This document covers key concepts about predicate logic and quantifiers that were learned: (1) what propositions, logical operators, and precedence of operators are; (2) how quantifiers like ∀ and ∃ work and how they relate to loops; (3) the importance of binding variables and how quantifiers are used to do so; and (4) rules for negating expressions with quantifiers like De Morgan's laws and how to negate statements with multiple quantifiers.
This document covers key concepts about predicate logic and quantifiers that were learned: (1) what propositions, logical operators, and precedence of operators are; (2) how quantifiers like ∀ and ∃ work and how they relate to loops; (3) the importance of binding variables and how quantifiers are used to do so; and (4) rules for negating expressions with quantifiers like De Morgan's laws and how to negate statements with multiple quantifiers.
This document covers key concepts about predicate logic and quantifiers that were learned: (1) what propositions, logical operators, and precedence of operators are; (2) how quantifiers like ∀ and ∃ work and how they relate to loops; (3) the importance of binding variables and how quantifiers are used to do so; and (4) rules for negating expressions with quantifiers like De Morgan's laws and how to negate statements with multiple quantifiers.
This document covers key concepts about predicate logic and quantifiers that were learned: (1) what propositions, logical operators, and precedence of operators are; (2) how quantifiers like ∀ and ∃ work and how they relate to loops; (3) the importance of binding variables and how quantifiers are used to do so; and (4) rules for negating expressions with quantifiers like De Morgan's laws and how to negate statements with multiple quantifiers.
What is a proposition? What are propositional connectives? What are logical operators?
What have we learned?
Precedence of logical operators Logical equivalence Logical equivalence laws
What have we learned?
AND () and OR(v) are commutative while implication ( )
is not commutative.
AND () and OR(v) are associative while implication () is
not associative.
What have we learned?
Simplifying compound propositions Writing English sentences in logic Writing English corresponding to proposition
What have we learned?
Predicate logic allow to express the meaning of a wide range of sentences in mathematics and natural languages in a way that permit us to reason and explore relationships between objects Predicate does not have a truth value until we bound its variables by either assigning a value or quantifying it.
Precedence of quantifiers and has higher precedence then all logical operators x P(x) v Q(x) is the disjunction of x P(x) and Q(x) In other words it will mean (x P(x)) v (Q(x)) rather than
x (P(x) v Q(x))
Quantification as Loops Using this procedure xyP(x,y) is true if P(x,y) is true for all values of x,y as we loop through y for each value of x. xyP(x,y) is true if P(x,y) is true for at least one set of values x,y as we loop through y for each value of x. And so on.
Free variables Variables in a statement are free variables unless we
bound using the quantifiers
We cannot assign a truth value to a propositional
function or predicate until it has a single free variable
Quantifiers can be used to bound a variable in a
predicate
Binding variables Let P(x,y) be x > y Consider: x P(x,y) This is not a proposition! What is y?
If its 5, then x P(x,y) is false If its x-1, then x P(x,y) is true
Note that y is not bound by a quantifier
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Binding variables 2 (x P(x)) Q(x) The x in Q(x) is not bound; thus not a proposition
(x P(x)) (x Q(x)) Both x values are bound; thus it is a proposition
(x P(x) Q(x)) (y R(y))
All variables are bound; thus it is a proposition
(x P(x) Q(y)) (y R(y))
The y in Q(y) is not bound; this not a proposition
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A note on quantifiers Recall that P(x) is a propositional function Recall that a proposition is a statement that is either true or false There are two ways to make a propositional function into a proposition: Supply it with a value For example, P(5) is false, P(0) is true Provide a quantifiaction For example, x P(x) is false and x P(x) is true
Let P(x) be x == 0
P(x) is not a proposition
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers
Negating quantified expressions
Every student in this class has studied mathematics in high school x P(x), where P(x) is the statement x had studied mathematics in high school There exists a student in this class who has not studied mathematics in high school x P(x) x P(x) x P(x)
Negating quantified expressions
There is a student in this class who studied mathematics in high school
x Q(x), where Q(x) is the statement x has studies mathematics in high school Every student in this class has not studied mathematics in high school x Q(x) x Q(x) x Q(x)
De Morgans law for Quantifiers
Negation x P(x) Equivalent Statement x P(x) True When False When P(x) is false for There is an x every x. for which P(x) is true. There is an x for which P(x) is false. P(x) is true for every x.
x P(x)
x P(x)
Negating multiple quantifiers
Recall negation rules for single quantifiers: x P(x) = x P(x) x P(x) = x P(x) Essentially, you change the quantifier(s), and negate what its quantifying
Examples:
(xy P(x,y)) = x y P(x,y) = xy P(x,y) (xyz P(x,y,z)) = xyz P(x,y,z) = xyz P(x,y,z) = xyz P(x,y,z)
Negating multiple quantifiers
Consider (xy P(x,y)) = xy P(x,y) The left side is saying for all x, there exists a y such that
P is true To disprove it (negate it), you need to show that there exists an x such that for all y, P is false
Consider (xy P(x,y)) = xy P(x,y)
The left side is saying there exists an x such that for all
y, P is true To disprove it (negate it), you need to show that for all x, there exists a y such that P is false
Summary Precedence of quantifiers Expressions with multiple quantifiers Quantifiers as loop Free and bound variables Negating quantifiers Morgans law for quantifiers Negating expressions with multiple quantifiers
