-load, the power factor is about 90%.
flux establishes high currents in the coils short- However, at starting or when carrying an
circuited by the brushes. When the short- overload, the power factor is lower.
circuited coils break contact from the
commutator, excessive sparking is produced. Applications
This can be eliminated by using high resistance The fractional horsepower a.c. series motors
leads to connect the coils to the commutator have high-speed (and corresponding small size)
segments. and large starting torque. They can, therefore,
be used to drive:
Construction: a) high-speed vacuum cleaners
The construction of an a.c. series motor is very
b) sewing machines
similar to a d.c. series motor except that above
modifications are incorporated [See figure:1.91]. c) electric shavers
such a motor can be operated either on a.c. or d.c. d) drills
supply and the resulting torque-speed curve is e) Machine tools etc.
about the same in each case. For this reason, it is
sometimes called a universal motor.

42 | P a g e
TOPIC 5

DC.MACHINES
Objectives
1.Describe the construction of synchronous
machine
i)armature
ii)Field
iii)Commutator
iv)Shaft and bearings Operation of D.C Generator
A set of conductors being rotated in a
v)orientation of the field with respect to brushes
steady magnetic field
2.Explain the operation the synchronous
machine ↓
i)Derivation of machine parameters an E.M.F(Electro motive force)is induced
ii)E.m.f equation in a set of conductors,
iii)Power equation ↓
iv)Torque equation which causes current to flow if the conductor
v)Analysis of circuits circuit is closed, According to Faradays law’s(First
vi)Field circuit law) of electromagnetic induction.
vii)Armature current
viii)Characteristics Therefore, the essential components of a
ix)Emf/speed generator are:
x)Torque/speed a)A steady magnetic field
xi)Magnetization curves b)Conductor or a group of conductors
xii)Excitation c)motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
3.Describe the speed control methods used in
DC machines Simple Loop D.C. Generator or Working of D.C
i)General speed equation Generator:
ii)Base speed control Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating
iii)SCR speed control clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a
iv)Dynamic behaviours during speed adjustment constant speed as shown in Fig.(4.3). As the loop
v)Armature control rotates, the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD
vi)Shunt field control changes continuously. Hence the e.m.f. induced in
vii)precautious when increasing speed through field these coil sides.
weakening Explanation:
vii)Speed changes should be made slowly to avoid When the loop is in position no. 1 [See Fig. 4.3],
damage to commentators and brushes the generated e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides
4. State the application of d.c machines (AB and CD) are cutting no flux but are moving
parallel to it.
Introduction When the loop is in position no. 2, the coil sides
DC Generator Converts Mechanical are moving at an angle to the flux and, therefore, a
energy into Electrical Energy as shown in low e.m.f. is generated as indicated by point 2 in
Fig. (4.4).

DC Motor Converts Electrical energy into

Mechanical Energy as shown in

When the loop is in position no. 3, the coil sides

(AB and CD) are at right angle to the flux and are,
therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate, the
generated e.m.f. is maximum as indicated by point
DC Generator 3 in Fig. (4.4).
When the loop is in position 4, the generated
e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the
flux at an angle and, therefore, a low e.m.f. is
generated as indicated by point 4 in Fig. (4.4).

43 | P a g e
When the loop is in position 5, the generated It contains the following
e.m.f. is zero because the coil sides (AB and CD) a) Field Poles
are cutting no flux but are moving parallel to it. b) Field winding
When the loop is in position 6, the coil sides c) Pole shoe
move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence
the direction of generated e.m.f. is reversed. The The function of the field system is to produce
coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and, uniform magnetic field.
therefore, a low e.m.f. is generated as indicated by It consists of a number of salient poles (of course,
point 6 in Fig. (4.4). even number) bolted to the inside of circular frame
When the loop is in position no. 7, the coil sides (generally called yoke).
(AB and CD) are at right angle to the flux and are, Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the
therefore, cutting the flux at a maximum rate, the d.c. exciting current. The field coils are connected
generated e.m.f. is maximum as indicated by point in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite
7 in Fig. (4.4). polarity. The m.m.f. developed by the field coils
When the loop is in position 8, the generated produces a magnetic flux that passes through the
e.m.f. is less because the coil sides are cutting the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame
flux at an angle and, therefore, a low e.m.f. is (See Fig. 4.6). Practical d.c. machines have air
generated as indicated by point 8 in Fig. (4.4). gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.

Induced E.M.F
Eg α Φ ( Magnetic flux)
Eg α N ( Speed of the armature)
Eg α Z ( Number of conductors)

Construction of D.C Machine or D.C. Generator

or D.C. Motor
A DC Machine is a Electro-Mechanical Energy
Conversion Device, which can be operated as a DC
generator or DC motor. The d.c. generators and d.c.
motors have the same general construction. Any
d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-
versa

Air gaps – used to separate stator and the rotor

(iii) Armature core

It is a rotating part.
The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft
and rotates between the field poles.
Conductors are placed on armature slots.
It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about
0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked to form a
All d.c. machines have 6 principal components viz.,
cylindrical core as shown in Fig (4.7).
1. Yoke
2. Field system
3. Armature core
4. Armature winding
5. Commutator
6. Brushes
(i)Yoke
It is a stationary part.
The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke.
It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not only
provides mechanical strength to the whole
assembly but also carries the magnetic flux (iv) Armature winding
produced by the field winding. It is a rotating part.
Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts The slots of the armature core hold insulated
or welding. conductors that are connected in a suitable manner.
This is known as armature winding.
(ii) Field system This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is
It is a stationary part. induced.

44 | P a g e
The armature conductors are connected in series- N = speed of armature in r.p.m.
parallel; the conductors being connected in series A = number of parallel paths
so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so A =2 ... for wave winding
as to increase the current. = P ... for lap winding
there are two types of armature winding in a d.c.
machine viz., (a) Lap winding (b) Wave winding. In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by
one conductor is given by:
(v) Commutator Flux cut by one conductor = P Φ webers
It is a rotating part. Time taken to complete one revolution is given by
Which converts AC to DC and DC to AC 𝟔𝟎
T = seconds
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which 𝑵

converts the alternating voltage generated in the

armature winding into direct voltage across the Therefore the average induced e.mf in one
brushes. conductor will be
Flux cut by one conductor 𝐏𝚽
The commutator is made of copper segments E= = 𝟔𝟎
Time taken to complete one revolution
𝑵
insulated from each other by mica sheets and
mounted on the shaft of the machine (See Fig 4.8). 𝐏 𝚽𝐍
The armature conductors are soldered to the =
60
commutator segments in a suitable manner to give The number of conductors connected in series in
rise to the armature winding. 𝑍
each parallel path =
𝐴
Great care is taken in building the commutator
Hence the average induced emf across each parallel
because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
path or the armature terminals is given by the
bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The
equation shown below
sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and 𝐏 𝚽𝐍 𝑍 𝐏 𝚽𝐙𝐍
carbonise the commutator. 𝐸𝑔 = x =
60 𝐴 60𝐴

where A = 2 for-wave winding

= P ... for lap winding

Fig 4.8 N = speed in rpm
Φ = Magnetic flux.
(vi) Brushes NOTE: Induced E.M.F
It is a stationary part.
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical Eg α Φ ( Magnetic flux)
connections between the rotating commutator and Eg α N ( Speed of the armature)
stationary external load circuit. Eg α Z ( Number of conductors)
The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the
commutator. General expression for resistance of DC
The brush pressure is adjusted by means of armature winding.
adjustable springs (See Fig. 4.9). If :
If the brush pressure is very large, the friction Z =number of conductors, each of length L
produces heating of the commutator and the S = cross-sectional area in ‘a’ pairs of circuit
brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the ‘p’ –pole pair
imperfect contact with the commutator may 𝝆 = resistivity of the windings
produce sparking. Then the resistance of any conductor is given as :
𝝆𝑳
R=
𝑺
a)Armature windings consists of Z conductors
arranged in ‘a’ pairs of the circuits.
b)Thus the number of conductors in each parallel
𝑍
circuit =
𝑎
All conductors in each parallel circuit are
connected in series.
𝑍
as aresult of ,
𝑎
𝜌𝐿 𝑍
E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator Resitance R = ( ) ( ) Ω
𝑆𝑎 𝑎

Derive an expression for the e.m.f. generated in

c)There are ‘a’ parallel circuits in the whole of the
a d.c. generator. armature winding. Thus the general equation
Let Φ= flux/pole in Wb resistance of armature winding is given by:
Z = total number of armature conductors 𝝆𝑳𝒁 𝟏 𝟏 𝝆𝑳𝒁 𝟏 𝝆𝑳𝒁
R = ( ) ( ) = 𝟐 ( ) Hence , R = 𝟐 ( )
P = number of poles 𝑺𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝑺𝒂 𝒂 𝑺𝒂

45 | P a g e
Example Important Notes:
Caculate the resistance of 6-pole,lap connected i)The expression given for the induced EMF for
armature winding using the following data: D.C generator holds also for D.C motors
ii)However, in the case of DC motors, the induced
Number of slots = 150 EMF is called back EMF, because the induced
Conductor per slots = 8 EMF acts in a direction opposite to the applied
Mean length of one turn = 250cm voltage.
Crosectional area of each conductor: 10mm x iii)Hence, back EMF for DC motors is
2.5mm 𝐏 𝚽𝐍 𝒁 𝐏 𝚽𝐙𝐍
𝑬𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒆𝒎𝒇 = x =
𝟔𝟎 𝑨 𝟔𝟎𝑨
Resistivity 𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 Ohm –cm
Sln
Example
Total number ofconductors of armature windings:
A 6 –pole , lap wound armature has 840
Z = 150 x8 = 1200
12002 conductors and flux per pole of 0.018 wb.
Number of turns N= = 600 Calculate the emf generated, when machine is
2
Now : running at 600 rpm.
𝟏 𝝆𝑳𝒁 Sln
R= 𝟐( )
𝒂 𝑺𝒂 For lap type A = P = 6
𝟏 2.1 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 250 𝑥 600 𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙 𝚽𝐙𝐍
R=
𝟔 𝟐( 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟐.𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐
) = 𝟏𝟐𝟔Ω 𝐸𝑔 = = V
60𝑃 60
𝟔 𝐱𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝐱 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟖𝟒𝟎
𝐸𝑔 = = 1512 𝑉
Armature windings 60 𝑥 6
There are two types of armature windings:
a)Lap windings Example
b)Wave windinds A 6 –pole , 2 –circuit , wave wound armature
has 300 conductors and runs at 1000rpm . The
Lap Windings Wave windings EMF generated on open circuit is 400V . Find
the useful flux per cycle.
Sln
For Wave wound A = 2
And
𝑷 𝜱𝑵𝒁 𝑷 𝜱𝒁𝑵
𝐸𝑔 = = V
60 𝑥 2 120
𝐸𝑔 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝑨 400 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝟐
In lap winding, the In wave winding, 𝜱= = = o.2666 Wb
𝑃𝑁𝑍 6 𝑥 1000 𝑥 300
two ends of a coil, “start” and “finish”
designated “start’” ends are connected Example
and “finish”, are to the same A lap – wound DC shunt generator having 80
slots with 10 conductors per slot generates at no
connected to the commutator
load an EMF of 400V, when running at 1000
adjacent commutator segment. rpm. At what speed , should it be rotated to
segments. (side of generate a voltage of 220 V on open circuit?
successive coils Sln
overlap each coil, Total no. of conductors Z = 80 x 10 = 800
that’s why called as For lap wound, A+P, Hence EMF is
𝑃 𝛷𝑁𝑍 𝛷𝑍𝑁
lap winding). 𝐸𝑔 = = V
60𝑃 60
EMF for two different types of armature 400 =
𝛷 𝑥 1000 𝑥 800
V
windings 60
So that
𝐸𝑔 𝑥 60 400 𝑥 60
Number of parallel Number of parallel 𝛷= = = 0.03 𝑊𝑏
𝑁𝑍 1000 𝑥 800
paths in the paths in the Desired value of generated voltage to be 220 V
armature winding = armature Hence
𝛷𝑍𝑁
Number of poles in winding=2 220 =
60
60 𝑥 220
the machine. (irrespective of N=
800 𝑥 0.03
= 550 rpm
number of poles).

Hence e.mf is given Hence e.mf is given

by: by:
𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙 𝚽𝐙𝐍 𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙 𝐏 𝚽𝐙𝐍
𝐸𝑔 = = V 𝐸𝑔 = = V
60𝑃 60 60 𝑥 2 120

46 | P a g e
Classification of DC MOTORS
The voltage output depends upon
Or Types of D.C. Generators i)the speed of rotation of armature
ii)the field current.
The greater the speed and field current, greater is
the generated e.m.f.

KVL to right side circuit in fig 4.10

Generators are generally classified according to E.m.f. of the generator Eg = VL+IaRa
their methods of field excitation. Armature current, Ia = IL
D.C. generators are divided into the following two Electric power developed Pd= EgIa
classes: Power delivered to load PL= VLIa
a) Separately excited d.c. generators
b) Self-excited d.c. generators (2)Self-Excited D.C. Generators
1. Series generator; A D.C. generator whose field magnet winding is
2. Shunt generator; supplied by the current from the output of the
3. Compound generator generator itself.
a. Short shunt compound generator There are three types of self-excited generators
b. Long shunt compound generator depending upon the manner in which the field
winding is connected to the armature, namely;
1)Shunt generator
2)Series generator
(1) Separately Excited D.C. Generators 3)Compound generator
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is a. Short shunt compound generator
supplied from an independent external d.c. b. Long shunt compound generator
source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately
excited generator.

47 | P a g e
 SUMMARY OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF DC GENERATORS
Name Diagram Explanation Formula
Series -In Series Generator the field winding E.m.f. of the generator
Generato is connected in series with armature Eg = VL + Ia (Ra+Rse)
winding so that whole armature Where Armature current, Ia = Ise = IL
r current flows through the field Electric power developed Pd= EgIa
winding as well as the load. Power delivered to load PL= VLIL
-Since the field winding carries the
whole of load current, it has a
few turns of thick wire having low
resistance.
Shunt -In a shunt generator, the field Em.f. of the generator Eg = VL + Ia Ra
generato winding is connected in parallel with Where : Ia = IL + Ish
the armature winding so that V
r Shunt field current, Ish =
terminal voltage of the generator is Rsh

applied across it.

-The shunt field winding has many Electric power developed Pd= EgIa
turns of fine wire having high Power delivered to load PL= VLIL
resistance. Therefore, only a part of
armature current flows through
shunt field winding and the rest
flows through the load.

Short -It is a compound generator in E.m.f. generated Eg = VL + Ia Ra+IseRse

shunt which only shunt field winding
Series field current, Ise = IL
is in parallel with the armature
Generator Apply KCL to the circuit
winding. Armature Current Ia =Ise + Ish
Apply KVL to the circuit
-V+IseRse+IshRsh=0
𝑉
Shunt field current, Ish=
𝑅𝑠ℎ

Power developed in armature = EgIa

Power delivered to load = VL IL

Long It is a compound Generator Series field current, Ise = Ia = IL + Ish

Shunt In which shunt field winding is 𝑉
Shunt field current, Ish = 𝑅
Generator in parallel with both series 𝑠ℎ

field and armature Winding.

Apply KVL to the circuit in Fig 4.14
e.m.f. generated Eg = V+ Ia
(Ra+Rse )
Power developed in armature = EgIa
Power delivered to load = VL IL

SUMMARY on the Comparisson between DC Shunt and DC Series motors

DC Shunt Motor DC Series Motor

𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝑳 − 𝑰𝒔𝒉 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒔𝒄
𝑉
𝑰𝑺𝒉 = 𝑅
𝑠ℎ
𝑬𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌−𝒆𝒎𝒇 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 𝑬𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌−𝒆𝒎𝒇 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 (𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒂 )

48 | P a g e
Example Characteristics of DC generators
Important characteristics of a d.c generator
The armature of a 4-pole , lap-wound shunt
1)Open circuit characteristics [𝐸𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝑓 ]
generator has 120 slots with 4 conductors per
2)Internal or total characteristics [𝐸𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝑎 ]
slot. The flux per pole is 0.05 wb. The armature
resistance is 0.05 Ohms and the shunt field 3)External characteristics [𝑉𝐿 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐼𝐿 ]
resistance is 50 Ohm. Find the speed of the
machine when supplying 450 A at aterminal Characteristics of separately Excited D.C
voltage of 250V Generator
Sln The field winding of the d.c. generator (series or
shunt) is disconnected from the machine and is
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 separately excited from an external d.c. source as
V = 250 shown in Fig. 4.15.
Line current 𝐼𝐿 = 450A
Shunt Field resistance = 50 Ohm
𝑉 250
Shunt field current 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 5𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 50

Amarture current = 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ

= 450 + 5 = 455 A
Armature resistance, 𝑅𝑎 = 0.05 Ohms The generator is run at fixed speed. The field
current (If) is increased from zero in steps and the
Generated 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 corresponding values of generated e.m.f (E0) read
off on a voltmeter connected across the armature
= 250 + 455 x 0.05 = 272.75 V terminals. On plotting the relation between E0 and
𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙 𝚽𝐙𝐍
If, we get the open circuit characteristic as shown in
𝐸𝑔 = = V Fig. 4.16.
60𝐴 60
𝟒 𝐱 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝐱 𝐍 𝐱 (𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟒)
272.75 = V
60 𝑥 4
So that
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝟒 𝐱 𝟐𝟕𝟐.𝟕𝟓
N= = 682 rpm
4 𝑥 0.05 𝑥 120 𝑥 4

Example
A 120 V Dc shunt motor draws a current of
200A. The armature resistance is 0.02 Ohm, and
shunt field resistance of 30 ohm. Knee point: The point at which saturation starts.
i).Find the back EMF
2. Internal and External Characteristics
ii)If the lap – wound armature has 90 slots with The external characteristic of a separately excited
4 conductors per slot, at what speed will the generator is the curve between the terminal voltage
motor run, when the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb? (VL) and the load current IL in Fig 4.17(Curve 2).
As the load current increases, the terminal voltage
Sln falls due to two reasons:
a) Back emf (a) The armature reaction
𝑉 120 (b) There is voltage drop across armature
Shunt field current 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 4𝐴 resistance (= ILRa = IaRa).
𝑅𝑠ℎ 30
Amarture current = 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ
= 200 – 4 = 196 A
𝑬𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌−𝒆𝒎𝒇 = 𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
𝑬𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌−𝒆𝒎𝒇 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟗𝟔 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 116.08 V

b)For lap – wound, A = P

Therefore , EMF is
𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙 𝚽𝐙𝐍
𝐸𝑔 = = V
60𝐴 60
𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝐱 𝐍 𝐱 (𝟗𝟎 𝐱 𝟒)
116.08 = V
60
So that The internal characteristic can be determined
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟏𝟔.𝟎𝟖
N= = 483.67 rpm from external characteristic by adding ILRa
𝟎.𝟎𝟒 𝒙 𝟗𝟎 𝒙 𝟒
drop to the external characteristic.
49 | P a g e
 Therefore the torque acts on the
armature, torque is nothing but an
DC Motor twisting force acts on the armature.
Referring to the Fig 4.2, DC Motor
Converts Electrical energy into
Mechanical Energy.

Working Principle of DC Motor Principle

"whenever a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical
force". The direction of this force is given by
Fleming's left hand rule and its magnitude is given Back EMF or Counter EMF
by F = BIL. When the motor armature rotates, the
Where, armature conductors will cut the flux and
B = magnetic flux density, an EMF is induced.
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic The direction of this induced EMF is
field. opposite to the applied voltage (V)
shown in Fig 4.21. so, it is called Back
Fleming's left hand rule: If we stretch the first emf or Counter emf (Eb). Basically it gets
finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to generated by the generating action so the
be perpendicular to each other, and the direction of
magnetic field is represented by the first finger, magnitude is generated emf equation.
direction of the current is represented by the second
finger, then the thumb represents direction of the
force experienced by the current carrying Volts
conductor. Where the terms Eb is Back EMF
Working We can write Eb = V - IaRa from the Fig
Consider that the armature has only one coil which
is placed between the magnetic field shown below 4.21 by Applying KVL
in the Fig 4.18. When the DC supply is given to the
armature coil the current starts flowing through it. Where:
This current develops their own field around the Ra = Armature Resistance
coil. Fig 4.19 shows the field induces around the Ia = Armature Current
coil. Where MNA is the Magnetic Neutral Axis. The effective mechanical power is
𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂

Significance of Back EMF

The significance of Back Emf is, it acts as a
governor i.e it makes motor self regulating. So
that it draws much current as necessary.
By the interaction or superimposing both Fig Example:
4.18 and 4.19 of the fields (produces by the The armature of a DC machine has a
coil and the magnet), resultant field develops resistance of 2.5Ω and is connected to a
across the conductor. The resultant field tends 300V supply. Calculate the e.m.f generated
to regain its original position, i.e. in the axis of when it is running:
the main field. The field exerts the force at the a)As a generator giving 100A
ends of the conductor, and thus the coil starts sln
rotating shown in the Fig 4.20.
Eg = V + IaRa
= 300+ (100)(0.25)
= 300 + 25 = 325 Volts
b)As a motor, drawing 80A
Eb = V - IaRa
= 300- (80)(0.25)
= 300 - 20 = 280 Volts

50 | P a g e
Torque Equation of DC Motor
Torque is defined as the force acting or For a given Motor, P,Z and are fixed, hence:
V − Ia Ra
twisting or tuning about an axis Consider a N=K(
∅
)
force F acting circumferentially on a pulley of 𝑬
N = K ( 𝒃)
radius R. ∅

Derivation of Torque equation for a DC motor Thus:

-The back –emf of a Dc motor is given by a)The speed of motor is directly proportional to
𝑬𝒃 = V - 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 back-emf
-Multiplying the above equation on both sides by 𝐼𝑎
b)Inversely proportional to the flux/pole
𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂 = V 𝑰𝒂 - 𝑰𝒂 𝟐 𝑹𝒂

-Where : Losses in a D.C. Machine

𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚 = effective mechanical power developed The losses machine (generator or motor) be
V 𝐈𝐚 = Total electrical power supplied to the divided into three classes viz
armature of the DC motor (armature input) i. copper losses
𝐈𝐚 𝟐 𝐑 𝐚 –Power loss /wasted power in the Dc ii. iron or core losses and
armature (armature copper loss) iii. mechanical losses.

NOTE: The difference between the armature input

and the armature copper loss = Mechanical power
developed by the armature 𝑬𝒃 𝑰𝒂 watts

-If torque 𝑻𝒂 – torque Newton metre developed by

the armature running at a speed of N r.p.m
Then mechanical power developed is given by:

𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒂
1)Copper losses
Mechanical power developed 𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚 = These are losses that occur due to current
60
-And making 𝑻𝒂 in the various winding of the macine:
60 E I
𝑇𝑎 = ( ) b a ------ Eqtn (iii) i)Armatur copper lossess = 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝒂
2𝜋 𝑁
We already known that back –Emf can be ii)Shunt field copper loss = 𝑰𝒔𝒉 𝟐 𝑹𝒔𝒉
expressed as
iii)srie field copper loss = 𝑰𝒔𝒆 𝟐 𝑹𝒔𝒆
P ΦNZ
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴 2. Iron or Core losses
Substituting Eqution of back –emf into eqtn (iii) These losses occur in the armature of a
above
machine and are due to the rotation of
60 P ΦNZI
a
armature in the magnetic field of the poles.
𝑇𝑎 = ( ) Nm
2𝜋 60𝐴 𝑁
And hence simplifying we have, 3. Mechanical losses
𝐏 𝚽𝐙𝐈𝐚
𝑻𝒂 = 0.159 [ ] Nm These losses are due to friction and windage.
𝑨
friction loss e.g., bearing friction, brush
Conclusions drawn from torque equation friction etc.
i)Torque is directly proportional to the product of windage loss i.e., air friction of rotating
flux per pole and the armature current armature.
Ta ∝ ΦIa
ii)For a particular DC motor, the number of poles Constant and Variable Losses
(P), number of conductors on armature (Z) and The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c. motor) may
number of parallel paths in the armature winding be sub-divided into
(A) are fixed. (i) constant losses
(ii) variable losses.
Speed of the DC Motor
The back-emf of DC motor is :
P ΦNZ
𝐸𝑏 = (i) Constant losses
60𝐴
or Those losses in a d.c. generator which remain
𝑬𝒃 = V - 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂 constant at all loads are known as constant losses.
Combining the two above equations: The constant losses in a d.c. generator are:
P ΦNZ i. iron losses
= V - 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
60𝐴 ii. mechanical losses
And making the speed N the subject:
iii. shunt field losses
𝟔𝟎𝐀 𝟏
Speed of DC Motor N = (V - 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 ) 𝐱
𝐏𝐙 ∅

51 | P a g e
 𝑉 200
(ii) Variable losses Shunt current 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 5𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 40
Those losses vary with load are called variable
losses. Total current motor drawn by motor = 100
The variable losses in a d.c. generator are: Hence armature current 𝐼𝑎 = 100 – 5 = 95 A
i. Copper loss in armature winding Armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 = 0.1 Ω
ii. Copper loss in series field winding Back – emf 𝑬𝒃 = V - 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
iii. Total losses = Constant losses + Variable 𝑬𝒃 = 200 – 95 x 0.1 = 190.5 V
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒂
losses Mechanical power developed 𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚 =
60
And
Example 𝑻𝒂 =
𝟔𝟎𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚
=
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 (𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟗𝟕.𝟓)
= 230.3𝑁𝑚
The lap-wound armature of 6-pole,6-circuit DC 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋(750)
shunt motor takes 300A at the speed of 400
r.p.m. ii)Copper losses
Flux per pole is 75 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Wb. The number of 𝐸𝑏 = V - 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
armature turns is 500. The torque lost -Multiplying the above equation on both sides by 𝐼𝑎
windage,friction, and iron losses can be assumed 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 = V 𝐼𝑎 - 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎
as 2.5 percent. Compute: 𝐼𝑎 2 𝑅𝑎 = V 𝐼𝑎 - 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
a)Torque developed by the armature = 200 x95 – 18097.5 = 902.5 W
b)Shaft torque Field copper losses= 𝐼𝑠ℎ 2 𝑅𝑠ℎ = (5)2 x 40 =1000W
c)Shaft power in kW Hence;
sln Total copper losses: = 902.5 + 1000 = 1902.5
a)Torque developed by the armature
P ΦZIa
𝑇𝑎 = 0.159 [ ] Nm b)If the friction and iron losses amount to 1500
𝐴
W, also calculate:
iii)Shaft power
For lap: A=P =6
Friction and iron losses = 1500W
No. of Armature turns = 500
Total copper losses = 1902.5 W
No. of Cunductors = 2 x No. of turns
Input to the motor = 200 x 100 = 20000W
Total no. of conductor Z = 2 x 500 = 1000
Output power = 20000 – (1500 +1902.5) =
Hence
𝟔 𝐱 75 x 10−3 𝐱 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
16597.5W
𝑻𝒂 = 0.159 [ ] Nm Or simply shaft power : 16.6 W
𝟔
𝑻𝒂 = 3577.5 Nm
iv)Shaft torque
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒔𝒉
b)Shaft torque Shaft Power developed 𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚 =
60
Torque lost in windage, friction and iron losses = 𝟐𝛑 𝐱 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝐱 𝑻𝒔𝒉
2.5% of 𝑇𝑎 Mechanical power deve: 16.6 W = =?
60 𝑥 1000
Hence Torque lost = 0.025 x 3577.5 = 89.44 Nm
Hence, shaft torque:
𝑇𝑠ℎ = 3577.5 – 89.44 = 3488.06 Nm

c)Shaft power in kW v)Efficiency

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= 𝑥 100 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Shaft power p = Mechanical power developed
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒔𝒉
Shaft power developed = Example
60
𝟐𝛑 𝐱 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟑𝟒𝟖𝟖.𝟎𝟔
Mechanical power deve: = =? 100HP armature shunt motor has 4-
60 𝑥 1000
pole,500V and 2cct wave winding with 492
Example conductor . The flux per pole is 50mWb per
A 200V DC shunt Motor takes a total current of pole and the full load efficiency is 92%. The
100A and runs at 750 rpm. The resistance of the armature has commutating field windings
armature windings and of shunt field winding is having a total resistance of 0.1 Ω. The shunt
0.1Ω and 40Ω respectively. Compute: field resistance is 250 Ω. Determine for the full
ai)The torque developed by the armature load:
ii)Copper losses i)The speed
b)If the friction and iron losses amount to 1500 ii)The useful torque (𝑻𝒔𝒉 )
W,also calculate:
iii)Shaft power Sln
iv)Shaft torque 100 𝑥 746
i)Motor input power = = 8.4 𝑥 104 W
v)Efficiency 0.92
8.1 𝑥 104
Line current (𝐼𝐿 ) = 500
= 162 𝐴
Sln 𝑉 500
ai)The torque developed by the armature 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝑅𝑠ℎ
= 250
= 2A
Voltage applied across the motor V = 200V 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 - 𝐼𝑠ℎ
Shunt resistance = 40 Ω = 162 – 2 = 160A

52 | P a g e
𝐸𝑏 = V - 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 25A. Assuming the flux at this current is
= 500 – (160 x 0.1) = 484 V 45% of flux at 100A.
P ΦNZ
𝐸𝑏 = Sln
60𝐴
𝐸𝑏 60𝐴 60 𝑥 2 𝑥 484 𝐸𝑏1 = V - 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
N= = = 590 rpm = 230 – 100(0.15 + 0.1)
P ΦZ 4 𝑥 50 𝑥 10−3 𝑥 492
= 205 V
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒔𝒉
ii)Output power in watts = 60
𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
output power = 100 x 746 = 230 – 25(0.15 + 0.1)
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 223.75 V
𝑻𝒔𝒉 =
2𝜋𝑁 𝑵𝟐 𝑬𝒃𝟐 ∅𝟏
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟕𝟒𝟔 =𝑬 x∅
𝑻𝒔𝒉 = = 1207 Nm 𝑵𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝟐
2𝜋 𝑥 590
𝑵𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟑.𝟕𝟓 𝟏
𝟖𝟎𝟎
= x 𝟎.𝟒𝟓
𝟐𝟎𝟓
Example 𝑁2 = 1940 rpm
A 240V, 4 pole shunt Motor running at 1000
rpm, Gives 15Hp with armature current of Example
50 A and field current of 1A. The armature A 200V series motor takes a current of
winding is wave connected and has 540 100A and runs at 1000rpm. The total
conductors. The armature is 0.1Ω and the resistance of the motor is 0.1Ω and the field
drop at each bar is 1V. Find the: is unsaturated. Calculate:
a)Useful torque i)The % change in torque and speed if the
ii)Total torque load is so changed that the motor current is
ii)Useful flux per pole 50A
iii)Iron and friction losses ii)The motor current and speed if the
Sln torque is halved.
a)Useful power = output power Sln
= 15 x 746 = 11190W i)Since the field is unsaturated T ∝ ∅𝐼𝑎
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻
Output power in watts = 60 𝒔𝒉 or 𝑇 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 2
Useful torque = shaft torque so 𝑇1 ∝ 1002 and 𝑇2 ∝ 502
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
𝑻𝒔𝒉 =
2𝜋𝑁
𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟎 for the second case :
𝑻𝒔𝒉 = = 106. Nm
2𝜋 𝑥 1000 𝑻𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝟐
𝑻𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟐 = 0.25
b) Total torque 𝑻𝟏− 𝑻𝟐 `−𝟎.𝟐𝟓
Back emf % change in torque = 𝑻𝟏
== 𝟏
= 0.75
𝐸𝑏 = V - 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 - brush drop or 75%
= 240 – (50 x 0.1) – (2 x 1) = 237 V Note
𝐸𝑏𝐈𝐚 𝑵𝟐 𝑬𝒃𝟐 𝑰𝒂𝟏 𝑵𝟐 𝑬 𝑰
Total armature torque 𝑻𝒂 = 9.55 [
𝑵
]
𝑵
= 𝑬 x 𝑰 which is 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝑬𝒃𝟐 x 𝑰𝒂𝟏
𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟐
But 𝐸𝑏 𝐈𝐚 = 𝑃𝑚
𝟎,𝟏𝟓𝟗 𝐱 𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝐸𝑏 𝐈𝐚 𝐸𝑏 𝐈𝐚
Proof [ ] = 9.55 [ ] 𝐸𝑏1 = V - 𝐼𝑎1 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
𝑵 𝑵
Thus 9.55 [
237 𝑥 50
]= 111.2575 Nm = 200 – 100( 0.1) = 190V
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
= 200 – (50 x 0.1) = 195 V
= 223.75 V
𝑵𝟐 𝟏𝟗𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎
c)Useful flux per pole = x
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟗𝟎 𝟓𝟎
P ΦNZ
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴
𝑵𝟐 = 2052 rpm
2
𝐸𝑏 60A 237 𝑥 60 𝑥 2 𝐼 𝑻 𝐼𝑎2 2 𝟏
Ф= = = 13 x 10−3 Wb ii) 𝐼𝑎2 2 = 𝑻𝟐 or =𝟐
𝑃𝑁𝑍 4 𝑥 540 𝑥 1000 𝑎2 𝟏 1002
𝟏
d)Iron losses = 𝑬𝒃 𝐈𝐚 – useful power 𝑰𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎√𝟐 = 70.7A
= (233 x 50) – 11190 = 460 W
𝐸𝑏1 = 190V
𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
Example
= 200 – (70.7 x 0.1) = 192.93V
A dc series motor operates at 800rpm with a 𝑵𝟐 𝑬 𝑰
line current of 100A from 230 V mains. Its = 𝒃𝟐 x 𝑰𝒂𝟏
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑬 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟐
armature circuit resistances is 0.15Ω and its 𝑵𝟐 𝟏𝟗𝟐.𝟗𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= x 𝟕𝟎.𝟕
field resistance is 0.1Ω. Find the speed at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟗𝟎
which the motor runs at a line current of
𝑁2 = 1436rpm

53 | P a g e
 Types of DC Motor:
Classification of the d.c. motor depends on the
way of connecting the armature and field
winding of a d.c. motor:
1. DC Shunt Motor
2. DC Series Motor
3. DC Compound Motor
While dc compound is further divided into:

Speed Vs Armature current characteristics

of DC Shunt Motor

DC Shunt Motor:
In dc shunt motor the armature and field
winding are connected in parallel across the
supply voltage
The resistance of the shunt winding 𝑅𝑠h is
always higher than the armature winding 𝑅𝑎
Since V and 𝑅𝑠h both remains constant the 𝐼𝑠h
remains essentially constant, as field current is
responsible for generation of flux.
thus ∅ ∝ 𝐼𝑠h
So shunt motor is also called as constant flux
The back emf of dc motor is
motor. 𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙
𝑬𝒃 = = V - 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
𝟔𝟎𝑨
At first, speed is constant, as armature current
increases, speed decreases.
Therefore shunt motor is considered as
constant speed motor.

Speed Vs Torque characteristics of DC

Shunt motor
From the above two characteristics of dc
shunt motor, the torque developed and speed
at various armature currents of dc shunt motor
may be noted.
If these values are plotted, the graph
representing the variation of speed with
torque developed is obtained.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Motor:
To study the performance of the DC shunt
Motor various types of characteristics are to
be studied.
i. Torque Vs Armature current
characteristics.
ii. Speed Vs Armature current
characteristics.
iii. Speed Vs Torque characteristics

Torque Vs Armature current 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒔𝒉 𝟔𝟎 𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚

From the Equation 𝐄𝐛 𝐈𝐚 = , N=
characteristics of DC Shunt motor 60 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝑻𝒔𝒉
This characteristic gives us information that, Speed reduces with increasing torque
how torque of machine will vary directly with
armature current, which depends upon load on
the motor.
54 | P a g e
Applications of DC shunt Motor: for dc series motor
These motors are constant speed motors,
hence used in applications requiring constant Characteristics of DC Series Motor:
speed. Like: To study the performance of the DC series
 Lathe machine Motor various types of characteristics are to
 Drilling machine be studied.
 Grinders i. Torque Vs Armature current
 Blowers characteristics.
 Compressors ii. Speed Vs Armature current
characteristics.
DC Series Motor: iii. Speed Vs Torque characteristics

Torque Vs Armature current

characteristics of DC Series motor
Torque developed in any dc motors is
𝑻 𝜶 𝑰𝒂
In case of a D.C. series motor, as field current
is equal to armature current, and for small
value of 𝑰𝒂
∅ 𝜶 𝑰𝒂
Therefore the torque in the dc series motor for
small value of 𝑰𝒂
𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝒂𝟐
When 𝑰𝒂 is large the ∅ remains the constant
due to saturation, thus torque is directly
In this type of DC motor the armature and proportional to armature current for large
field windings are connected in series. value of 𝑰𝒂
the resistance of the series field winding Rs is 𝑻 𝜶 𝑰𝒂
much smaller than the armature resistanceRa Thus Torque Vs Armature current
The flux produced is proportional to the field characteristics begin to raise parabolically at
current but in this 𝑰𝒇 = 𝑰𝒂 low value of armature current and when
thus saturation is reached it become a straight line
as shown below
∅ 𝜶 𝑰𝒂
Thus flux can never become constant in dc
series motor as load changes
𝑰𝒇 and 𝑰𝒂 also get changed
Thus dc series motor is not a constant flux
motor.

Torque and Speed equation of DC Series

Motor:
As we have seen for dc series motor a
𝑰𝒇 = 𝑰𝒂
And ∅ 𝜶 𝑰𝒂
So torque in dc series motor is
𝑻 ∝ 𝑰𝒂𝟐 Speed Vs Armature current characteristics
For dc motor of DC Series Motor
𝐏 𝚽𝐍𝐙
𝑬𝒃 =
𝟔𝟎𝑨
Consider the following equation:
V−I R
a a
Wher Z,P,A and 60 are constants N=K( )
∅
Thus, When supply voltage V is kept constant, speed of
𝟔𝟎𝐀 𝟏
Speed of DC Motor N = (V - 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 ) 𝐱 the motor will be inversely proportional to flux. In
𝐏𝐙 ∅
dc series motor field exciting current is equal to
For a given Motor, P,Z and are fixed, hence: armature current which is nothing but a load
V − Ia Ra current. Therefore at light load when saturation is
N=K( ) not attained, flux will be proportional to the
∅
𝑬 armature current and hence speed will be inversely
N = K ( 𝒃)
∅ proportional to armature current. Hence speed and

55 | P a g e
armature current characteristics is hyperbolic curve When shunt field winding is connected in parallel
upto saturation. with armature like dc shunt motor and this
As the load increases the armature current increases assembly is connected in series with the series
and field gets saturated, once the field gets field winding then this type of motor is called as
saturated flux will become constant irrespective of short shunt compound motor.
increases in the armature current. Therefore at
heavy load the speed of the dc series motor Depending on the polarity of the connection short
remains constant. shunt motor is classified as:
This type of dc series motor has high starting i. Cumulative compound motor.
torque ii. Differential compound motor.

Cumulative compound motor (short shunt):

The figure below shows a diagram of the
cumulative compound motor. It is so called
because the shunt field is connected so that its
coils are aiding the magnetic fields of the series
field and armature.
In this figure that the top of the shunt field is
positive polarity and that it is connected to the
positive terminal of the armature.
Speed Vs Torque The cumulative compound motor is one of the most
characteristics of DC Series motor common DC motors because it provides high
The Speed Vs Torque characteristics of dc series starting torque and good speed regulation at high
motor will be similar to the Speed Vs Armature speeds. Since the shunt field is wired with similar
current characteristics it will be rectangular polarity in parallel with the magnetic field aiding
hyperbola, as shown in the fig. the series field and armature field, it is called
cumulative. When the motor is connected this way,
Applications of DC series Motor- it can start even with a large load and then operate
These motors are useful in applications where smoothly when the load varies slightly.
starting torque required is high and quick
acceleration. Like: 1) Traction
1. Hoists and Lifts
2. Crane
3. Rolling mills
4. Conveyors

DC Compound Motor:
The DC compound motor is a combination of the
series motor and the shunt motor. It has a series
field winding that is connected in series with the
armature and a shunt field that is in parallel with
the armature. The combination of series and shunt
winding allows the motor to have the torque
characteristics of the series motor and the You should recall that the shunt motor can provide
regulated speed characteristics of the shunt motor. smooth operation at full speed, but it cannot start
Several versions of the compound motor are: with a large load attached, and the series motor can
start with a heavy load, but its speed cannot be
1. Short shunt Compound Motors controlled. The cumulative compound motor takes
2. Long shunt Compound Motors the best
characteristics of both the series motor and shunt
Short shunt compound motor: motor, which makes it acceptable for most
applications

Differential Compound Motor (short shunt):

56 | P a g e
 Differential compound motors use the same motor In cumulative compound motor series field assist
and windings as the cumulative compound motor, the shunt field.
but they are connected in a slightly different In such motors when armature current increases
manner to provide slightly different operating the field flux increases.
speed and torque characteristics. Figure above So for given armature current the torque developed
shows the diagram for a differential compound will be greater and speed lower when compared to
motor with the shunt field connected so its polarity a dc shun motor.
is reversed to the polarity of the armature. Since the In differential compound motor series field opposes
shunt field is still connected in parallel with only the shunt field, therefore when armature current
the armature, it is considered a short shunt. decreases the field flux decreases, so for given
In the above diagram you should notice that Fl and armature current the torque developed will be
F2 are connected in reverse polarity to the lower and speed greater when compare to the dc
armature. In the differential compound motor the shunt motor.
shunt field is connected so that its magnetic field
opposes the magnetic fields in the armature and
series field. When the shunt field's polarity is
reversed like this, its field will oppose the other Torque Vs Armature current and Speed Vs
fields and the characteristics of the shunt motor are Armature current
not as pronounced in this motor. This means that
the motor will tend to overspeed when the load is
reduced just like a series motor. Its speed will also
drop more than the cumulative compound motor
when the load increases at full rpm. These two
characteristics make the differential motor less
desirable than the cumulative motor for most
applications.

Long shunt compound motor

Speed Vs Torque characteristics are compared
with that of shunt motor

Applications of DC Compound Motor:

1.Cumulative Compound Motor:

These motors have high starting torque.
when the shunt field is connected in parallel with They can be operated even at no loads as they run
both the series field and the armature then this type at a moderately high speed at no load.
of motor is called as long shunt compound motor. Hence cumulative compound motors are used for
Depending on the polarity of connection of shunt the following applications.
field winding, series field winding and armature, i. Elevators
long shunt motor is also classified as: ii. Rolling mills
1. Cumulative Compound Motor. iii. Punches
2. Differential Compound Motor. iv. Shears
v. planers
Characteristics of DC compound Motor:
To study the performance of the DC compound 2.Differential Compound Motor:
Motor various types of characteristics are to be The speed of these motors increases with
studied. increases in the load which leads to an unstable
i. Torque Vs Armature current characteristics. operation.
ii. Speed Vs Armature current characteristics. Therefore we can not use this motor for any
iii. Speed Vs Torque characteristics practical applications.
In dc compound motors both shunt and series field
acting simultaneously.
57 | P a g e
Speed Control of DC Motor: Greater the resistance in series with armature,
The speed equation of dc motor is greater the decrease in speed.
𝟔𝟎𝐀 𝟏 Voltage Control Method
Speed of DC Motor N = (V - 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 ) 𝐱
𝐏𝐙 ∅
For a given Motor, P,Z and are fixed, hence:
V − Ia Ra
N=K( )
∅
𝑬𝒃
N=K( )
∅
Thus we can say
i)Speed is inversely proportional to flux ∅.
ii)Speed is directly proportional to armature
voltage. In this method the, shunt filed is connected to a
iii)Speed is directly proportional to applied fixed exciting voltage, and armature is supplied with
voltage V. different voltages.Voltage across armature is
So by varying one of these parameters, it is changed with the help of a suitable switchgear. The
possible to change the speed of a dc motor speed is approximately proportional to the voltage
across the armature.
SPEED CONTROL OF SHUNT AND SERIES
MOTOR This system is used where very sensitive speed
control of motor is required (e.g electric
Speed control of shunt – motor excavators, elevators etc.) The arrangement of this
This can be done through the following: system is as required in the figure beside
a)Flux control method M2 is the motor whose speed control is
b)Armature control Method required.M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor
c)Voltage control method with constant speed. G is the generator directly
coupled to M1
Flux Control Methodth In this method the output from the generator G is
To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series fed to the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is
with the field winding, to be controlled. The output voltage of the
in the circuit diagram. Adding more resistance in generator G can be varied from zero to its
series with field winding will increase the speed, maximum value, and hence the armature voltage of
as it will decrease the flux. Field current is the motor M2 is varied very smoothly. Hence very
relatively small and hence I2R loss is small, hence smooth speed control of motor can be obtained by
this method is quiet efficient. Though speed can be this method.
increased by reducing flux with this method, it puts
a limit to maximum speed as weakening of flux Speed control of series – motor
beyond the limit will adversely affect the This can be done through the following:
commutation. a)Flux control method
b)Variable resistance in series with Armature
control Method
c)Series –parallel control

Flux Control Method

A variable resistance is connected parallel to the
series field as shown.
Armature Control Method
Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the
back emf Eb

The variable resistor is called as diverter, as

desired amount of current can be diverted through
this resistor and hence current through field coil
resistance Ra are kept constant, speed is directly can be decreased. Hence flux can be decreased to
proportional to armature current Ia. desired amount and speed can be increased
Thus if we add resistance in series with When Divertor is connected across the armature as
armature, Ia decreases and hence speed in fig (b).
decreases.

58 | P a g e
For a given constant load torque, if armature
TESTING OF DC MACHINE
current is reduced then flux must increase. As,
Ta α ØIa
a)SWINBURNE TEST OF DC MACHINE
This will result in increase in current taken from It is the simplest method in which losses are
the supply and hence flux Ø will increase and measured separately and from their knowledge,
subsequently speed of the motor will decrease. efficiency at any desired load can be predetermined
As shown in fig (c)tapped series dividing field. In in advance. The only running test needed is no-
this method, several speeds can be obtained by load test.
regrouping The circuit connection for Swinburne’s test is
shown in figure below

Variable Resistance In Series With Armature NOTE: This test is applicable to those machines
in which flux is practically constant. i.e
i)Shunt DC machines
ii)Compound wound machines
The machine is running as a motor on no-load at its
rated voltage. i.e voltage stamped on the name
plate.
The speed is adjusted to the rated speed with the
help of shunt regulator
The 𝐼0 is measured by the ammeter 𝐴1 whereas
shunt field current 𝐼𝑠ℎ is given by ammeter 𝐴2 . The
no load armature current is :
(𝐼0 - 𝐼𝑠ℎ ) or 𝐼𝑎0
Let supply voltage = V
No- load input = V𝐼𝑜 Watts
Power input to armature = V(𝐼0 - 𝐼𝑠ℎ )
By introducing resistance in series with armature, Power input to shunt = V𝐼𝑠ℎ
voltage across the armature can be reduced. And
hence, speed reduces in proportion with it. No-Load power input to armature supplies the
following
Series-Parallel Control i)Iron losses in core
This system is widely used in electric traction, ii)Friction losses
where two or more mechanically coupled series iii)Windage loss and
motors are employed. For low speeds, motors are iv)Armature Cu loss (𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎
joined in series, and for higher speeds motors are or
joined in parallel. ( 𝐼𝑎0 )2 𝑅𝑎
When in series, the motors have the same current
passing through them, although voltage across each In calculation armature Cu loss, ‘hot’ resistance of
motor is divided. When in parallel, voltage across armature should be used. A stationary measurement
each motor is same although current gets divided of armature circuit resistance at the room-

59 | P a g e
temperature of say 150 C is made by passing Advantages of Swinburne’s Test
current through the armature from a low voltage d.c The main advantages of this test are:
supply. 1:This test is very convenient and economical as it
is required very less power from supply to perform
In this method of testing no load losses are the test.
measured separately and eventually we can 2;Since constant losses are known, efficiency
determine the efficiency. of Swinburne’s test can be pre-determined at any
The speed of the machine is adjusted to the rated load.
speed with the help of the shunt regulator R as
shown in figure.
In Swinburne’s test no load power input is only Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test
required to supply the losses. The losses occur in
The main disadvantages of this test are:
the machine mainly are:
1)Iron loss is neglected though there is change in
 Iron losses in the core
iron loss from no load to full load due to armature
 Friction and windings losses reaction.
 Armature copper loss. 2)We cannot be sure about the satisfactory
Since the no load mechanical output of the machine commutation on loaded condition because the test
is zero in Swinburne’s test, the no load input power is done on no-load.
is only used to supply the losses. 3)We can’t measure the temperature rise when
the machine is loaded. Power losses can vary with
The value of armature copper loss = the temperature.
Here, Ra is the armature resistance. 4)In DC series motors, the Swinburne’s test
Now, no to get the constant losses we have to cannot be done to find its efficiency as it is a no
subtract the armature copper loss from the no load load test.
power input.

Example
Then,
A 220V , dc shunt Motor at no load takes a
After calculating the no load constant losses now
current of 2.5A. The resistance of the armature
we can determine the efficiency at any load.
and shunt field are 0.8Ω and 200Ω. Respectively.
Let, I is the load current at which we have to
Estimate the efficiency of the motor when the
calculate the efficiency of the machine.
input current is 20A. State precisely the
Then, armature current (Ia) will be (I – Ish), when
assumptions made.
the machine is motoring.
Sln
And when the machine is generating.
Power input = VI = 220 x 2.5 = 550 W
(I + Ish),
The input metts all kinds of no-load losses i.e
armature Cu loss and constant losses
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is 𝐼𝑠ℎ =
220
= 1.1 A
Motoring on Load 200
No- load arm current 𝐼𝑎0 2.5 – 1.1 = 1.4 A
( 𝐼𝑎0 )2 𝑅𝑎 = ( 1.4)2 𝑥 0.8 = 1.6 W
Power input = VI Constant losses = 550 – 1.6 = 548.4 W
Armature copper loss, (𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎 When input current is 20 A
or 𝐼0 = 32 – 1.1 = 30.9 A
( 𝐼𝑎0 )2 𝑅𝑎 Armature Cu loss = ( 𝐼𝑎0 )2 𝑅𝑎 =( 30.9)2 𝑥 0.8
Constant losses,𝑊𝑐 = 764𝑊
Total losses = , (𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑊𝑐 Total loss = 746 + 548.4 = 1312W
Efficiency of the motor: Approximate: Input = 220 x 20 = 4400 W
𝑉𝐼− (𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎 −𝑊𝑐
η= x 100 Ouput = 4400 – 1312 = 3088 W
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Efficiency = 𝑥 100
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Generating on Load Efficiency =
3088
𝑥 100 = 70.2%
4400
Assumption
Power input = VI 1.Mechanical lossess remains constant even though
Armature copper loss, (𝐼0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎 motor speed changes from no – load lossess
or 2.Effects of armature reaction on main pole flux
( 𝐼𝑎0 )2 𝑅𝑎 with a consequent changes in iron losses has been
Constant losses,𝑊𝑐 neglected
Total losses = , (𝐼0 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑊𝑐 3.decrease in flux due to increase in shunt
resistance by heating has been neglected.
Efficiency of the motor:
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐼
η= = x 100
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡+𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 (𝐼𝑉𝐼− 0 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑎 +𝑊𝑐

60 | P a g e
HOPKINSON’S METHOD OF TESTING A FURTHER EXAMPLES
DC MOTOR
Two identical dc machines are coupled, both Example:
mechanically & electrically The armature of a DC machine has a
One of these two machines is operated as a resistance of 2.5Ω and is connected to a
generator to supply the electrical power to the
300V supply. Calculate the e.m.f generated
motor and the other is operated as a motor to drive
the generator. when it is running:
a)As a generator giving 100A
Due to the drop in the generator output voltage we sln
need an extra voltage source to supply the proper Eg = V + IaRa
input motor –generator set = 300
+ (100)(0.25)
= 300 + 25 = 325 Volts
b)As a motor, drawing 80A
Eb = V - IaRa
= 300 - (80)(0.25)
= 300 - 20 = 280 Volts

Example
A 500V shunt motor runs at its Normal speed of
Efficiency calculations 250rpm When the armature current is 200A.
Input to motor armature = 𝑉𝑡 𝐼1 The resistance of the armature is 0.12 Ω.
Motor armature circuit loss = 𝐼1 2 𝑅𝑎 Calculate the speed when the a resistance is
Motor shunt field loss = 𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝑓1 inserted in the field winding reducing the shunt
No-Load rotational loss in two machines: field to 80% of the normal value and armature
𝑊0 = 𝑉𝑡 𝐼 − 𝑅𝑎 (𝐼1 2 + 𝐼2 2 ) current is 100A
𝑊 Sln
Rotational loss in each machine , 0
2
𝑊0 𝐸𝑏1 = V - IaRa = 500 – (200 x 0.12) = 476V
Total motor loss , 𝑊𝑚 = +𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝑓1 − (𝐼1 2 𝑅2 )
2 𝐸𝑏2 = V - Ia2Ra = 500 – (100 x 0.12) = 488V
Motor efficiency
𝑾𝒎 𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 ∅1
η = [𝟏 − ( 𝒙 (𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝒇𝟏 ))] 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝑥
𝑽𝒕 𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 ∅2
𝐸𝑏2 ∅1
𝑁2 = 𝑥 x 𝑁1
𝐸𝑏1 ∅2
Advantages Disadvantages 488 1
𝑁2 = 𝑥 x 200 =320 rpm
Very small power Difficult to find two 476 0.8
∅1 𝐼𝑠ℎ1
required identical machines 𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: The shunt field = , hence if
∅2 𝐼𝑠ℎ2
Temperature rise Both machines originally 𝐼𝑠ℎ1 = 1 then 80% of 1 =𝐼𝑠ℎ2 = 0.8
and commutation cannot be loaded
can be observed equally all the time Example
Change in iron loss It is not possible to A 250 shunt motor has an armature current of
due to flux distortion get separate losses 20A when running at 1000 rpm against full load
can be taken into for the two machines torque, the armature resistance is 0.5Ω.
account due to the a)What resistance must be inserted in series
advantages of its full with the armature to reduce the speed to
load condition 500rpm at the same torque.
Sln
It is difficult to At full load torque
operate the Let 𝑹𝑪 = be the resistance to be inserted in series
machine at rated with the armature to reduce the speed to
speed because field 500rpm . since load torque remains the same
current vary widely ∅𝟏 = ∅𝟐
𝑇𝑎1 = ∅1 𝐼𝑎1 = ∅2 𝐼𝑎2
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 = 20A
𝐸𝑏1 = V - IaRa = 250 – (20 x 0.5) = 240V
𝐸𝑏2 = V - Ia2Rt = 250 – (20 x Rt )
Rt = Ra + Rc
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 ∅1
= 𝑥 but ∅𝟏 = ∅𝟐 (for same torque)
𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 ∅2
500 250 – (20𝑅𝑡 )
= 𝑥1
1000 240

500
𝐸𝑏2 = [250 – (20𝑅𝑡)] = 1000 𝑥 240 = 120

61 | P a g e
 −130 reduce the speed to 400rpm, the gross torque
𝑅𝑡 = −20 = 6.5Ω
then being half the previous value. The
Rt = Ra + Rc resistance of the motor is 0.2Ω . Assume the flux
Rc = Rt – Ra to be proportional to field current.
= 6.5 – 0.5 = 6 Ω
Sln
b)What will be the speed if the load torque is
halved with this resistance in the circuit, assume Without the insertion of an extra resistance , we
the flux to remain constant throughout and have :
neglect brush constant drop 𝐸𝑏1 = V - 𝐼𝑎1 𝑅𝑚 = 440 – 50 x 0.2 = 430V
Sln 𝑙𝑒𝑡 r be the resistance added to reduce the
speed to 400 rpm at half the load torque
At half full- load
Since load torque is halved and flux remains the NOTE : 𝑇𝑎1 ∝ ∅1 𝐼𝑎1 ∝ ∅2 𝐼𝑎2
same, the armature current is also halved to: 𝑇2 𝐼 2
20 = 𝑎22
𝐼𝑎3 = = 10𝐴 𝑇1 𝐼𝑎1
2
𝑇2 1
𝐸𝑏3 = V - Ia3Rt = 250 – (10 x Rt ) 𝐼𝑎2 = √
𝑇1
x 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑥 50 = 35.35A
√2
𝐸𝑏3 = V - Ia3Rt = 250 – (10 x 6.5) = 185V
𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑚 + r)
and NOTE ∅𝟏 = ∅𝟐 (for same torque) = 440 –35.35 (0.2 + r)
𝑁3 𝐸𝑏3 ∅1 = 440 – 7.07 – 35.35r
= 𝑥 = 432.93- 35.35r
𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 ∅1
𝐸𝑏3 𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 𝐼𝑎1
𝑁3 = 𝑥 1 x 𝑁1 = 𝑥
𝐸𝑏1 𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑎2
185
𝑁3 = 𝑥1 x 1000 = 770.83 rpm
240 400 432.93− 35.35𝑟 𝐼𝑎1
= 𝑥
600 430 𝐼𝑎2
Or 400 432.93− 35.35𝑟 50
𝑁3 𝐸𝑏3 ∅1
= 𝑥
600 430 35.35
= 𝑥
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏1 ∅1
𝐸𝑏3 400
𝑁3 = 𝑥 1 x 𝑁2 [432.93 − 35.35𝑟 ]50 = 𝑥 430 𝑥35.35
𝐸𝑏2 600

𝑁3 =
185
𝑥1 x 500 = 770.83 rpm = 10133.667
120 −230.26
𝑟= = 6.52Ω
−35.35
Example
A 200V dc series motor runs at 800 rpm when Example
taking a line current of 15A. The armature A 230V , dc shunt Motor at no load takes a
resistance and series field resistance are 0.6Ω current of 5A. The resistance of the armature
and 0.4Ω respectively. Find the speed at which it and field circuit are 0.25Ω and 115Ω.
will run when connected in series with a 5Ω Respectively. If the motor is to be loaded so as
resistance and taking the same current at the to carry/take 40A. Determine
same voltage. i)The iron and friction lossess
Sln Sln
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0.6 + 0.4 = 1Ω Under No-load conditions
𝑁1 = 800 rpm Input power supplied up in overcoming :
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 = 15A i)small armature copper loss
𝑁2 = ? ii)Shunt filed loss
Without 5 Ω resistance in series we have: iii)Iron and friction losses
𝐸𝑏1 = V - 𝐼𝑎1 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 ) = 200 –15 (0.6 + 0.4) Thus :
= 185V Power input = VI = 220 x 2.5 = 550 W
With 5 Ω resistance in series we have: The input meets all kinds of no-load losses i.e
𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 5) armature Cu loss and constant losses
= 200 –15 (0.6 + 0.4 + 5) = 110V 230
𝑁3 𝐸𝑏3 ∅1 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = 2A A
= 𝑥 115
𝑁2
𝑁2
𝐸𝑏1
𝐸𝑏2
∅1
𝐼𝑠ℎ1
Field cu. Loss = ( 𝐼𝑠ℎ )2 𝑅𝑠ℎ = (2)2 𝑥 115 =460W
= 𝑥
𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑠ℎ2
𝐸𝑏2
𝑁3 = 𝑥 1 x 𝑁2
𝐸𝑏1
110
𝑁3 = 𝑥1 x 800 = 475.68 rpm
185
Example
A dc series motor connected to 440V dc supply
runs at 600 rpm when taking a line current of
50A. calculate the value of the resistance which
when inserted in series with the motor will
No- load armature current 𝐼𝑎0 =5 – 2 = 3 A
62 | P a g e
Armature Cu.Loss ( 𝐼𝑎0 )2 𝑅𝑎 = (3)2 𝑥 0.25 =2.25W Example
A 250V dc shunt motor has an armature
Iron and friction losses (Constant losses) = 1150 – resistance and field resistance of 0.5 Ω and 250
(2.25 + 460) = 687.75 W Ω respectively. When driving a constant
load load toque at 600rpm, the armature
Alternatively: current is 20A. If it is desired to raise the
Iron and friction losses 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑏 = (𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )𝐼𝑎
speed from 600 to 800 rpm, determine the
= (230 – 3 x 0.25)3
= 687.75W
resistance to be inserted in the field circuit .
ii) Under Loading conditions Assume the magnetic circuit is unsaturated
Sln
When input current is 40 A 𝑅𝑎 = 0.5
𝐼𝑎 = 40 – 2 = 38A 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 250
Armature Cu loss = ( 𝐼𝑎 )2 𝑅𝑎 =( 38)2 𝑥 0.25 𝐼𝑎1 = 20A
= 361𝑊 𝑁1 = 600
Constant losses = 687.75 +460 = 1147.75W 𝑁2 = 800
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 ∅1
Total loss = 361 + 1147.75= 1508.75W = 𝑥
𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 ∅2
Power Input = 230 x 40 = 9200 W
Ouput = 9200 – 1508.75 = 7691.25 W 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 the system is unsaturated ∅ ∝ 𝐼𝑎 ∝ 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = 𝑥 100 𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 𝐼𝑠ℎ1
= 𝑥
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
7691.25 𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑠ℎ2
Efficiency = 𝑥 100 = 83.6% 𝐸𝑏1 = V - IaRa = 250 – (20 x 0.5) = 240V
9200
And
Alternatively 𝑉 250
𝐼𝑠ℎ1 = = = 1A
Power developed in the armature under load 𝑅𝑠ℎ 250
conditions:
𝑉 250
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑏 = (𝑣 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑠ℎ2 = =
𝑅 𝑅
= (230 – 38 x 0.25)38 But R = (𝑅𝑠ℎ + 𝑟)
= 8379W where r = the resistance to be inserted
Input power = 40 x 230 = 9200 Again
Output power = 9200 – 8379 = 7691.25W 𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 Ra
7691.25
Efficiency = 𝑥 100 = 83.6% 𝑇𝑎1 ∝ ∅1 𝐼𝑎1 ∝ ∅2 𝐼𝑎2
9200
Example ∅1 𝐼𝑎1 = ∅2 𝐼𝑎2
A 2000kW 500V variable speed motor is ∅ 𝐼
But 1 = 𝑠ℎ1
∅2 𝐼𝑠ℎ2
supplied by a 2500kW generator using Ward
Leonard system as shown below. The total 𝐼𝑠ℎ1 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑠ℎ2 𝐼𝑎2
resistance of the motor and generator armature So that
𝐼 𝐼 1 𝑥 20 2𝑅
circuit is 10mΩ.The Motor turns at Normal 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝑠ℎ1 𝑎1 = 250 =
𝐼𝑠ℎ2 25
𝑅
speed of 300rpm when back emf is 500V. Find
𝑆𝑜 that :
the speed of the motor and torque when
𝑬𝒈 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒃 = 𝟑𝟖𝟎𝑽 𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 Ra
2𝑅 𝑅
= 250 - 𝑥 0.5 = ( 250 - )
25 25
Now in terms of R , the above equation becomes
800 𝐸𝑏2 1
= 𝑥 250
600 240
𝑅
𝑅
800 ( 250 − ) 1
25
= 𝑥 250
600 240
𝑅

𝑅
800 ( 250 − )R
25
=
600 60000

𝑅 800
Sl ( 250 - )R = 𝑥 60000 = 80000
25 600
2
Armature current =
𝐸𝑔 −𝐸𝑏 400𝑉−380
= = 2000𝐴 −0.04𝑅 + 250𝑅 = 80000
𝑅𝑎 10𝑚 𝑅2 − 6250𝑅 + 2000000 = 0
Power developed by motor 𝑃𝑑 =𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑏 =380 x 2000
= 760kW −𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝐸
Motor speed N = 𝑏 𝑥 300 =
380
𝑥 300 = 228rpm 𝑅=
2𝑎
𝑉 500
𝑃𝑑 760𝑘𝑊 6250±√(6250)2 −4(1)(2000000)
Motor torque T = 9.55 x = 9.55 x 𝑅=
𝑁 228 2
= 31.8k Nm R = 59111.6 or 338.31
We pick R = 338.31Ω
But R = (𝑅𝑠ℎ + 𝑟)
338.31 = 250 + r
r = 338.31 – 250 = 88.31Ω
63 | P a g e
Example The field current is half the new armature current
The armature and shunt field resistance of a 𝑰
i.e 𝒂𝟐
𝟐
230V shunt motor are 0.1 Ω and 230 Ω 𝑇2 ∅1 𝐼𝑎1
respectively. It takes current of 61A at 100rpm. = 𝑥 …
𝑇1 ∅1 𝐼𝑎2
If the current taken remains unaltered, find the 1 40 40
= 𝑰𝒂𝟐 𝑥
resistance to be inserted in series with the 2 𝐼𝑎2
𝟐
armature circuit to reduce the speed to 750 rpm 𝐼𝑎2 2 = 6400
Sln 𝐼𝑎2 = 80A
𝐼 80
Field current = 𝑎1 = = 40A
2 2
0.02
Resistance of the motor = 0.1 + = 0.11
2
𝐸𝑏2 = 100 – 80 x 0.11 = 91.2V
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 0.1
= 𝑥
𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 0.2
𝐸𝑏2 ∅1
𝑉 230 𝑁2 = 𝑥 x 𝑁1
𝐼𝑠ℎ1 = = = 1A 𝐸𝑏1 ∅2
𝑅𝑠ℎ 230 91.2 40
𝑉 230 𝑁2 = 𝑥 x 200 = 193 rpm
𝐼𝑠ℎ2 = = = 1A 94.4 40
𝑅𝑠ℎ 230
𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ1 = 61 – 1 = 60A ….
𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ2 = 61 – 1 = 60A
𝐸𝑏1 = V - IaRa = 230 – (60 x 0.1) = 224V
𝐸𝑏2 = V - 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑟)= 230 – (60( 0.1+ r)
= 230 – 6 – 60r
= 224 – 60r
𝑁3 𝐸𝑏3 ∅1
= 𝑥
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏1 ∅1
𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 𝐼𝑠ℎ1
= 𝑥
𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑠ℎ2
750 224 – 60𝑟
= 𝑥1
1000 224
750
[224 – 60𝑟] = 𝑥 244 = 168
1000
−56
𝑟 = −60 = 0.933Ω

Example
100V series motor when taking 40A runs at
200rpm. The armature resistance is 0.1Ω and
there are four field coils each of 0.01Ω in series
with it. Find the speed if the load torque be
doubled and the coils be arranged in series-
parallel (two series, two sets in parallel
Sln

Resistance of motor = 0.1 + 4(0.01) = 0.14

𝐸𝑏1 = 100 – 40 x 0.14 = 94.4V

When coils are in series- parallel

64 | P a g e
TOPIC 6 Methods of three phase connections
THREE PHASE SYSTEMS a)Star connection
Objectives b)Delta, or Mesh connection
1.Explain the principles of three phase
generation a)Star connection
i)Three phase windings
ii)Rotating magnetic field
iii)Electromagnetic induction
iv)Waveforms
2.Describe various methods of three phase
connections
i)Star connections
ii)Delta connections
3.Explain the difference between the line and
phase quantities
4.Solve problems on three phase balanced i)This is where three lines conductors are each
system connected to a load and the outlets from the loads
i.Calaculations on three phase balanced system are joined together at N to form what is termed as
5.Explain methods of power measurements in Neutral point or the star point
three phase balanced systems ii)The voltages 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑉𝑌 and 𝑉𝐵 are called phase
i)One wattmeter method voltage or line to neutral voltages. Phase voltages
ii)Two wattmeter method are generally denoted by 𝑉𝑝
iii) The voltages , 𝑽𝑹𝒀 , 𝑽𝒀𝑩 and 𝑽𝑩𝑹 are called line
Three phase supply – Is generated when three coils voltages
are placed 1200 apart and whole rotated in a iv) For star connection, the phase current 𝑰𝒑 is
uniform magnetic field. The result is three equall to their line current 𝑰𝑳
independent supplies of equal voltages which are
each displaced 1200 from each other as shown
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷
below
v)For a balanced system:
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝒀 = 𝑰𝑩
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑽𝒀 = 𝑽𝑩
And
𝐕𝐑𝐘 = 𝐕𝐘𝐁 = 𝐕𝐁𝐑 and 𝐙𝐑 = 𝐙𝐘 = 𝐙𝐁
When a star connected system is balanced, then the
neutral conductor is unnecessary and is often
omitted.The current in the neutral conductor, 𝐈𝐍 = 0

The phase sequence is given by the sequence in

which the conductors pass the point initially taken
by the red conductor. The national standard phase
sequence is R,Y,B
A three phase is carried by three conductors called
‘Lines’ wich are coloured Red,Yellow and Blue
The current in these conductors are known as ‘line
currents’ (𝐼𝐿 ) and p.f s between them are known as
line voltage (𝑉𝐿 ).
A fourth conductor known as neutral (coloured
black) and connected through protective devices to
earth ) is often used with a three –phase supply.
If the three – phase windings are kept independent
then six wires are needed to connect a supply
source (such as generator ) to a load (such as vi)The line voltage, 𝐕𝐑𝐘
motor). To reduce the number of wires it is usual to is given by 𝐕𝐑𝐘 = 𝐕𝐑 − 𝐕𝐘 (𝐕𝐘 is negative since it
interconnect the three phases. is in the opposite direction to 𝐕𝐑𝐘 ) . In phasor
diagram (b) , phasor 𝐕𝐘 is reversed (shown by
broken line) and then added phasorially to

65 | P a g e
𝐕𝐑 (i.e 𝐕𝐑𝐘 = 𝐕𝐑 + (-𝐕𝐘 )). By trigonometry, or by From the phasor diagram, and by using
measurement, 𝐕𝐑𝐘 = √𝟑 𝐕𝐩 trigonometry or measurement: IR = √3 IRY , i.e for
vii)The star connection of the three phases of a a delta connection:
supply, together with a neutral conductor, allows 𝐈𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐈𝐏
the use of two voltages- the phase voltage and the
line voltage. The standard electricity supply to
consumers in Great Britain is 415/240 V, 50 Hz, 3-
phase, 4 –wire alternating current, and a diagram of
connections. POWER IN THREE –PHASE SYSTEMS
The power dissipated in three phase load is given
by the sum of the power dissipated in each phase. If
a load is balanced then thr total power p is given by
: P = 3 x power consumed by one phase
-The power consumed by 1-phase = 𝐼𝑝 2 𝑅𝑝 or
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑝 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ (where ∅ is the phase angle between
𝑉𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑃 )
𝑉
a) For a star connection, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐿 and
√3
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷 , hence
𝑉
P = 3( 𝐿3) 𝐼𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅
√
b)Delta (or mesh) connected load And by rationalization,
P = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅

b)For a delta connection, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝐿

𝐼𝐿
and 𝐼𝑝 =
√3
𝐼𝐿
p = 3𝑉𝐿 ( ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅
√3
Generally, for either a star or a delta balanced
connection, the total power P is given by:

P = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅ watts

i) as in the above figure of the delta connection, the Or
end of one load is connected to the start of the next
load. P = 3𝑰𝒑 𝟐 𝑹𝒑

ii)It can be seen that the voltages 𝐕𝐑𝐘 , 𝐕𝐘𝐁 and 𝐕𝐁𝐑 And total volt-Amperes
are the respective phase voltages, i.e for a delta
connection. S = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 Volt-Ampere
𝐕𝐋 =𝐕𝐏

iii)Using kirchoff’s current law,

𝐈𝐑 = 𝐈𝐑𝐘 -𝐕𝐁𝐑 = 𝐈𝐑𝐘 + (- 𝐕𝐑𝐘 ).

66 | P a g e
 Summary of Star and Delta connection
STAR CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION

Currents 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑 IL = √3 IP

Voltage 𝐕𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐕𝐩 𝐕𝐋 =𝐕𝐏

Power P = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅ p = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅

Example Example
Three loads, each of resistance 30Ω, are A 415V, 3-phase, 4 wire, star-connected system
connected in star to 415 V,3-phase supply. supplies three resistive loads as shown below.
Determine :
a)The system phase voltage
b)The phase current
c)The line current
Sln
A ‘415’ 3-phase supply’ means that 415 V is the
line Voltage. 𝑉𝐿
a)For a star connection. 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑝 .
𝑉 415
Hence phase voltage . 𝑉𝑃 = 𝐿 = = 239,6V or
√3 √3
240 V
𝑉 240
b)Phase current . 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑝 = = 8A
𝑅𝑃 30
c)For a star connection. 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝐿 Determine :
hence the line current , 𝐼𝐿 = 8A a)The current in each line
b)The current in the neutral conductor
Example Sln:
A star – connected load consists of three a) a)For a star connection. 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑝 .
identical coils each of resistance 30 Ω and Since current I =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
= for resistive load
inductance 127.3 mH. If the line current is 5.08 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉
𝑃𝑅 24000
A calculate the line voltage if the supply Then . 𝐼𝑅 = = = 100 A
𝑉𝑅 240
frequency is 50 Hz. 𝑃𝑌 18000
. 𝐼𝑌 = = = 75 A
Sln 𝑉𝑌 240
𝑃𝐵 12000
Inductance reactance 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝐼𝐵 = = = 50 A
𝑉𝐵 240
= 2𝜋(50)(127.3 𝑥 10−3 ) = 40Ω
b)The three line currents are shown in the phasor
Impedance of each phase:
diagram below.
𝑍𝐿 = √(𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )= √(302 + 402 )= 50 Ω
𝑉𝑝
For a star connection . 𝐼𝐿 =. 𝐼𝑃 =
𝑅𝑃
Hence phase voltage 𝑉𝑃 =. 𝐼𝑃 𝑍𝑝 =(5.08)(50)=254V
Line voltage 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑝 .= 𝑉𝐿 = √3 (254) = 440 V

Since each load is the currents are phase with the

phase voltages and are hence mutually displaced by

67 | P a g e
1200 . The current in the neutral conductor is given b)The phase and line currents
by:
IN = IR + IY + IB phasorially Sln
i)For a star connection:
The figure below shows the three lines currents 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷 and 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑝 .
added phasorially. Oa represents IR in magnitude
and direction. From the nose of ‘oa’ , ab is drawn a)A 415 V, 3-phase supply means that the line
representing IY in magnitude and direction. From voltage, 𝑉𝐿 = 415V
𝑉 415
the nose of ‘ab’, bc is drawn representing IB in Phase voltage , 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 240V
√3 √3
magnitude and direction. ‘oc’ represent the b) Impedance per phase,
resulting , 𝐈𝐍 .
𝑍𝑃 = √(𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )= √(32 + 42 )= 5 Ω
𝑉𝑝 240
Phase current, 𝐼𝑝 = = = 48𝐴
𝑍𝑝 5
So line current, 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷 = 48A
ii) For a delta connection:
𝐕𝐋 =𝐕𝐏 and 𝐈𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐈𝐏
a)Line voltage, 𝐕𝐋 = 415 V
hence phase voltage 𝐕𝐋 =𝐕𝐏 = 415V
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝐿 415
b)Phase current , 𝐼𝑝 = = = = 83𝐴
𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝 5
Line current , IL = √3 IP = √3 x (83)= 144 A

Example
By measurement , IN = 43A Three identical capacitors are connected in delta
Alternatively, by calculation, considering , IR at to a 415 V, 50Hz, 3-phase supply. If the line
900 , , IB at 2100 and , IY at 3300 . current is 15A, determine the capacitance of
Total horizontal components = 100 cos 900 + 75 each of the capacitors.
cos 3300 + 50 cos 2100 = 21.65 Sln
For a delta connection: 𝐈𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐈𝐏
Total horizontal components = 100 Sin 900 + 75 𝐼 15
Hence phase current 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 8.66A
Sin 3300 + 50 Sin 2100 = 21.65= 37.65 √3 √3
Hence magnitude of Capacitance reactance per phase :
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼𝑁 = √(21.652 + 37.502 )= 43.3A 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑃 = 𝐿 and since for delta connection
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃
(𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑃 )
Hence,
Example 𝑉 415
𝑋𝐶 = 𝑃 = = 47.92 Ω
Three identical coil each of resistance 30 Ω and 𝐼𝑃 8.66
1
inductance 127.3 mH are connected in delta to a And 𝑋𝐶 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
440 V, 50Hz, 3 –phase supply. Determine : So that C =
1
=
1
= 66.43𝝁F
a)The phase current 2𝜋𝑓𝑋𝐶 2𝜋(50)(47.92)
b)The line current
Sln Example:
Inductance reactance 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 Three 12Ω resistors are connected in star to a
= 2𝜋(50)(127.3 𝑥 10−3 ) = 40Ω 415V, 3-phase supply. Determine the total power
Impedance of each phase: dissipated by the resistors.
Sln
𝑍𝐿 = √(𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )= √(302 + 402 )= 50 Ω Power dissipated, P = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅ watts
Phase impedance, 𝑍𝑝 = 50Ω and for a delta Or P = 3𝑰𝒑 𝟐 𝑹𝒑
connection, 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝐿 400 Line voltage 𝐕𝐋 = 415V and
a)Phase current, 𝐼𝑝 = = = = 8.8𝐴
𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝 50 𝑉 415
b)For a delta connection, phase voltage , 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 240V (since the
√3 √3
IL = √3 IP = √3 x (98.8)= 15.24 A resistors are in star connected)
𝑉 𝑉 240
Thus when the load is connected in delta, three Phase currents , 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 20𝐴
𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝 12
times the line current is taken from the supply than
is taken if connected in star For star connection , 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷 = 20A
For a purely resistive load,
Example the power factor = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ = 1
Three coils each having 3Ω and inductive Hence,
reactance 3Ω are connected (i) in star and (ii) in P = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅= √3 (415)(20)(1) = 14.4 kW
delta to 415 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for
each connection (a) the line and Phase voltages
68 | P a g e
Example Hence loads connected in delta dissipate three
Three identical coils, each of resistance of 10Ω times the power than when connected in star, and
and inductance 42mH are connected (a) in star also take a line current three times greater.
(b) in delta to a 415 V, 50Hz , 3-phase supply.
Determine the total power dissipated in each Example
case A 415 V , 3- phase a.c motor has power output
Sln of 12.75 kW and operate at a power factor of
i)For a star connection: 0.77 lagging and with an efficiency of 85%. If
inductive reactance; the motor is delta- connected, determine:
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋(50)(42 x 10−3 ) = 13.19Ω a)The power input
Phase impedance b)the line current
c)The phase current
𝑍𝑃 = √(𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )= √(102 + 13.192 )=16.55 Ω
Line voltage, 𝑉𝐿 = 415V Sln
𝑉 415 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Phase voltage , 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 240V a)Effeciency =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
√3 √3
𝑉𝑝 240 85 127500
Phase current, 𝐼𝑝 = = = 14.50𝐴 hence =
𝑍𝑝 16.55 100 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

So line current, 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷 = 14.50A and

12750
𝑅 10 Power input = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 W or 15kW
Power factor 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅ = 𝑝 = 𝑍𝑝
= 0.6042 𝑙𝑎𝑔
16.55
85
b)Power, √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ = 15000 W
Power dissipated, √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝑃
Line current, 𝐼𝐿 =
= √3 (415)(14.50)(0.6042) = 6.3 kW √3𝑉𝐿𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅
15000
Alternatively, = = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟎𝑨
P = 3𝐼𝑝 2 𝑅𝑝 = 3(14,50)2 (10) = 6.3kW √3 (415)(0.77)
c) For a delta connection,
Line current, IL = √3 IP
𝑉 27.10
ii) For a delta connection: Phase current, , 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 15.65 A
√3 √3
𝐕𝐋 =𝐕𝐏 = 415 V
𝐙𝐩 = 16.55 Ω Measurement of Power in three-
and 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∅ = 0.6042 lagging(from above)
a)Line voltage, 𝐕𝐋 = 415 V
Phase systems
𝑉 𝑉 415 Power in three –phase loads may be measured by
b)Phase current, 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟖 𝐴 the following methods:
𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝 16.55
Line current, IL = √3 IP = √3 x (25.08)= 43.44 A a)One-wattmeter method for a balanced load
Power dissipated, √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔 ∅ b)Two – wattmeter method for balanced or
unbalanced loads
= √3 (415)(43.44)(0.6042) = 18.87 kW c)Three – wattmeter method for a three-phase, 4
Alternatively, –wire system for balanced and unbalanced loads
P = 3𝐼𝑝 2 𝑅𝑝 = 3(25.08)2 (10) = 18.87kW

Summary Table of watt-meters

One-wattmeter method for a Two-wattmeter method for a One-wattmeter method for a
balanced load balanced load balanced load

Wattmeter connections for both star Total power = sum of wattmeter, - for a three-phase, 4 –wire system for
and delta Readings = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 balanced and unbalanced loads:
The power factor may be determined from:
Total power = 3 x wattmeter reading 𝑷 −𝑷 Total power = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑
𝑻𝒂𝒏 ∅ = √𝟑 ( 𝟏 𝟐),
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐

69 | P a g e
Example 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 ( )
Two wattmeter are connected to measure the 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
input power to a balanced 3-phase load by the 𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 ( ) = √3 ( )=1
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 10766
two –wattmeter method. If the instrument 10766 𝑥 (1)
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = = 6216 W…(ii)
readings are 8kW and 4kW, determine √3
a)The total power input Hence solving eqtn (i) and (ii) simultaneously
b)The load power factor 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 10766
+ 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 6216 W
Sln 2𝑝1 = 16982 kW
16982
a)Total input = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 8 + 4 = 12kW 𝑃1 = = 𝟖𝟒𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝑾
2
b)The power factor may be determined from: And wattmeter 𝑃2 = (10766 − 8491) = 2275𝑾
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 8− 4 4 1
𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 ( ) = √3 ( ) = √3 ( )= Hence readings were, 8.491 kW and 2.275 kW
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 8+4 12 √3

1 b)Delta connection
Hence, ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =300
√3 𝐕𝐋 =𝐕𝐏 and 𝐈𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐈𝐏
Cos 30 = 0.866 𝑉 415
b)Phase current , 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑝 = = 36.69𝐴
𝑍𝑝 11.31
Example Line current , IL = √3 IP = √3 x (83)= 144 A
Two wattmeter connected to 3-phase motor P = 3𝐼𝑝 2 𝑅𝑝 = 3(36.69)2 (8) = 32310kW
indicates the total power input to 12kW. The
power factor is 0.6. Determine the readings of Then = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 32310 W .….. eqtn (i)
each wattmeter. Since 𝑅𝑝 = 8Ω and 𝑋𝑙 = 8Ω than phase angle is
Sln 450
If the two wattmeter indicate 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑷𝟐 𝑃 −𝑃
respectively 𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 ( 1 2) and
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
Then = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 12 kW …..eqtn(i) 𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 (
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
) = √3 (
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
)=1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 32310
𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 ( ) and p.f = 0.6 = cos∅ 32310
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = =18650 W…(ii)
√3
Hence, ∅ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 0.6 =53.130 Hence solving eqtn (i) and (ii) simultaneously
𝑇𝑎𝑛 53.130 = 1.3333 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 32310
𝑃1− 𝑃2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
1.3333 = √3 ( ) = √3 ( ) + 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 18650 W
𝑃1+ 𝑃2 12
12 𝑥 1.3333 2𝑝1 = 50960 kW
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = = 9.237k W…(ii) 50960
√3
𝑃1 = = 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑾
Hence solving eqtn (i) and (ii) simultaneously 2
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 12 k And wattmeter 𝑃2 = (32310 − 25480) = 6830𝑾
+ 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 9.237k W Hence readings were, 25.48 kW and 6.83 kW
2𝑝1 = 21.237 kW
21.237 Example
𝑃1 = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑾
2 Two wattmeter indicate 10kW and 3kW
Hence wattmeter 𝑃2 = (12 − 10.62) = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝒌𝑾 respectively when connected to measure the
input power to a 3-phase balanced load, the
Example reverse switch being operated on the metre
Three similar coils each having a resistance of indicating the 3kW reading. Determine:
𝟖Ω and an inductive reactance of 𝟖Ω are a)The input power
connected (a) in star and (b) in delta, across a b)The load power factor
415 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate for each
connection the readings on each of two Sln
wattmeter connected to measure the power by a)Total input = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 10 + (-3) = 7kW
the two-wattmeter method. b)The power factor may be determined from:
a)Star connection : 𝐕𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐕𝐏 𝑇𝑎𝑛 ∅ = √3 (
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
) = √3 (
10−( −3)
)
and 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑷 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 10 +(−3)
13
𝑉 415
𝑉𝑝 = 𝐿 = = 240V = √3 ( )= 3.2167
7
√3 √3
Hence, ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3.2167 =72.730
−1

𝑍𝑃 = √(𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )= √(82 + 82 )=11.31 Ω Power factor = Cos ∅ = Cos 72.730 = 0.297

𝑉𝑝 240
Phase currents , 𝐼𝑝 = = = 21.18𝐴
𝑍𝑝 11.31
P = 3𝐼𝑝 2 𝑅𝑝 = 3(21.18)2 (8) = 10766W
If the two wattmeter indicate 𝑷𝟏 and 𝑷𝟐
respectively
Then = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 10766 W .….. eqtn(i)
Since 𝑅𝑝 = 8Ω and 𝑋𝑙 = 8Ω than phase angle is
450

70 | P a g e
TOPIC 11
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS In ideal transformer, losses are negligible and
Objectives neglected and therefore the transformer is
1)Describe the construction of three phase considered to be 100% efficient.
transformers Hence for ideal transformer,
i)Primary windings Input power = output power
ii)secondary windings 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2
iii)iron type 𝑉2 𝐼
= 1
𝑉1 𝐼2
b)Explain the principle of operation of three
phase transformer Combining the above transformer equations gives
𝑽𝟐 𝑵 𝑰
i)Current and voltage = 𝟐= 𝟏
𝑽𝟏 𝑵𝟏 𝑰𝟐
ii)turn ratio Whrere 𝑽𝟐 = voltage in secondary
iii)relationship between primary and secondary 𝑽𝟏 = voltage in primary
values 𝑵𝟐 = No. of turns in secondary
iv)Transformer E.M.F equation 𝑵𝟏 = No. of turns in primary
v)Star-delta/Delta –star connections 𝑰𝟐 = Current in secondary
c)Explain the three phase transformers 𝑰𝟐 = current in primary
characteristics NOTE: The transformer rating is stated in terms of
i)transformer on load the Volt-Ampere.
ii)efficiency test
iii)Open circuit test and short circuit test Transformer on No-Load phasor diagram
d)State applications of three phase transformers

REF: ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT THEORY and

TECHNOLOGY BY JOHN BIRD

INTRODUCTION
A transformer- is a device which uses the
phenomenon of mutual induction to change the
values of alternating voltages and currents.

A transformer consist of two electrical circuit

linked by a common ferromagnetic core. One coil The core flux is common to both primary and
is termed the Primary winding which is connected secondary windings in a transformer and is thus
to the supply of electricity, and the other, the taken as a reference phasor diagram.
secondary winding which may be connected to On no load, the primary windings takes a small no
load. A circuit diagram symbol for a transformer. load current 𝐼𝑜 and since , with losses neglected,the
primary windings is a pure inductor, this lag the
applied voltage 𝑉1 by 900 . In the phasor diagram,
assuming np losses, current 𝐼𝑜 produces the flux
and is drawn in phase with flux. The primary
induced emf 𝐸1 is in phase opposition to 𝑉1 and
equal in magnitude.
Transformer principle of operation
A no-load phasor diagram practical transformer, is
When the secondary is an open- circuit and an
as shown below. If current flows then losses will
alternating voltage 𝑉1 is applied to the primary
occur. When losses are considered then the no-
winding, a small current – called the no load
load current 𝐼𝑜 is the phasor sum of two
current 𝑰𝟎 = flows, which sets up a magnetic flux
components.
in the core. This alternating flux links with both
primary and secondary coils and induces in them
e.m.f of 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 respectively by mutual
induction,
The induced e.m.f E in a coil of N turns is given
by:
𝑑Ф
E = −𝑁 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑Ф
Where = is the rate of change of flux.
𝑑𝑡
NOTE: In an ideal transformer, the rate of change
of flux is the same for both primary and secondary
𝐼𝑀 = the magnetizing component, in phase with the
and therefore the transformer equation Ration:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐 flux and
= 𝐼𝐶 = the core loss component (supplying the
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝑉2 𝑁2 hysteresis and eddy current losses)
=
𝑉1 𝑁1

75 | P a g e
 𝑅𝑒
Cos ∅𝒆 =
No- load current, 𝑰𝟎 = √𝑰𝑴 𝟐 + 𝑰𝒄 𝟐 𝑍𝑒
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer
Where 𝐼𝑀 = 𝐼0 Sin ∅0
is as shown below:
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼0 Sin ∅0
𝐼
Power factor on no-load = Cos ∅0 = 𝑐
𝐼0
-Total core losses (iron losses)= 𝑽𝟏 𝑰𝟎 Cos ∅0
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF
ATRANSFORMER

Example:
A transformer has 600 primary turns and 150
secondary turns. The primary and secondary
resistance are 0.25Ω and 0.01Ω respectively and
corresponding leakage reactance are 1.0 Ω and
The figure above shows the equivalent circuit of a 0.04 Ω respectively. Determine:
transformer. 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 represent the resistance of a)The equivalent resistance referred to the
primary and secondary windings 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 primary windings
represent the reactances of the primary and sln
secondary windings, due to leakage flux. 𝑉 2
The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ( 1)
𝑉2
are allowed for by resistance R which takes a 600 2
current 𝐼1 . The core loss component of the primary 𝑅𝑒 = 0.25 + 0.01 ( )
150
current. Reactance X takes the magnetizing = 0.41Ω
component 𝐼𝑀 .
It is often convenient to assume that all of the b)The equivalent reactance referred to the
resistance and reactance as being on one side of the primary winding
transformer. sln
𝑉 2
𝑋𝑒 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ( 1)
𝑉2
600 2
𝑋𝑒 = 1.0 + 0.04 ( ) = 1.64Ω
150

c)the equivalent impedance referred to the

primary winding
Resistance 𝑅2 in the figure above, can be replaced 𝑍𝑒 = √𝑅2 2 + 𝑋 2 𝑒
by inserting an additional resistance 𝑅′2 in the 𝑍𝑒 = √0.412 + 1.642 = 1.69Ω
primary circuit such that the power absorbed in 𝑅′2
when carrying the primary current is equal to that d)the phase angle of the impedance
in 𝑅2 due to the secondary current i.e Sln
𝑅
𝑰𝟐 𝟏 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐 Cos ∅𝑒 = 𝑒
𝟐 𝟐 𝑍𝑒
𝑰 𝑽 0.41
From which, 𝑹′ 𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 ( 𝟐 ) = 𝑹𝟐 ( 𝟏) . Cos ∅𝑒 =
𝑰𝟏 𝑽𝟐 1.69
0.41
∅𝑒 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) = 75.960
1.69
Then the total equivalent resistance in the primary
circuit 𝑹𝒆 is equal to the primary and secondary
Regulation of a transformer
resistance of the actual transformer
When the secondary of a transformer is loaded, the
Hence, 𝑹𝒆 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹′ 𝟐
𝟐
secondary terminal voltage, 𝑉2 , falls,. As the power
𝑽
𝑹𝒆 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 ( 𝟏 ) factor decreases , this drop increases. This is known
𝑽𝟐
By similar reasoning, the equivalent reactance in as the regulation of the transformer and it
the primary circuit is given by isusually expressed as a percentage of the
secondary no-load voltage, 𝐸2 > For full –load
𝑿𝒆 = 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑿′ 𝟐
𝟐 conditions.
𝑽
𝑿𝒆 = 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑿𝟐 ( 𝟏) Voltage regulation: = (
𝑬𝟐 −𝑽𝟐
)
𝑽𝟐
𝑬𝟐
The equivalent impedance 𝒁𝒆 of the primary and The fall in voltage, (𝑬𝟐 − 𝑽𝟐 ), is caused by the
secondary windings reffered to the primary is given resistance and reactance of the windings.
by: Typical values of voltage regulation are about 3%
𝒁𝒆 = √𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐 𝒆 in small transformers and about 1% in large
If ∅𝒆 is the phase angle between 𝑰𝟏 and the volt transformers.
drop 𝑰𝟏 𝒁𝒆
76 | P a g e
CONNECTIONS OF THREE PHASE  The ratio of line voltages on the primary
TRANSFORMERS side and the secondary side is equal to the
For large scale electrical power generation and transformation ratio of the transformers.
transmission of high voltages of 110kV,  Only works where the load is balanced.
132Kv,275KV, 400 and 750kV, Three phase
transformers are necessary to step up transmission
voltages to the level of transmission voltages and at
the load centres, they are again required to step
down voltages to that of distribution voltages.

Advantages
Applicable for balanced loads
Eliminates distortion in the secondary voltage

b)Delta –Delta or ∆ − ∆ connection

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

CONNECTIONS
a)Star-Star or Y – Y connections
b)Delta –Delta or ∆ − ∆ connection
c)Wye/Delta or Y/∆ Connection
d)Delta/Wye or ∆/Y connection
-This connection is generally used for large, low-
a)Star-Star or Y – Y connections voltage transformers.
 Star-star connection is generally used for -Number of required phase/turns is relatively
small, high-voltage transformers. Because of greater than that for star-star connection.
star connection, number of required turns/phase - The Line voltage is equal to phase voltage
is reduced hence, Phase voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑃
1
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 line Voltage I.e 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑝
√3

77 | P a g e
Advantages grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-
-Can be used even for unbalanced loading. wire service.
-Even if one transformer is disabled, system can -This type of connection is mainly used in step-up
continue to operate in open delta connection but transformer at the beginning of transmission line.
with reduced available capacity. -The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3
times the transformation ratio. There is 30° shift
c)Wye/Delta or Y/∆ Connection between the primary and secondary line voltages.
Above transformer connection, configurations are
shown in the following figure.
Example
A 3-phase,50Hz transformer has adelta –
connected primary and star connected
secondary, the line voltage being 22000V and
400V respectively. The secondary has a star
connected balanced load at 0.8 power factor
lagging. The line current on the primary side is
5A. Determine the current in each coil of the
primary and in each secondary line. What is the
output of the transformer in KW
Sln

Sln
Phase voltage on primary side 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑷 = 22000V
-The primary winding is star (Y) connected with Phase voltage on secondary side: 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑝
grounded neutral and the secondary winding is delta 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑉𝑝 =
√𝟑
connected. 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝐼𝑃
-This connection is mainly used in step down The transformation ratio 𝑲 = = =
𝑁1 𝑉1 𝐼𝑆
transformer at the substation end of the transmission 400 1
= =
line. 22000√3 55√3

-The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 5

1/√3 times the transformation ratio. There is 30° Primary phase current = A
√3
shift between the primary and secondary line 𝐼𝑃 5 1
Secondary phase = 𝐼𝑆 = = × = 275A
voltages. 𝐾 √3 55√3
But in Star 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃
d)Delta/Wye or ∆/Y connection Output power P = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 Cos ∅
P = √3 (400) × (275)x 0.8 = 15.24A

Example
A three phase transformer has 500 primary
turns and 50 secondary turns. If the supply
voltage is 2.4kV find the secondary line voltage
on no- load when the windings are connected.
a)Star –delta
b)delta – star

Sln
a) Star -Delta
For a star – connection, 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑃
𝑉
Primary phase voltage , 𝑉𝑝1 = 𝑝1
√3
2400
= =1385.64V
√3
For delta connection , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑃
𝑁2 𝑉
= 2 for which secondry voltage,
𝑁1 𝑉1
𝑁
𝑉𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑃1 ( 2)
𝑁1
-The primary winding is connected in delta and the 50
= (1385.64) ( ) = 138.6 volts
500
secondary winding is connected in star with neutral

78 | P a g e
b)Delta -Star 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
(𝜼) = 𝟏 −
For a delta –connection, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑃 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Hence primary phase voltage 𝑉𝑃1 = 2.4kV
= 2400V Note: It is usually expressed as a percentage. It is
𝑁
Secondary phase voltage, 𝑉𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑃1 ( 2) not uncommon for power transformer to have
𝑁1
50
efficiencies of between 95% and 98%
(2400) ( ) = 240 volt
500
For star connection, 𝑉𝐿 = √3𝑉𝑃 Output power = 𝑽𝟐 𝑰𝟐 Cos ∅𝟐
Hence ,the secondary line voltage =√3 (240) Total losses = copper loss + iron losses
= 416 volts Input power = output power + losses

Transformer Losses and Efficiency Example

There are two sources of losses in transformers on A 200 kVA rated transformer has a full-load
load, these being copper losses and iron losses. copper loss of 1.5 kW and an Iron loss of 1kW.
a)Copper losses Determine
b)Iron Losses a)the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.8
- Hysteresis loss power factor.
- Eddy Current Loss Sln
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1)Copper losses- are available and result in a Efficiency 𝜂 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
heating of the conductors due to the fact that they 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟−𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
=
posses resistance 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
2)Iron Losses –Are constant for a given value of =1 -
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
frequency and flux density and are two types – Full- Load Output power = VICos∅
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. = (200)(0.85) = 170kW
Total losses = 1.5 + 1.0 = 2.5kW
i)Hysteresis loss- is the heating of the core as a Input power = Output power + Losses
result of the internal molecular structure reversal = 170 + 2.5 = 172.5kW
which occurs as the magnetic flux alternates/cuts 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
the core. Efficiency 𝜂 =1 -
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2.5
ii) Eddy current loss – is the heating of the core =1- = 1- 0.01449 = 0.9855 or 98.55%
172.5
due to e.m.f being induced not only in the
b)The transformer efficiency at half load and
transformer windings but also in the core. These
0.85 power factor.
induced e.m.f sets up circulating currents called
Sln
eddy currents. 1
Half full-load power output = (200)(0.85)
2
SUMMARY OF TRANSFORMER LOSES =85kW
AND HOW TO MINIMIZE THE LOSS Copper loss ( or 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss) is proportional to
current squared.
TYPE OF CAUSE HOW TO Hence the copper loss at half full-load is
1
LOSS MINIMISE ( )2 (1500) = 375W
2
Copper Due to heating Use thicker Iron losses 1000W (is constant)
losses of the copper conductors Total New losses =375 + 1000 = 1375W or
coils/turns 1.375kW
Iron Losses Input power at half full-load = Output power at
Hysteresis -Loss of Using A core half full load + Losses
losses energy in form of a soft iron = 85 + 1.375 = 86.375 kW
of which Efficiency 𝜂 =1 -
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
magnetising magnetize 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1.375
and and =1- = 1- 0.01592
86.375
demagnetising demagnetize = 0.9841 or 98.41%
easily Example
Eddy current Heat generated Laminating 400 kVA transformer has a primary winding
Loss in the soft iron the core with resistance of 0.5 Ω and secondary winding
core as the thin sheets of resistance of 0.001 Ω. The iron loss is 2.5 kW
magnetic flux insulated soft and the primary and secondary voltage are 5kV
cuts the core iron plates and 320V respectively. If the power factor of the
load is 0.85, determine the efficiency of the
transformer on:
Transformer efficiency, a)Full load
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟−𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Effic.(𝜂) = = sln
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Rating = 400kVA = 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝑉2
400 𝑥 103
Hence, primary current, 𝐼1 =
𝑉1

79 | P a g e
 400 𝑥 103 Hence, the output kVA at maximum efficiency =
= = 80A
5000 0.791 x 500 = 395.5kVA
400 𝑥 103
And secondary current , , 𝐼2 =
𝑉2
400 𝑥 103 b)The maximum efficiency, assuming the power
= = 1250A factor of the load is 0.75
320
Total Copper Loss = 𝐼1 2 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 2 𝑅2 Sln
Where 𝑅1 = 0.5Ω and 𝑅2 = 0.001Ω Total loss at maximum efficiency = 2 x 2.5 = 5kW
Total Copper Loss = (80)2 (0.5)+ (1250)2 (0.001) Output power = 395.5kVA x p.f
= 3200 + 1562.5 = 4762.5 Watts = 395.5 x 0.75
On full load, total loss = Copper loss + Iron Loss =296.625kW
= 4762.5W + 2500W Input power = output power + Losses
= 7262.5W = 7.2625kW = 296.625 + 5 = 301 .625kW
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Total output power on full load = 𝑉2 𝐼2 Cos ∅2 Efficiency 𝜂 =1 -
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= (400 x 103 )(0.85) = 340kW 1
Input power = output power + Losses = 340kW + = [1 − ] 𝑥 100%
301.625
7.2625kW = 97.34%
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 Example
Efficiency 𝜂 =1 -
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
7.2625
A 120KVA, 6000/400 V , Y/Y 3-phase
= [1 − ] 𝑥 100% transformer has an iron loss of 1600W. The
347.2625
= 97.91% maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full load.
Find the efficiencies of the transformer at
b)half load i)Full –load and 0.8 pf
Since the copper loss varies as the square of the ii)Half –load and unity power factor
current, then total copper loss on half load = iii)The maximum Efficiency
1
( )2 (4762.5) = 1190.625W
2 Sln
Hence total loss on half load = 1190.625 + 2500 Sln
= 3690.625W or 3.691 kW a)Since maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full –
1
Output power on half full load = (340) = 170 load, Cu loss at ¾ full-load equals iron loss of
2
kW 1600W
Cu loss at ¾ F.L = 1600W
4
Input power on half full load = output power + Cu losses at F.L = 1600 𝑥 ( )2 = 2845W
3
Losses F.L output at 0.8 p.f = 120k x 0.8 = 96000W
= 170kW + 3.691kW Total loss = 16000 + 2845 = 4445 W
=173.691kW 96000
Hence efficiency at half full load: 𝜂= 𝑥 100 = 95.57%
96000+4445
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Efficiency 𝜂 =1 -
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1 𝟏
= [1 − ] 𝑥 100% ii)Cu loss at ½ full-load = ( )𝟐 x 2845 = 710W
173.691 𝟐
= 97.87% Total loss = 710 + 1600 = 2310W
Output at ½ FL and unity power factor is = 60kW
Maximum efficiency = 60000W i.e ½ of 120kVA = 60kW
It may be shown that the efficiency of a 60000
𝜂= 𝑥 100 = 96.57%
transformer is maximum when the variable copper 60000+2310
loss (𝐼 21 𝑅1 + 𝐼 2 2 𝑅2 ) is equal to the constant iron
losses. iii)Maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full load
when iron loss equals Cu loss.
Example Total loss = 2 x 1600 = 3200W
A 500 kVA transformer has full-Load copper Output at u.p.f = ¾ x 1200k = 93200W
90000
loss of 4kW and iron loss of 2.5 kW. Determine: 𝜂= 𝑥 100 = 95.57%
93000+3200
a)The output kVA at which the effeciciency of
transformer is maximum Example
Sln A 5kVA, 200V/400V, single –phase transformer
Let x be the fraction of full load kVA at which the has a secondary voltage of 387.6 volts when
efficiency is a maximum. loaded. Determine the regulation of the
The corresponding total copper loss = (4kW)(𝑥 2 ) transformer.
At maximum efficiency, copper loss = iron loss Sln
Hence, Voltage regulation: =
(4kW)(𝑥 2 ) = 2.5kW (
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒−𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
)
2.5 𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑥2 = 𝐸2 −𝑉2
4
Voltage regulation: = ( ) x 100%
2.5 𝐸2
x=√ = 0.791 400−387.6
4 Voltage regulation: = ( )x 100%
400
= 3.1%
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Example
The open circuit voltage of a transformer is
240V. A tap changing device is set to operation
when the percentage regulation drops below
2.5%. determine the load voltage at which the
mechanics operates.
Sln
Voltage regulation: =
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒−𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
( )
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐸2 −𝑉2
Voltage regulation: = ( ) x 100%
𝐸2
240−𝑉2 In the phasor diagram above, current 𝐼2 lags 𝑉2
Voltage regulation: = ( )x 100% By angle ∅2 . When a load is connected across the
240
240−𝑉2 secondary windings a current 𝐼2 flows in the
2.5 = ( )
240
2.5(240) secondary winding. The resulting secondary e.m.f
240 − 𝑉2 = acts so as to tend to reduce the core flux. However
100
𝑉2 = 240 – 6 = 234 Volts this does not happen since reduction of the flux
reduces to 𝐸1 , hence a reflected increase in primary
current 𝐼1 ′ occurs which provides a restoring mmf.
E.M.F equation of a transformer Hence at all loads, primary and secondary mmf’s
Let Ф𝑚 = be the maximum value of the flux and f are equal, but in opposition, and the core flux
be the frequency of the supply. The time for 1 cycle remains constant. 𝐼2 ′ is sometimes called the
of the alternating flux is periodic time T, where T = ‘balancing’ current and is equal, but in the opposite
1
seconds. direction, to current 𝐼2 as shown above, at a phase
𝑓
angle ∅0 to 𝑉1 , is the no load current of the
The flux rises sunusoidally from Zero to its
1 1 transformer.
maximum value in cycle, and the time for cycle The phasor sum of 𝐼′1 and 𝐼0 gives the supply
4 4
1
is seconds. current 𝐼1 and the phase angle between 𝑉1 and 𝐼1 is
4𝑓
Ф𝑚 shown as ∅1
Hence the average rate of change of flux = 1 =
4𝑓
Example
4fФ𝑚 Wb/s
A single phase 500V/100V 50Hz transformer has
And since 1 Wb/s = 1 volts, the average e.m.f
a maximum core flux of 1.5T and an effective
induced in each turn = 4fФ𝑚 Volts.
core cross-section area of 50𝒄𝒎𝟐 . Detrmine the
As the flux Ф varies sinusoidal, then a sinusoidal
number of primary and secondary turns
e.m.f will be induced in each turn of both primary
Sln
and secondary windings.
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 The emf equation of transformer is
For a sine wave, form factor = =1.11 E = 4.44fФ𝑚 N volts
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Hence rms value = form factor x average value Ф𝑚 = B × A = (1.5)(50 x 10−4 ) = 75 x 10−4 Wb
= 1.11 x average value 𝐸1 = 4.44fФ𝑚 𝑁1 volts
= 1.11 x 4fФ𝑚 volts 𝐸1 500
𝑁1 = =
= 4.44fФ𝒎 volts 4.44𝑓Ф𝑚 4.44 (50)(75 𝑥 10−4 )
Hence the rms value of e.mf induced in primary = 300 turns
𝑬𝟏 = 4.44fФ𝒎 𝑵𝟏 volts 𝐸2 = 4.44fФ𝑚 𝑁2 volts
Hence the rms value of e.mf induced in secondary 𝐸2 100
𝑬𝟐 = 4.44fФ𝒎 𝑵𝟐 volts 𝑁2 = =
4.44𝑓Ф𝑚 4.44 (50)(75 𝑥 10−4 )
= 60 turns
Transformer on – Load phasor diagram
If the voltage drop in the windings of atransformer
are assumed negligible,then the terminal voltage 𝑉2
is the same as the induced emf 𝐸2 in the secondary.
Similarly 𝑉1 = 𝐸1 . Assuming an equal number of TRANSFORMER TEST
turns on primary and secondary windings, then 𝑉1
Open and Short Circuit Test of T
= 𝐸2 and let the load have a lagging phase angle ∅2
Open and short circuit tests are performed on a
transformer to determine the:

1. Equivalent circuit of transformer

2. Voltage regulation of transformer
3. Efficiency of transformer
The power required for open circuit tests and
short circuit tests on a transformer is equal to the
power loss occurring in the transformer.

81 | P a g e
a)Open Circuit Test on Transformer LV side of transformer. These values could easily
be referred to HV side by multiplying these values
with square of transformation ratio.

Importance of Open Circuit test

Therefore, it is seen that the open circuit test on
transformer is used to determine core losses in
transformer and parameters of the shunt branch of
the equivalent circuit of the transformer.

b)Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The connection diagram for the short circuit test on
the transformer is shown in the figure below. A
voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are
The connection diagram for open circuit test on connected in HV side of the transformer as shown.
transformer is shown in the figure above. A A low voltage of around 5-10% is applied to that
voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are
HV side with the help of a variac (i.e. a variable
connected in LV side of the transformer as shown.
The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that ratio auto transformer). We short-circuit the LV
LV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio side of the transformer. Now with the help of
auto transformer. variac applied voltage is slowly increased until the
The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now
wattmeter, and an ammeter gives reading equal to
with the help of variac, applied voltage gets slowly
increased until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated current of the HV side.
the rated voltage of the LV side. After reaching After reaching the rated current of the HV side, we
rated LV side voltage, we record all the three record all the three instrument readings
instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-meter
Wattmeter readings). readings).

The ammeter reading gives the primary equivalent

NOTE: of full load current IL. As the voltage applied for
1)The ammeter reading gives the no load current full load current in a short circuit test on the
Ie. As no load current Ie is quite small compared to transformer is quite small compared to the rated
rated current of the transformer, the voltage primary voltage of the transformer, the core losses
drops due to this current that can be taken as in the transformer can be taken as negligible here.
negligible.
2) wattmeter reading indicates the input power
during the test. As the transformer is open
circuited, there is no output, hence the input power
here consists of core losses in transformer and
copper loss in transformer during no load
condition. Since the no-load current in the
transformer is quite small compared to the full load
current so, we can neglect the copper loss due to
the no-load current. Hence, can take the wattmeter
reading as equal to the core losses in the
transformer.

Let us consider wattmeter reading is Po.

Where, Rm is shunt branch resistance of
transformer. Let’s say, voltmeter reading is Vsc. The watt-meter
If, Zm is shunt branch impedance of transformer. reading indicates the input power during the test.
As we have short-circuited the transformer, there is
no output; hence the input power here consists of
copper losses in the transformer. Since the applied
Therefore, if shunt branch reactance of transformer voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage in the
is Xm, transformer and hence it is quite small compared to
the rated voltage, so, we can neglect the core loss
due to the small applied voltage. Hence the
wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to copper
These values are referred to the LV side of the losses in the transformer. Let us consider wattmeter
transformer due to the tests being conducted on the reading is Psc.

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Where, Re is equivalent resistance of transformer.
If, Ze is equivalent impedance of transformer.

Therefore, if equivalent reactance of transformer is

X e.

These values are referred to the HV side of the ..

transformer as the test is conducted on the HV side
of the transformer. These values could easily be
converted to the LV side by dividing these values
with the square of transformation ratio.

Importance of Short-circuit test

Hence the short-circuit test of a transformer is
used to determine copper losses in the transformer
at full load. It is also used to obtain the parameters
to approximate the equivalent circuit of a
transformer.

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