Review of

Discrete Mathematics
 Discrete Mathematics

Chapter 1: Logic and Proof

1.1 Propositional Logic

1.2 Propositional Equivalences
Yan Huang
School of Computer Science and Engineering
South China University of Technology
Agenda
▪ Ch1.1 Propositional Logic
▪ Proposition
▪ Propositional Operator
▪ Compound Proposition
▪ Applications
▪ Ch1.2 Propositional Equivalences
▪ Logical Equivalences
▪ Using De Morgan's Laws
▪ Constructing New Logical Equivalences
Propositions
▪ Proposition (also called statement) is a declarative sentence
(declares a fact) that is either true or false, but not both
▪ Truth value of a proposition is either True/False (T/F) to indicate
its correctness

▪ Example:
▪ Keep quiet
✓
Not declarative
▪ 1 hour has 50 minutes
✓
False
▪ 1+1=3 False
▪ x+2=4 Can be either true or false
Can be turned into proposition when x is defined
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Propositions
▪ Proposition Variable is letters denote propositions
▪ Conventional letters are p,q,r,s,……P,Q ,……
▪ Proposition Logic is the area of logic that deals with
propositions
▪ Logic Operators
Formal Name Nickname Symbol
Negation Operator NOT ¬
Conjunction Operator AND ⋀
Disjunction Operator OR ⋁
Exclusive-OR Operator XOR ⨁
Conditional Statement Imply →
Biconditional Statement Equivalent 5
Proposition Logic
Conditional Statement (imply)
▪ Example: p → q and its Contrapositive are equivalent
▪ Given p → q
Converse and Inverse are equivalent
“If it rains, the floor is wet”
▪ Situation 1 (¬p → ¬q) Inverse
If it does not rain, the floor is not wet
▪ Situation 2 (q → p ) Converse
If the floor is wet, it rains
▪ Situation 3 (¬q → ¬p) ✓ Contrapositive
If the floor is not wet, it does not rain

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Proposition Logic
Truth Table
▪ Truth Table displays the relationships between the truth values of
propositions
▪ Example:
▪ Truth Table of Negation Operation

P ¬P
T F
F T

Operand Column Result Column

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Proposition Logic
Truth Table
Conditional Biconditional
Statement Statement
NOT AND OR XOR (imply) (equivalent)
p q ¬p p ⋀q p⋁q p ⊕q p→q p q

T T F T T F T T

T F F F T T F F

F T T F T T T F

F F T F F F T T

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Compound Proposition
▪ Compound Propositions are formed from existing propositions using proposition logical
operators
▪ Example: Beijing is the capital of China and 1+1=2

▪ How can we determine the truth values of the complicated compound propositions
involving any number of propositional variables?
▪ Example:
What is the truth value for every situations? p → ¬q s⋀q⨁p

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Compound Proposition

▪ Precedence of Logical Operator

Precedence Operator
1 ¬ NOT
2 ⋀ AND
3 ⋁ ⨁ OR XOR
4 → Imply
5 Equivalent

▪ Example:

✓ ✓
▪ p⋁q⋀r ▪ ¬s ⋀ f ▪ a f→b

✓
▪ p ⋁ ( q ⋀ r） ▪ (¬ s )⋀ r ▪ (a f) →b
▪ (p ⋁ q) ⋀ r ▪ ¬(s ⋀ f ） ▪ a (f→b )

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Compound Proposition

▪ Truth tables can be used to determine the truth values of the

complicated compound propositions

▪ Algorithm:

1. Write down all the combinations of the compositional variables

2. Find the truth value of each compound expression that occurs in the
compound proposition according to the operator precedence

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Compound Proposition

2. Write down all the combinations of the compositional variables

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Compound Proposition

2. Write down all the combinations of the compositional variables

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Compound Proposition

2. Find the truth value of each compound expression

that occurs in the compound proposition according to
the operator precedence

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Compound Proposition

2. Find the truth value of each compound expression

that occurs in the compound proposition according to
the operator precedence

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Compound Proposition

2. Find the truth value of each compound expression

that occurs in the compound proposition according to
the operator precedence

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Compound Proposition

2. Find the truth value of each

compound expression that occurs in
the compound proposition according
to the operator precedence

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Compound Proposition

2. Find the truth value of

each compound expression
that occurs in the compound
proposition according to the
operator precedence
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Translating English Sentences
▪ Algorithm:
1. Remove the connective operators
2. Let a variable for each complete concept
3. Use the operators to connect the variables
4. Adding brackets in suitable positions will be helpful

▪ Example:
▪ You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a computer science major or you
are not a freshman
p →(q ⋁ ¬ s )
▪ p: “You can access the Internet from campus”
▪ q: “You are a computer science major”
▪ s: “You are a freshman”

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Types of Proposition
▪ Tautology P ¬P P ⋁ ¬P
▪ A compound proposition which is always true T F T
▪ Example: P ⋁ ¬P F T T

▪ Contradiction
P ¬P P ∧ ¬P
▪ A compound proposition which is always false T F F
▪ Example: P ∧ ¬P F T F

▪ Contingency
▪ A compound proposition which is neither a P P ∧ ¬P P ⊕ (P ∧ ¬P)
T F T
tautology nor a contradiction
F F F
▪ Example: P ⊕(P ∧ ¬P)
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Logically Equivalence

▪ Definition
Two propositions P and Q are logically equivalent if P Q is a
tautology

▪ Notation: P ⇔ Q or P ≡ Q

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 Discrete Mathematics

Chapter 1: Logic and Proof

1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

1.4 Nested Quantifiers

Yan Huang
School of Computer Science and Engineering
South China University of Technology

Thanks to Dr Patrick Chan for providing the Slides

Agenda

▪ Ch1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers

▪ Predicates
▪ Quantifiers
▪ Quantifiers with Restricted Domains
▪ Precedence of Quantifiers
▪ Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers
▪ Translation
▪ Ch1.4 Nested Quantifiers
▪ Nested Quantifiers
Predicates
▪ Predicate is a function of proposition
▪ Example: Convention:
• lowercase variables denote objects
• UPPERCASE variables denote predicates

Propositional Function Variable Predicate

/Predicate x is greater than 3
P(x) :
Refer to

▪ The truth value of proposition function can

only be determined when the values of
variables are known
Predicates
▪ General case
▪ A statement involving the n variables x1, x2, …,
xn can be denoted by
P(x1, x2, …, xn)
▪ A statement of the form P(x1, x2, …, xn) is the
value of the propositional function P at the
n-tuple (x1, x2, …, xn)
▪ P is also called a n-place predicate or a
n-ary predicate
Quantifiers
▪ Quantification expresses the extent to which a
predicate is true over a range of elements

Peter Paul Mary

▪ For example
▪ Using Propositional Logic
▪ p: Peter has iPhone iPhone
▪ q: Paul has iPhone
▪ r: Mary has iPhone Our class
Assume our class only contains three students
▪ Using Predicate
▪ P(x) : x has iPhone ▪ Using Quantifier
▪ P(Peter) ▪ P(x) : x has iPhone
▪ P(Paul) ▪ For all x, P(x) is true
▪ P(Mary) ▪ Domain consists of
all student in this class
Quantifiers
▪ Four aspects should be mentioned in Quantification
Peter Paul Mary
1. Quantifier
(e.g. all, some…)
2. Variable
3. Predicate Our class
4. Domain P(x) : x has iPhone
For all x, P(x) is true
Domain consists of all student in this class

▪ The area of logic that deals with predicates

and quantifiers is called the Predicate
Calculus
Quantifiers
▪ Universes of Discourse (U.D.s)
▪ Also called the domain of discourse
▪ Refers to the collection of objects being
discussed in a specific discourse
▪ Example:
▪ P(x) : “x breaths oxygen“
▪ Domain consists of humans
P(x) is true for all x?
▪ Domain consists of creatures
P(x) is true for all x?
Quantifiers

▪ Three types of quantification will be focused:

▪ Universal Quantification
▪ i.e. all, none

▪ Existential Quantification
▪ i.e. some, few, many

▪ Unique Quantification
▪ i.e. exactly one

▪ Can be expressed by using Universal Quantification and

Existential Quantification
Quantifiers
Universal Quantifiers (ALL)
▪ Definition
Universal quantification of P(x) is the statement “P(x)
is true for all values of x in the domain”
▪ Notation: ∀x P(x)
▪ ∀ LL, reversed “A”
▪ Read as
▪ "for all x P(x)"
▪ "for every x P(x)"

▪ Truth value
▪ True when P(x) is true for all x
▪ False otherwise
▪ An element for which P(x) is false is called a counterexample
Quantifiers
Universal Quantifiers
▪ When all of the elements in the universe of discourse can be listed one by
one (discrete) (e.g. x1,x2,…,xn),

∀x P(x) ≡ P(x1) ∧P(x2) ∧ ... ∧ P(xn)

▪ For example
▪ Our class has three students: John, Peter and Mary
▪ Every student in our class has attended the class
Quantifiers
Existential Quantifiers (SOME)
▪ Definition
Existential quantification of P(x) is the proposition
“There exists an element x in the domain
such that P(x) is true”
▪ Notation: ∃ x P(x)
▪ ∃ XIST, reversed “E”
▪ Read as
▪ “There is an x such that P(x)”
▪ “There is at least one x such that P(x)”
▪ "For some x P(x)"

▪ Truth value
▪ False when P(x) is false for all x
▪ True otherwise
Quantifiers
Existential Quantifiers
▪ When all of the elements in the universe of discourse can be listed
one by one (discrete) (e.g. x1,x2,…,xn),

∃ x P(x) ≡ P(x1) ∨ P(x2) ∨ ... ∨ P(xn)

▪ For example
▪ Our class has three students: John, Peter and Mary
▪ Any student in our class has attended the class
 ??
???

Yes No
P(x): x is a good student
 Discrete Mathematic

Chapter 1: Logic and Proof

1.5 Rules of Inference

1.6 Introduction to Proofs

Yan Huang
School of Computer Science and Engineering

South China University of Technology

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 Discrete Mathematic

Chapter 2: Set Theory

2.1 Sets

2.2 Set Operations

Yan Huang
School of Computer Science and Engineering
South China University of Technology

Thanks to Dr Patrick Chan for providing the Slides

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 r (R) s (R) t (R)
R is relfecxive √ √ √
R is symmetric √ √ √
R is transitive √ × √ 179
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