Quantitative Reasoning

Statistics: Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. It
provides tools and methods for understanding and making sense of information. In essence, statistics helps us turn
raw data into meaningful insights.

Data: Data refers to the raw information that is collected and analyzed. Data can be numerical (quantitative) or
categorical (qualitative). In terms of quantitative reasoning, data is the only thing that is available in numerical
figures.

Types of data: There are two types of data; primary data, secondary data.
 Primary data: Data which is directly collected from field or source of origin and not gone through any
statistical or mathematical process is called primary data. Examples; personal interviews, experiments,
surveys etc.
 Secondary data: Data which is not directly collected from field rather obtained from any other source and
gone through any statistical or mathematical process at-least once is called secondary data. Examples,
academic journals, government records etc.

Population and Sample:

 In term of statistics, the complete information about relevant phenomenon under discussion having some
common measureable characteristics is called population. Example, all the students in a university, all the
houses in city etc.
 In statistics, sample is the subset or the representative portion of population. It is the small past of specified
population selected for observation and analysis. Example, group of students selected from a university to
participate in a survey etc.

Constant and Variable:

 The quality or quantity which do not differ from object to object, person to person, or individual to
individual is called constant. Example; speed of light in vacuum, value of pi etc.
 The quality or quantity which differ from object to object, individual to individual, or person to person is
called variable. Example; age, weight etc.

Types of variable:

 Qualitative variable; The variable which cannot be measured numerically but only the presence or
absence of a particular characteristics can be measured is called qualitative variable. Example; nationality,
religion etc.
 Quantitative variable: The variable which can be observed numerically is called quantitative variable.
There are two types of quantitative variable.
o Discrete variable: The variable which can assume values in the form of whole number or integers
is called discrete variable. e.g. no. of deaths in an accident, no. of cars in a parking lot etc.
 o Continuous variable: The variable which can assume any value from the given interval of two
values is called continuous variable. e.g. height, weight, time etc.

Presentation of data:

Classification: The process by which a set of observations is divided into classes and groups according to some
common characteristics is called classification. Classification categorizes data into predefined groups.

Tabulation: The process by which a set of observation is arranged into horizontal rows and vertical columns
according to some common characteristics is called tabulation. It is designed to make presentation simpler and
analysis easier.

Objective of tabulation:

 Simplifies complex data.

 Carry out investigation.
 Do comparison.
 Helps in reference.
 Use space economically.

Frequency distribution: Tabular arrangement of a set of observation into groups or classes among with their
number of observation in each class is called frequency distribution.

Graphical representation: The visual display of statistical data into lines, points, areas or other geometrical
shapes is called graphical representation. There are two types of graphical representation. Diagrams, Graphs.

Types of diagram:

 Simple bar diagram:

 Multiple bar diagram:
 Component bar diagram:
 Pie diagram
 Pictogram

Types of graph:

 Histogram
 Frequency polygon
 Frequency curve
 Cumulative frequency polygon/ogive

Sorting of data:
Sorting of data is the last process of tabulation and is a time consuming process when the data is too large. After
classification, the data may be sorted using either of the following methods;

 Manual method
 Mechanical and electrical method
 Tabulation using electronic computer

Measure of central tendency:

A single numerical value which represent the whole data and lies at the center of data is called measure of central
tendency or average. It gives the general idea of whole set. There are five types of measure of central tendency.

 Arithmetic mean: Let x1, x2,…. , xn be the n values of a variable x, then the sum of all values divided by
their number of values is called arithmetic mean. It is denoted by x-bar.
Formulae

For ungroup data ∑𝑥

𝑥̅ = 𝑛

For group data ∑ 𝑓𝑥

𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑓

 Geometric mean: Let x1, x2,……, xn be the n non-negative and non-zero value of variable x then the nth
root of the product of such n values is called geometric mean.
Formulae
For ungroup data ∑ log 𝑥
G.M=Antilog( )
𝑛

For group data ∑ 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥

G.M=Antilog( ∑𝑓
)

 Harmonic mean: Let x1, x2,…..,xn be the n non-zero values of variable x and the reciprocal of arithmetic
mean and of the values as well is called harmonic mean.
Formulae

For ungroup data 𝑛

H.M = 1
∑( )
𝑥

For group data ∑𝑓

H.M = 𝑓
∑( )
𝑥
  Mode: The most repeated and frequent value of data is called mode or model value. It is denoted by x-
carrot. If data contains one mode then it is called uni-modal data, if two modes then bi-modal data, if three
modes then tri-modal and if so on then multi-modal data.
Formula

For group data (𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓1)

𝑥̂ = 𝑙 + ×ℎ
(𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓1) + (𝑓𝑚 − 𝑓2)

 Median: The middle value of the data set when arranged in ascending or descending order is called median.

Formulae

For ungroup data 𝑛+1

𝑥̃ = ( ) 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2

For group data ℎ 𝑛

𝑥̃ = 𝑙 + ( − 𝑐. 𝑓)
𝑓 2

Properties of Mean:

 The arithmetic mean of a constant value is constant itself (a-bar = a).

 The sum of the deviation taken from mean is always equal to zero.
 The sum of squared deviation taken from mean is always minimum.
 The arithmetic mean is highly effected by the change of origin, change of scale, and change of origin and
scale.

Quantiles:

When a set of observation is divided into various equal parts, it is called quantiles or fractiles.

Types; There are three types of quantiles..

 Quartiles; When a set of observation is divided into 4 equal parts it is called quartiles.

Formulae

ℎ 𝑛
Q1= 𝑙 + 𝑓 (4 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

ℎ 2𝑛
Q2= 𝑙 + 𝑓 ( 4 − 𝑐. 𝑓)
 ℎ 3𝑛
Q3= 𝑙 + 𝑓 ( 4 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

 Deciles; When a set of observation is divided into 10 equal parts, it is called deciles.

Formulae
ℎ 𝑛
D1= 𝑙 + 𝑓 (10 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

ℎ 5𝑛
D5= 𝑙 + 𝑓 ( 10 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

ℎ 9𝑛
D9= 𝑙 + 𝑓 (10 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

 Percentiles; When a set of observation is divided into 100 equal parts, it is called percentiles.

Formulae

ℎ 𝑛
P1= 𝑙 + 𝑓 (100 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

ℎ 50𝑛
P50= 𝑙 + 𝑓 ( 100 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

ℎ 99𝑛
P99= 𝑙 + 𝑓 (100 − 𝑐. 𝑓)

Measure of Dispersion:

The average of the absolute or squared deviation from average is called measure of dispersion.

Types; There are two types of measure of dispersion.

 Absolute dispersion: The dispersion which can be obtained through the methods of;
o Range; The difference between the largest and smallest value in a dataset is called range.
o Quartile deviation; half of the difference between upper and lower quartiles is called quartile
deviation or semi-inter quartile range.
o Mean deviation; The arithmetic mean of the absolute deviation from mean, median and mode is
called mean deviation. There are three types of mean deviation.
o Mean deviation from mean
o Mean deviation from median
 o Mean deviation from mode
o Standard deviation and variance; The square root of arithmetic mean of the squared deviation
from mean is called standard deviation. The squared quantity of standard deviation is called
variance.

is called absolute dispersion.

 Relative dispersion: The dispersion which can be expressed in the form of ratio, co-efficient or percentage
and can be obtained through methods of co-efficient of range, co-efficient of quartile deviation, co-efficient
of mean deviation and co-efficient of variance is called relative dispersion.
 Co-efficient of Variation: The ratio of standard deviation and the arithmetic mean of the same of
observation is called co-efficient of variation, co-efficient of standard deviation or co-efficient of variance.

Uses of Co-efficient of variation:

 C.V is used to check the consistency of two or more variables.

o Less C.V shows more consistency.
 C.V is used to compare the variation of two or more variables.
o Less C.V shows less variation.

Formulae

Range 𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥0

Co-efficient of range 𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥0
𝑥𝑚 + 𝑥0

𝑛+1
(𝑄1 = ) 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
4

Quartile deviation 𝑄3 − 𝑄1 3(𝑛+1)

 (𝑄3 = ) 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2 4

Co-efficient of quartile 𝑄3 − 𝑄1
deviation 𝑄3 + 𝑄1

Mean deviation from Ungroup data ∑ |𝒙−𝒙

̅|
M.D𝑥̅ =
𝒏
mean
Group data ∑ 𝒇|𝒙−𝒙
̅|
M.D𝑥̅ =
∑𝒇
Co-efficient of mean 𝑀. 𝐷𝑥̅
deviation 𝑥̅

Mean deviation from Ungroup data ∑ |𝒙−𝒙

̃|
M.D𝑥̃ =
𝒏
median
Group data ∑ 𝒇|𝒙−𝒙
̃|
M.D𝑥̃ =
∑𝒇

Co-efficient of median M. D𝑥̃

deviation 𝑥̃

Mean deviation from Ungroup data ∑ |𝒙−𝒙

̂|
M.D 𝑥
̂=
𝐧
mode

Group data ∑ 𝒇|𝒙−𝒙

̂|
M.D𝑥̂ =
∑𝒇

Co-efficient of mode M. D 𝑥̂
deviation 𝑥̂

Standard deviation from Ungroup data ∑(𝐱 − 𝒙̅)²

mean method S=√
𝒏

Group data ∑ 𝒇(𝐱 − 𝒙̅ )²

S=√
∑𝒇

Standard deviation from Ungroup data ∑𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒙 𝟐

S= √ −(𝒏)
𝒏
direct method

Group data ∑𝒇𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒇𝒙 𝟐

S= √ −( )
∑𝒇 ∑𝒇

Variance from mean Ungroup data ∑(𝐱 − 𝒙

̅)²
S2=
𝒏
method
Group data ∑ 𝒇(𝐱 − 𝒙̅)²
S2=
∑𝒇

Variance from direct Ungroup data ∑𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒙 𝟐

S2= − (𝒏)
𝒏
method
Group data ∑𝒇𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒇𝒙 𝟐
S2= − ( ∑𝒇 )
∑𝒇

Co-efficient of variance 𝑺
C.V = 𝒙̅
Fundamental counting principle: The fundamental counting principle (often called the Multiplication rule)
is a way of finding how many possibilities can exist when combining choices, objects or results. Two basic methods
are given below;

Permutation and Combination:

 The arrangement of the r objects taken out at a time from n objects regarding with some definite order is
called permutation.
 The arrangement of r objects taken out at a time from n objects without regarding any definite order is
called combination.

Formulae

Permutation 𝑛
𝑛!
𝑟𝑝 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

Combination 𝑛
𝑛!
𝑟𝑐 =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!

“n!” = factorial formula used for the calculation of

permutation and combination.
“n” represents total number of items
“r” represents the number of items that can be chosen
at once.

Probability theory:

The branch of mathematics that deals with the chances of happening an event is called the probability theory. It
tells us about the chances of occurring an event and also all the possible outcomes of any event. For example;
when a coin is tossed in the air, the possible outcomes are head and tail.

𝒏𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔

P(A) =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔

 Probability values can be presented in percentage, ratio, and decimal or fraction.

Types of probability:

 Theoretical Probability (Classical Probability): Theoretical probability is based on the assumption that
all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely. It is calculated by the formula:
 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐯𝐨𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬
P(A) =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬

1
o Example: For a fair six-sided die, the probability of rolling a 3 is: P(rolling a 3) = 6
 Empirical Probability (Experimental Probability): Empirical probability is based on observation or
experimentation. It is calculated by the formula:

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐀 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐬

P(A) =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐬

o Example: If you flip a coin 100 times and it lands on heads 45 times, the empirical probability of
45
heads is: P(Heads) = 100 = 0.45

Basics of Probability theory:

 Random experiment: The experiment being performed repeatedly under same condition and produce
different results. Example, tossing a coin, rolling dice etc.
 Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes for any random experiment is called sample space. For
example, when rolling a six-sided die, the sample space is S={1,2,3,4,5,6}.
 Event: A specific outcome or a set of outcomes from the sample space. For example, getting an even
number when rolling a die is the event E={2,4,6}. Various types of events used in probability theory are;
o Independent event: Events where the outcome of one event does not affect the outcome of another.
For example, flipping a coin and rolling a die are independent events.
o Dependent event: Events where the outcome of one event affects the outcome of another. For
example, picking oranges from a bag that contains 100 oranges without replacement.
o Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events that cannot happen at the same time. For example, when
flipping a coin, the events "heads" and "tails" are mutually exclusive.
o Equally likely events: Events that have an equal chance or probability of happening. For example,
observing any face in rolling dice has an equal probability of 1/6.

Random variable:

A random variable is a variable whose values are determined by the outcome of a random experiment. In other
words, it is a function that maps the outcomes of a random experiment to numerical values. Random variables are
fundamental in probability theory and statistics because they allow us to quantify uncertainty and make predictions.

Types of random variable:

 Discrete random variable: Variable which can assume values in form of whole number or integers. For
example, the number of heads when flipping a coin multiple times or the number of cars passing through
a tollbooth in an hour.
  Continuous random variable: Variable which can assume any values from the interval of two values.
The values are not countable and can represent measurements, such as time, height, or weight. For example,
the height of a person, the temperature at a given location etc.

Random variable formulae:

 Mean of random variable: The expected value (or mean) of a random variable is the long-term average
or central value it would take if the random experiment were repeated many times.

Mean (𝑥̅ ) = ∑x.Px

 Variance of random variable: The variance measures how much the values of a random variable differ
from the expected value.

Var (x) = ∑x2(px) - [∑x (px)]2

Probability distribution: The probability distribution of a random variable describes how the probabilities are
distributed over the values of the random variable. In other words, tabular arrangement of values of random
variable among with their respective probabilities.

Cumulative probability distribution or Distribution function: The Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
gives the probability that a random variable is less than or equal to a certain value. The CDF can be used for both
discrete and continuous random variables.

 For a discrete random variable, the CDF is the sum of the probabilities for all outcomes less than or
equal to x.
 For a continuous random variable, the CDF is the integral from −∞ to x.

Conditions for probability distribution:

 The probability of an event should be greater than 0.

 The sum of all the probabilities should be equal to 1.

Geometry:
Geometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with the study of shapes, sizes, dimensions, positions, and
properties of figures and spaces, and how they interact with one another in two-dimensional and three-dimensional
space.

Branches of Geometry:
 Euclidean Geometry: Study of flat, two and three-dimensional shapes, based on the work of the ancient
Greek mathematician Euclid.
o Example; Triangle, circle, square.
 Non-Euclidean Geometry: Study of spaces where Euclid's parallel postulate does not hold. It includes
geometries with curved surfaces.
 o Example; Spherical geometry, hyperbolic space.
 Differential Geometry: Study of curves and surfaces using calculus and differential equations.
o Example; Geodesics on a sphere.
 Algebraic Geometry: Study of geometric shapes using algebraic equations.
o Example; Elliptic curves.
 Topology: Study of properties of shapes that remain unchanged under continuous transformations like
stretching or bending.
o Example; Coffee cup and doughnut analogy.
 Convex Geometry: Studies convex sets, primarily in Euclidean space.
o Example; Circle, square, triangle etc without indentations.
 Discrete Geometry: Study of geometric objects and their arrangements in discrete settings.
o Example; Tiling and packing problems.

Geometric shapes:

Two dimensional shapes:

Two-dimensional (2D) shapes are flat, planar figures that have only two dimensions; length and width. They do
not have depth or thickness and are confined to a single plane.
Types of 2D Shapes
1. Polygons: Polygons are closed 2D shapes with straight sides. They are classified based on the number of
sides.
o Examples:
 Triangle: 3 sides
 Quadrilateral: 4 sides (e.g., square, rectangle)
 Pentagon: 5 sides
 Hexagon: 6 sides
 Heptagon: 7 sides
 Octagon: 8 sides
2. Circles and Ellipses: These are curved 2D shapes without straight edges.
o Circle: A set of points equidistant from a fixed center point.
o Ellipse: A stretched circle with two focal points.
3. Special Quadrilaterals:
o Square: All sides are equal, and all angles are 90°.
o Rectangle: Opposite sides are equal, and all angles are 90°.
o Rhombus: All sides are equal, but angles are not necessarily 90°.
o Parallelogram: Opposite sides are parallel and equal.
o Trapezium (Trapezoid): One pair of opposite sides is parallel.

Three dimensional shapes:

Three-dimensional (3D) shapes are solid figures that have three dimensions: length, width, and height (or
depth). Unlike 2D shapes, they have volume and occupy space.
Types of 3D Shapes
1. Polyhedral: Solid shapes with flat faces (polygons), straight edges, and vertices.
o Examples:
 Cube: All faces are squares.
 Cuboid: Faces are rectangles.
2. Curved Surface Shapes: Solids with curved surfaces instead of flat faces.
o Examples:
 Sphere: A perfectly round ball; all points are equidistant from the center.
 Cylinder: Two parallel circular bases connected by a curved surface.
 Cone: A circular base tapering to a single point (vertex).
  Ellipsoid: A stretched sphere, shaped like an egg.

Geometry formulae:

1. Area and Perimeter of Common Shapes:

 Square:
o Area: A = s2
o Perimeter: P = 4s
o Where s is the length of a side.
 Rectangle:
o Area: A = l × w
o Perimeter: P = 2 (l + w)
o Where l is length and w is width.
 Triangle:
1
o Area: A = × b × h
2
o Perimeter: P = a + b + c
o Where b is the base, h is the height, and a, b, c are the sides.
 Circle:
o Area: A = πr2
o Circumference: C = 2πr
o Where r is the radius.
 Parallelogram:
o Area: A = b × h
o Perimeter: P = 2 (a + b)
o Where b is the base, h is the height, and a, b are the sides.

2. 3D Shapes:
 Cube:
o Volume: V = s3
o Surface Area: SA = 6s2
o Where s is the side length.
 Rectangular Prism:
o Volume: V = l× w× h
o Surface Area: SA = 2 (lw+ lh+ wh)
o Where l, w, h are the length, width, and height.
 Sphere:
4
o Volume: V = πr3
3
o Surface Area: SA = 4πr2
o Where r is the radius.
 Cylinder:
o Volume: V = πr2h
o Surface Area: SA = 2πr (r + h)
o Where r is the radius and h is the height.
 Cone:
1
o Volume: V = πr2h
3
o Surface Area: SA = πr (r + l)
o Where r is the radius, h is the height, and l is the slant height.

(Value of π = 22/7 = 3.14)

Circles in geometry:
A circle is a two-dimensional geometric shape defined as the set of all points in a plane that are equidistant
from a fixed point, called the center. The distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius.
Example: Earth, pizza, football, clock etc.
Interior and Exterior of Circle:
If we draw a circle it divides the 2-D plane into three parts which are:
 Point Inside the Circle: A point P is inside the circle if the distance from the point to the center of the
circle is less than the radius r.
 Point On the Circle: A point P is on the circle if the distance from the point to the center is exactly equal
to the radius r.
 Point Outside the Circle: A point P is outside the circle if the distance from the point to the center is
greater than the radius r.

Parts of circle:
 Center:
o The point that is equidistant from every point on the circle.
 Radius:
o The distance from the center to any point on the circle.
𝐷
o Formula: R = 2
 Diameter:
o The longest chord, passing through the center. It is twice the length of the radius.
o Formula: D = 2r
 Circumference:
o The total distance around the circle (the perimeter).
o Formula: C=2πr
 Chord:
o A line segment whose endpoints are on the circle. (The diameter is a special case of a chord that
passes through the center of the circle.)
θ
o Formula: Length of Chord = 2r sin(2)
 Tangent:
o A line touching the circle at exactly one point, and is always perpendicular to the radius at the
point of tangency.
 Secant:
o A line intersecting the circle at two points. Unlike a tangent, it passes through the circle.
 Arc:
o A portion of the circumference, or a curve that is a part of its circumference.
o Formula: L = θ × r (where θ is central angle of the sector in radians)
 Sector:
o A "pizza slice" shaped region bounded by two radii and an arc.
1
o Formula: A = 2 × θ × r2 (in radians)
 Segment:
o The area enclosed by a chord and an arc.
𝑟2
o Formula: A = θ (θ − sinθ)
Properties of Circle:
 Circle with same radii are called the congruent circle.
 Equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle.
 The perpendicular drawn from centre of the circle to chord always bisects the chord.
 We can draw two tangents from an external point to a circle.
 Tangents drawn from the endpoints of the diameter are always parallel to each other.
Lines in Geometry:

Line in geometry is one-dimensional figure that extends infinitely in opposite direction, and has infinite length. A
line can be vertical or horizontal with respect to the reference line or plane.

Types of lines:

 Line segment: Line segment is the shortest distance between two points with a fixed length and has two
endpoints.
 Ray: A line that has a starting point or end point and moves to infinity in one direction.
 Perpendicular lines: Lines that form a right angle to each other and meet at a single point.
 Parallel lines: Lines that do not meet or intersect each other on a plane at any point. The distance between
any two points of parallel lines is fixed.
 Transversal lines: A transversal is a line that intersects two or more other lines at distinct points. It acts
like a cross-cutting line, creating various angles where it intersects the other lines.
 Horizontal lines: Lines that are parallel to x-axis forming angle of 0° or 180° and perpendicular to y-axis
forming angle of 90° or 270° are called horizontal lines.
 Vertical lines: Lines that are parallel to y-axis forming angle of 0° or 180° and perpendicular to x-axis
forming angle of 90° or 270° are called vertical lines.
 Oblique or slanted lines: Lines that are drawn in slanting position or form some angle other than 0°,
180°, 90°, 270° 𝑜𝑟 360°. The most important characteristic of a slanted line is its slope, which measures
how steeply it rises or falls.

Properties of lines:

 If three or more than three points lie in same line then they are called collinear points.
 Two lines are called parallel if the distance between them is constant.
 Two lines are perpendicular if they intersects at right angles.
 A line has indefinite points on it.
 A line has only one dimension, which is length. It has no breadth or height.

Angles in Geometry:
Angles are the figures formed by two rays meeting at a common endpoint, represented by symbol ∠. Angles are
measured in degrees and are expressed as 180°, 90° and so on.
Types of Angles:
 Right angle: An angle of 90°.
 Acute angle: An angle less than right angle, between 0° − 90°.
  Obtuse angle: An angle greater than right angle, between 90° −180°.
 Straight angle: An angle of exactly 180° that is a straight line.
 Reflex angle: An angle measures between 180° −360° .
 Complete angle: An angle measures 360°.
 Complementary angles: When two angles sum up to 90°, they are called complementary angles.
 Supplementary angles: When two angles sum up to 180°, they are called complementary angles.
 Adjacent angles: Angles that share a common vertex (corner point) and a common side, but do not overlap.
They are essentially placed next to each other.
 Vertically opposite angles: When two lines intersect, they form four angles. Vertically opposite angles
are the pairs of angles that are positioned directly opposite each other at the point of intersection.

Sets and their operations:

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. These objects, which can be anything from numbers and
letters to shapes and even other sets, are called the elements or members of the set. For example; The set of all
even numbers: {2, 4, 6, 8, ...}.

Representation of sets in set theory:

The elements in the sets are depicted in three forms;

 Semantic/Descriptive form: The descriptive form is a way of representing a set by using a sentence or
phrase to describe its elements. For example; The set of natural numbers less than or equal to 5.
 Roster/Tabular form: The tabular form, also known as the roster form, is a way to represent a set by
listing all its elements within curly braces {}. For example; {a, e, i, o, u}.
 Set Builder form: Set builder form is a concise and powerful way to define a set by specifying a rule or
condition that its elements must satisfy. For example; set of natural numbers less than 15 as
{X|X∈N^X<15}.

Types of set:

1. Empty Set (Null/Void Set):

o Contains no elements.
o Represented by {} or ∅.
o Example: The set of all unicorns.
2. Singleton Set:
o Contains only one element.
o Example: {0}, {a}
3. Finite Set:
o Contains a countable number of elements.
o Example: The set of days in a week: {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday}
 4. Infinite Set:
o Contains an unlimited number of elements.
o Example: The set of natural numbers: {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
5. Equal Sets:
o Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements, regardless of the order.
o Example: {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1}
6. Equivalent Sets:
o Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements, even if the elements
themselves are different.
o Example: {a, b, c} is equivalent to {1, 2, 3}
7. Disjoint Sets:
o Two sets are disjoint if they contain no common element.
o Example: {a, b, c} and {e, f, g} are disjoint sets.
8. Subset:
o A set A is a subset of set B if all the elements of A are also elements of B.
o Represented by A ⊆ B.
o Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then A ⊆ B.
o Types of subsets:
o Proper subset: Two sets are proper subset if all the elements of the first set are also in the
second set, but the second set has at least one element that is not in the first set. Example;
A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Represented by A ⊂ B.
o Improper subset: An improper subset is a subset that includes all the elements of the
original set, including the possibility of being equal to the original set itself.
A superset is the reverse concept of a subset. A set B is a superset of a set A if every element of
A is also an element of B. (denoted as B⊇A)
9. Overlapping Set:
o Two or more sets are called overlapping sets if they have at-least one common element.
o Example: {4, 5, 6} and {6, 7, 8} are overlapping sets.
10. Universal Set:
o A set that contains all the elements under consideration in a particular context.
o Often denoted by U.
11. Power Set:
o Set of all possible subsets of A, including the empty set (∅) and A itself. The power set is denoted
by P(A).
o If A is a set, its power set is denoted as P(A) or 2^A.
o Example: If A={1,2,3}, it has 3 elements, so P(A) contains 23= 8 subsets.

Operations on Sets:

Operations on sets allow us to combine, relate, or manipulate sets in different ways. Here are the most common
set operations in mathematics:

1. Union (A∪B):
 The union of two sets A and B is the set containing all elements that are in A, B, or both.
 A∪B = {x ∣ x∈A or x∈B}
 Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} = then A∪B = {1,2,3,4,5}

2. Intersection (A∩B):
 The intersection of two sets A and B is the set containing all elements that are in both A and B.
 A∩B = {x ∣ x∈A and x∈B}
 Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} = then A∩B = {3}
 3. Difference (A∖B):
 The difference of two sets A and B is the set of elements that are in A but not in B.
 A∖B = {x ∣ x∈A and x∉B}
 Example: A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4,5} = then A∖B = {1,2}, or B∖A = {4,5}

4. Cartesian Product (A×B):

 The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set of all ordered pairs (a,b) where a∈A and b∈B.
 A×B = {(a,b) ∣ a∈A and b∈B}
 Example: A = {1,2}, B = {x,y} = then A×B = {(1,x),(1,y),(2,x),(2,y)}

5. Complement (Ac):
 The complement of a set A (relative to a universal set U) is the set of elements in U that are not in A.
 Ac = {x ∣ x∈U and x∉A}
 Example: If U(universal set) = {1,2,3,4,5} and A = {1,2,3}, then Ac = {4,5}

Properties of Sets:

1. Commutative Properties:
 Union: A∪B = B∪A
 Intersection: A∩B = B∩A
 Explanation: The order of the sets does not matter for union or intersection.

2. Associative Properties:
 Union: (A∪B)∪C = A∪(B∪C)
 Intersection: (A∩B)∩C = A∩(B∩C)
 Explanation: Grouping of sets does not matter for union or intersection.

3. Distributive Properties:
 Intersection over Union: A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B)∪(A∩C)
 Union over Intersection: A∪(B∩C) = (A∪B)∩(A∪C)
 Explanation: Intersection and union distribute over each other.

4. Identity Properties:
 Union with Empty Set: A∪∅ = A
 Intersection with Universal Set: A∩U = A
 Explanation: Union with an empty set or intersection with the universal set leaves the set unchanged.

Functions and Relation:

Function:
In mathematics, a function is a rule or relationship that assigns a unique output value to each element from one set
(called the domain) to exactly one input element of another set (called the codomain).
A function f from a set A (domain) to a set B (codomain) is denoted as: f:A→B

Function Notation:
 f(x): where f is the name of function and x is the input independent variable.
 Example: For f(x) = x2 ………If x = 3, then f(3) = 32 = 9.

Evaluating the function:

  Evaluating a function means substituting a specific value of the variable into the function and calculating
the result.

Domain, Range and Co-domain:

 The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values (often represented by 'x') for which the
function is defined.
 The range of a function is the set of all possible output values (often represented by 'y' or 'f(x)') that the
function can produce.
 The codomain of a function is the set of all possible output values that the function could produce.

Types of Function:
 Into function: Any function f: A → B is said to be an into function if there exists at least one element in
B which does not have a pre-image in A. Range (f)⊂B and Range (f)≠B.
Example of an Into Function:
o Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {a,b,c,d}, and define the function f:A→B as:
o f(1) = a, f(2) = b, f(3) = c
o Range: {a,b,c}
o Codomain: {a,b,c,d}
Since the element d∈B is not mapped to by f, the function f is an into function.
 Onto function (Surjective function): A function f:A→B is onto if all elements of the codomain are
"covered" by the function. Range (f) = B.
Example of Onto Functions:
o Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {a,b,c}. Define f:A→ B as:
o f(1) = a, f(2) = b, f(3) = c
o Range: {a,b,c}
o Codomain: {a,b,c}
Since every element of B is mapped to, f is an onto function.
 One to One function (Injective): A function f:A→B is one-to-one (injective) if, every element in the
domain maps to a unique element in the codomain.
Example of One-to-One Functions:
o Example: Linear Function
o Let f(x) = 2x + 3, where f:ℝ→ℝ:
o f(x1) = f(x2) implies 2x1 + 3 = 2x2 + 3, which simplifies to x1 = x2.
Hence, f(x) is injective.
 Bijective function: A bijective function is a function that is both one-to-one (injective) and onto
(surjective). This means that every element in the domain is mapped to a unique element in the
codomain, and every element in the codomain is "hit" by some element in the domain.
Example of Bijective Functions:
o Example: Modulo Function (Restricted Domain and Codomain)
o Let f:{1,2,3}→{a,b,c} defined as:
o f(1) = a, f(2) = b, f(3) = c
o f is injective: No two inputs map to the same output.
o f is surjective: Every element of {a,b,c} is mapped by some element in {1,2,3}.
Hence, f is bijective.
 Algebraic function: An algebraic function is a type of function that can be expressed using a finite
number of operations involving:
o Addition (+)
o Subtraction (−)
 o Multiplication (×)
o Division (÷)
o Raising to a rational power (e.g., square roots, cube roots).
 These operations are applied to variables and constants.
For example; f(x) = x2 + 5x + 6
 Modulus function: The modulus function, also known as the absolute value function, is a function that
gives the non-negative value of a number, regardless of whether the input is positive or negative. It is
denoted as f(x) = ∣x∣.
 A function will considered as rational where algebraic fraction with numerator and denominator will be
polynomial and denominator is not equal to zero.
Composition of a function:
The composition of functions involves combining two functions so that the output of one function becomes the
input of another function. The composition of two functions f and g is denoted as:
(f∘g)(x)=f(g(x))
Point to remember: In composition of function, order matters the most. In general (f∘g)(x) ≠ (g∘f)(x).

Examples:
 Example 1:
o Let f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x+3:
o (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x+3) = (x+3)2
 Example 2:
o Let f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x−1:
o (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x−1) = 2(x−1) = 2x−2
o (g∘f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x) = 2x−1
Here, (f∘g)(x) ≠ (g∘f)(x).
 Example 3:
o Let f(x) = √𝒙 and g(x) = x2+1
o (f∘g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x2+1) = x2+1 = √𝑥 2 + 1

Inverse of a function:

The inverse of a function is a function that reverses the effect of the original function. If a function f:A→B
maps elements from set A to set B, its inverse, denoted by f-1:B→A, maps elements from B back to A such that:
f(f-1(b)) = b and f(f-1(a)) = a
Example:
Let f(x) = 2x+3, where f:ℝ→ℝ.
1. Write y = 2x+3
𝑦−3
2. Solve for x: y−3 = 2x ⇒ x =
2
-1 𝑥−3
3. Replace y with x to get: f (x) =
2

Conditions for a Function to Have an Inverse

A function f:A→B has an inverse if and only if it is:

1. Bijective:
o Injective (one-to-one): Every element in B is mapped to by at most one element in A.
o Surjective (onto): Every element in B is mapped to by at least one element in A.
 If f is bijective, the inverse f-1 exists and is also a function.

Linear and Quadratic function:

A linear function is a type of function that represents a straight line when graphed on a Cartesian plane. It is
defined by the general form: f(x) = mx + c
Where:
 m is the slope of the line (rate of change of f(x) with respect to x).
 c is the y-intercept (the value of f(x) when x = 0).
Examples of Linear Functions:
 f(x) = 2x+3:
o Slope (m): 2
o Y-intercept (c): 3
 f(x) = 5:
o Slope (m): 0 (horizontal line).
o Y-intercept (c): 5.

Note: The slope m determines the steepness and direction of the line AND Intercept is the point where
the graph intersects any of the y or x axis.

A quadratic function is a type of function that describes a parabolic curve when graphed. It is defined by the
general form: f(x)=ax2+bx+c
Where:
 a, b, and c are constants.
 a ≠ 0 (if a = 0, the function becomes linear).
 x is the variable.

Example of Quadratic Functions

f(x) = x2+2x+1:
o Let's solve the quadratic equation: x2+2x+1 = 0
 Step 1: Recognize the Perfect Square Form
o This quadratic equation can be rewritten as: (x+1)2 = 0
o This is because: (x+1)2 = (x+1)(x+1) = x2+2x+1
 Step 2: Solve for x
o If (x+1)2 = 0, then: x+1= 0
o Subtract 1 from both sides: x = −1
 Step 3: Verify the Solution
o Substitute x = −1 back into the original equation:
o (−1)2 + 2(−1) + 1 = 1− 2 + 1 = 0
o This confirms that x = −1 is the correct solution.
 Final Answer
o x = −1
o This equation has a repeated root (or a double root) at x = −1.

Relation:
A relation is a way to associate elements of one set A with elements of another set B. More formally, a relation
is a subset of the Cartesian product of two sets. R ⊆ A × B.
In mathematical terms, we can say that; “A set of ordered pairs is a relation”.

Example of a Relation
  Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {x,y}
 The Cartesian product A×B is:
o A×B = {(1,x),(1,y),(2,x),(2,y),(3,x),(3,y)}.
 A relation R from A to B might be:
o R = {(1,x),(2,y)}.
 Here, (1,x) and (2,y) are in the relation, but other pairs are not.

Representation of Relation:

In mathematics or set theory we can represent the relation using different techniques which are;

 Set builder Notation

 Roaster Notation
 Arrow diagram
 Tabular form

Types of Relation:

1. Empty Relation:
 Definition: No element of set A is related to any element of set B.
 Example:
o Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5, 6}.
o The relation R = ∅ (empty set) is an empty relation, as no element of A is related to any element
of B.
2. Universal Relation:
 Definition: Every element of set A is related to every element of set B.
 Example:
o Let A = {a, b} and B = {x, y}.
o The relation R = {(a, x), (a, y), (b, x), (b, y)} is a universal relation, as every element of A is
related to every element of B.
3. Reflexive Relation:
 Definition: Every element of set A is related to itself.
 Example:
o Let A = {1, 2, 3}.
o The relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is a reflexive relation on A, as every element is related to
itself.
4. Symmetric Relation:
 Definition: If a is related to b, then b is also related to a.
 Example:
o Let A = {1, 2, 3}.
o The relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)} is a symmetric relation on A, as for every (a, b) in R,
(b, a) is also in R.
5. Transitive Relation:
 Definition: If a is related to b, and b is related to c, then a is also related to c.
 Example:
o Let A = {1, 2, 3}.
o The relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} is a transitive relation on A, as for every (a, b) and (b, c) in
R, (a, c) is also in R.
6. Equivalence Relation:
 Definition: A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
 Example: For A={1,2,3}, R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,2),(1,3),(3,1)} is an equivalence
relation.
 o The relation "is equal to" on the set of real numbers is an equivalence relation. It is reflexive (a =
a), symmetric (if a = b, then b = a), and transitive (if a = b and b = c, then a = c).
7. Inverse Relation:
 Definition: If R is a relation from set A to set B, then the inverse relation R⁻¹ is a relation from set B to
set A.
 Example:
o Let R = {(1, 2), (3, 4)} be a relation from A = {1, 3} to B = {2, 4}.
o Then, R⁻¹ = {(2, 1), (4, 3)} is the inverse relation from B to A.
8. Identity Relation:
 Definition: Relates each element of a set A to itself.
 Example:
o Let A = {1, 2, 3}.
o The identity relation on A is = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}.
9. One-to-One Relationship:
 Definition: In a one-to-one relationship, each element in the first set is associated with exactly one
element in the second set, and vice versa.
 Example:
o Social Security Numbers and Individuals: In most countries, each individual has a unique
Social Security Number, and each Social Security Number belongs to only one person.
10. One-to-Many Relationship:
 Definition: In a one-to-many relationship, one element in the first set can be associated with multiple
elements in the second set.
 Example:
o P = {1, 2, 3}, and Q = {a, b, c} then relation will be R = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c)}.
11. Many-to-One Relationship:
 Definition: In a many-to-one relationship, multiple elements in the first set can be associated with a
single element in the second set.
 Example:
o A = {1, 2, 3}, and B = {a, b, c} then relation will be R = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, a)}.
12. Many-to-Many Relationship:
 Definition: In a many-to-many relationship, multiple elements in the first set can be associated with
multiple elements in the second set, and vice versa.
 Example:
o A = {1, 2, 3}, and B = {a, b, c} then relation will be R = {(2, a), (3, a), (2, C)}.

Key Differences:

Aspect Relation Function

Definition A relation R is a set of ordered pairs A function f is a special type of relation where
where R ⊆ A×B. each element of A is related to exactly one
element of B.
Mapping Rule Elements of A may be related to Each element of A is related to exactly one
zero, one, or multiple elements in element in B.
B.
Domain Can include some or all elements of Includes all elements of A.
A.
Notation Represented as R⊆A×B. Represented as f:A→B.
Graph May not pass the vertical line test. Always passes the vertical line test.
Representation

Point to remember: All functions are relations, but not all relations are functions.
Exponents:
 Exponents:
In mathematics, an exponent (also known as a power or index) indicates how many times the base is multiplied
by itself.
General Form: an
Where
 a is the base.
 n is the exponent (also called the power).
 an means a×a×a×⋯×a (multiplied n times).
Examples:
1. 23 = 2×2×2 = 8
2. 52 = 5×5 = 25
3. 100 = 1 (any non-zero number raised to the power of 0 is 1).

 Scientific Notation:
Scientific notation is a way of expressing very large or very small numbers in a compact form. In this, numbers
are written with the help of decimals and powers of 10.
General Form: a × 10n
Where:
 a is a number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10.
 n is an integer (positive, negative, or zero), which represents the power of 10.
Examples:
1. Large Numbers: (move the decimal point to the left until you get a number between 1 and 10. Count
how many places you moved the decimal—this will be the exponent of 10 (positive).
o 4,500,000 = 4.5×106
o 100,000,000 = 1×108
2. Small Numbers: (move the decimal point to the right until you get a number between 1 and 10. Count
how many places you moved the decimal—this will be the exponent of 10 (negative).
o 0.00003 = 3×10-5
o 0.0000000065 = 6.5×10-9

Rules / Laws of exponent:

 Product Rule:
o am⋅an = am+n
o When multiplying two numbers with the same base, add their exponents.
o Example:
 23⋅24 = 23+4 = 27 = 128
 Quotient Rule:
𝑎𝑚
o = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 , a≠ 0.
𝑎𝑛
o When dividing two numbers with the same base, subtract their exponents.
o Example:
56
 = 56−2 = 54 = 625
52
 Power Rule:
o (am)n = am.n
o When raising a power to another power, multiply the exponents.
o Example:
 (32)4 = 32.4 = 38 = 6561
 Zero Exponent Rule:
o a0 = 1, a ≠ 0
o Any number (except 0) raised to the power of 0 equals 1.
o Explanation:
o Using the quotient rule:
𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚
 𝑎𝑚
= 𝑎𝑚−𝑚 = 𝑎0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚
= 1 ⇒ 𝑎0 = 1
o Example:
 70 = 1 , 1000 =1
 Negative Exponent Rule:
1
o 𝑎−𝑛 = ,𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑛
o A negative exponent means taking the reciprocal of the base and making the exponent positive.
o Explanation:
o From the quotient rule:
𝑎𝑚 1 𝑎 𝑏
 = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 < 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 or ( )-n = ( )n
𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑎
o Example:
1 1
 2−3 = =
23 8
3 2
 (3)-2 =
5
(5)
 Fractional Exponent Rule:
𝒎
𝐧 𝒏
o 𝒂 𝒏 = √𝒂𝒎 ( √𝒂)m
o A fractional exponent represents a root. The denominator of the fraction is the root, and the
numerator is the power.
o Explanation:
1
o The exponent represents the n-th root:
𝑛
1 𝑚
n 𝑛
 𝑎 = √𝑎 , so 𝑎 𝑛 = ( √𝑎)m .
𝑛

o Example:
2
3
 273 = (√27)2 = 32 = 9
 Product of Powers with Same Exponent:
o 𝒂𝒏 . 𝒃𝒏 = (𝒂. 𝒃)n
o If two bases have the same exponent, multiply the bases and keep the common exponent.
o Example:
 𝟐𝟑 . 𝟑𝟑 = (𝟐. 𝟑)3 = 𝟔𝟑 = 𝟐𝟏𝟔
 Quotient of Powers with Same Exponent:
o If two bases have the same exponent, divide the bases and keep the common exponent.
an a
o = ( )n , b ≠ 0
bn b
o Example:
42 4
 = ( )2 = 22 = 4
22 2
 Exponent of 1:
o 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒂
o Any number raised to the power of 1 is the number itself. OR if there is no exponent, the
exponent will assumed to be 1.
o Example:
 51 = 5
 Exponent with same base:
 o ax = a y ⟶ x = y
o If two powers are equal with the same base, exponents can be equated.
o Example:
 3m = 35 ⟶ m = 5
 Exponent with different base:
o xa = ya ⟶ x = y
o If two powers are equal with the same exponent, bases can be equated.
o Example:
 k3 = 5 3 ⟶ k = 5
 Decimal exponent:
1
o a0.5 = 𝑎0.5 = 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎2 = √𝑎
o An exponent expressed as a decimal number rather than a whole number or fraction. Decimal
exponents can represent fractional powers or roots in mathematical expressions.
o Decimal exponents can also be solved by first converting the decimal in fraction form.
o Examples:
 90.5 = √9 = 3
 41.5 = 41 . 40.5 = 4. √4 = 4 . 2 = 8
 162.25 = 162 . 160.25 = 256 . 4√16 = 256 . 2 = 512

Algebraic expressions:
Equation: An equation is a mathematical statement that asserts the equality of two expressions. It can
sometimes involve only constants (e.g., 2+3=5) or both constants and variables, and mathematical operations
(such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), and it has an equality sign ("=") to show that the two
sides are equal in value.
Example of an equation:
2+3=5
2x + 3 = 7
 The left-hand side is 2x + 3.
 The right-hand side is 7.
 The equation asks for the value of x that makes both sides equal. In this case, x = 2 is the solution,
because when you substitute x = 2 into the equation:
o 2(2) + 3 = 7
 This simplifies to:
o 4 + 3 = 7 , Which is true.

Algebraic expression: An algebraic expression is a mathematical phrase that includes numbers, variables,
and arithmetic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). It does not have an
equality sign (=), which distinguishes it from an equation.
For example:
 3x + 5
 2a − 4b + 7
 4x2 − 9
In these expressions:
 x, a, and b are variables (symbols that represent unknown values).
 3, 5, 4, and 9 are constants (fixed numbers).
 The operations +, −, and 2 represent addition, subtraction, and exponentiation.

Algebraic equation: An algebraic equation is a specific type of equation that involves algebraic
expressions, meaning it contains at-least one variable (usually represented by letters like x, y, etc.), constants,
and algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, etc.). In an algebraic
equation, the variables are typically what you are trying to solve for.
General form of an algebraic equation:
ax + b = c or ax2 + bx + c = 0

Algebraic sentence: An algebraic sentence is a mathematical statement that involves an algebraic expression
and an equality or inequality sign. It asserts a relationship between two algebraic expressions, and it can either be
true or false depending on the values of the variables.
Example of an Algebraic Sentence (Equation):
 2x + 3 = 7
 This is an algebraic sentence in the form of an equation, asserting that 2x + 3 is equal to 7. This is
a true statement when x = 2.
Example of an Algebraic Sentence (Inequality):
 x+4>5
 This is an algebraic sentence in the form of an inequality, asserting that x + 4 is greater than 5. It
is a true or false statement depending on the value of x.

Factorization of an Algebraic expression:

Factoring (or factorization) of an algebraic expression is the process of breaking it down into simpler
expressions, called factors, that when multiplied together give the original expression.
Key Methods:
1. Greatest Common Factor (GCF):
o Identify: Find the largest common factor among all the terms in the expression.
o Factor Out: Divide each term by the GCF and write the GCF outside parentheses.
o Example:
 3x² + 6x
 GCF = 3x
 Factored form: 3x(x + 2)
2. Grouping:
o Rearrange: Group the terms in the expression in pairs so that each pair has a common factor.
o Factor Out: Factor out the common factor from each pair.
o Look for Common Binomials: If there's a common binomial factor, factor it out again.
o Example:
 2x² + 4x + xy + 2y
 (2x² + 4x) + (xy + 2y)
 2x(x + 2) + y(x + 2)
 (x + 2)(2x + y)
3. Difference of Squares:
o Recognize: Identify expressions in the form a² - b².
o Factor: Use the formula: a² - b² = (a + b)(a - b)
o Example:
 x² - 25
 x² - 5²
 (x + 5)(x - 5)
4. Perfect Square Trinomials:
o Recognize: Identify expressions in the form a² + 2ab + b² or a² - 2ab + b².
o Factor: Use the formulas:
 a² + 2ab + b² = (a + b)²
 a² - 2ab + b² = (a - b)²
o Example:
 x² + 6x + 9
 x² + 2(x)(3) + 3²
(x + 3)²
5. Trinomials (General Case):
o Factor by Grouping:
 Find two numbers that multiply to give the constant term and add to give the coefficient of
the x-term.
 Rewrite the middle term using these two numbers.
 Factor by grouping.
o Example:
 x² + 5x + 6
 x² + 2x + 3x + 6
 (x² + 2x) + (3x + 6)
 x(x + 2) + 3(x + 2)
 (x + 2)(x + 3)

Simplifying Algebraic expression:

Simplifying an algebraic expression means reducing expression to its simplest form by combining like terms,
performing arithmetic operations, and applying any necessary algebraic rules. Simplifying makes the expression
easier to work with, especially when solving equations or performing other operations. It does not intend to find
the value of an unknown quantity.
Example:
Simplify the expression:

2(x + 5) + 3x − 4(x − 2)

1. Distribute the constants across the parentheses (brackets):

 2(x + 5) = 2x + 10 and −4(x − 2) = −4x + 8

 Now the expression looks like:
o 2x + 10 + 3x − 4x + 8

2. Combine like terms:

 Combine the terms with x: 2x + 3x − 4x = x

 Combine the constants: 10 + 8 = 18
 The simplified expression is:
o x + 18

Steps to Simplify an Algebraic Expression:

1. Remove Parentheses (brackets).
o If you see parentheses, expand them by multiplying each term inside by the factor outside the
parentheses by following order of operations (PEMDAS rule).
2. Combine Like Terms.
o Like terms are terms that have the same variable raised to the same power. You can only combine
terms that are exactly alike.
3. Simplify Exponents (if applicable).
o Apply rules for exponents when necessary.
4. Factor (if applicable).
o Factor the expression if possible, such as factoring out the greatest common factor (GCF) or using
special factorization formulas like a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a − b).
5. Perform Arithmetic.
 o If there are numbers, perform any basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, or division).

System of Equations:
A system of equations is a set of two or more equations that share common variables. The goal is to find the
values of these variables that satisfy all the equations in the system simultaneously. A system of equations can
involve linear equations (where the variables appear to the first power) or nonlinear equations (where the
variables may appear with exponents or other operations).

 Linear equation: A linear equation is an algebraic equation in which the variables are raised to the
power of 1 (i.e., they are not squared, cubed, etc.), and there are no products of variables. The general
form of a linear equation in one variable is: ax + b = 0
Examples of Linear Equations:

 3x + 4 = 10
o This is a linear equation in one variable (x).
 2x + 3y = 6
o This is a linear equation in two variables (x and y).
 x + 2y − 3z = 5
o This is a linear equation in three variables (x, y, and z).

Methods to solve system of linear equations:

1. Substitution Method:

In the substitution method, you solve one equation for one variable in terms of the other(s) and then substitute
that expression into the second equation to find the solution.
Steps:
1. Solve one of the equations for one variable (usually the easier one).
2. Substitute this expression into the other equation.
3. Solve the resulting equation to find the value of one variable.
4. Substitute the value of the first variable into the original equation to find the value of the second variable.
Example: Solve the system:
x+y=5
2x − y = 3
1. Solve the first equation for y:

 y=5−x
2. Substitute y = 5 − x into the second equation:

 2x − (5 − x) = 3
 Simplify:
o 2x−5+x=3
o 3x=8
8
o x=
3
𝟖
3. Substitute x = into the first equation:
𝟑
 8
 +y=5
3
8
 𝑦 =5−
3
15−8 7
 𝑦= =
3 3
𝟖 𝟕
4. The solution is x = and y = .
𝟑 𝟑

2. Matrix Inversion method:

The matrix inversion method is a powerful technique used to solve a system of linear equations. It is especially
useful for systems that have more than two equations. This method involves using the inverse of the coefficient
matrix to find the solution to the system of linear equations.

Steps to Solve a System of Linear Equations Using the Matrix Inversion Method:

Step-by-Step Process:

1. Write the System of Equations in Matrix Form

Consider a system of linear equations in the form: A ⋅ X = B
Where:
 A is the coefficient matrix (a square matrix),
 X is the column matrix of the variables (the unknowns),
 B is the column matrix of constants on the right-hand side.

To solve for X (the variables), you can use the following formula: X = A-1 ⋅ B

Where A-1 is the inverse of the matrix A, and B is the column matrix of constants.

Example: solve the system

3x+y=9
2x+4y=14
Matrix form:

𝟑 𝟏 𝒙 𝟗
[ ] [ 𝒚] = [ ]
𝟐 𝟒 𝟏𝟒

Here:
𝟑 𝟏 𝒙
 A= [ ], X = [𝒚], B = [ 𝟗 ]
𝟐 𝟒 𝟏𝟒

2. Find the Inverse of the Coefficient Matrix A:

𝟑 𝟏
 For a 2x2 matrix A = [ ] the inverse A-1 is given by the formula:
𝟐 𝟒
1 4 −1
o A-1 = |𝐴| . 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 ∴ (𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = [ ])
−2 3
 If the determinant is zero, the matrix does not have an inverse, and the system has no unique solution.

3. Calculate the Determinant of A:

𝟑 𝟏
 For the matrix A = [ ], calculate the determinant:
𝟐 𝟒
 3 1
o det |𝐴|= | |= (3 × 4) − (1 × 2) = 12 – 2 = 10
2 4
 Since the determinant is non-zero (10), the matrix is invertible.

4. Find the Inverse of Matrix A:

 Using the formula for the inverse of a 2x2 matrix:
1 1 4 −1
o A-1 = . 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = [
10 −2
]
|𝐴| 3
 Thus:
4 −1
10 10 0.4 −0.1
o A-1 = [−2 3] =[ ]
−0.2 0.3
10 10

5. Multiply the Inverse of A by Matrix B:

𝟗
 Now that we have A-1, multiply it by the matrix B = [ ]
𝟏𝟒
0.4 −0.1 𝟗
o X = A-1 ⋅ B ⟹ [ ].[ ]
−0.2 0.3 𝟏𝟒
 Performing the matrix multiplication:
(0.4 × 9) + (−0.1 × 14) 3.6 − 1.4 2.2
o X=[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
(−0.2 × 9) + (0.3 × 14) −1.8 + 4.2 2.4
 Thus, the solution to the system of equations is:
o x = 2.2, y = 2.4

3. Cramer’s rule:

Cramer's Rule is a mathematical method used to solve a system of linear equations using determinants. It is
applicable only when the system has the same number of equations as unknowns, and the determinant of the
coefficient matrix is non-zero.

Steps to Solve Linear Equations Using Cramer's Rule:

Example: Solve the system of equations
x+y+z=6
2x − y + z = 3
x + 2y – z = 5

Step 1: Write in Matrix form:

1 1 1 𝑥 6
 [2 −1 1 ] [𝑦] = [3]
1 2 −1 𝑧 5
 Here:
1 1 1 𝑥 6
o A: [2 −1 1 ] , X = [𝑦] , B: [3]
1 2 −1 𝑧 5
Step 2: Compute the determinant of A
1 1 1
 |𝐴| = |2 −1 1 |
1 2 −1
 Expand using the first row:
 −1 1 2 1 2 −1
o |𝐴| = 1. | | − 1. | | + 1. | |
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
 Calculate each minor:
−1 1
o | | = (−1)(−1) − (2)(1) = 1 − 2 = −1
2 −1
2 1
o | | = (2)(−1) − (1)(1) = −2 − 1 = −3
1 −1
2 −1
o | | = (2)(2) − (1)(−1) = 4 + 1 = 5
1 2
 Substitute back:
o |𝐴| = 1(−1) −1(−3) +1(5) = −1 + 3 + 5 = 7
Step 3: Compute determinants for x, y, and z
Compute |𝑨𝒙 |:
 Replace the first column of A with B:
6 1 1 6 1 1
o 𝐴𝑥 = [3 −1 1 ] ⟹ |𝐴𝑥 | = |3 −1 1 |
5 2 −1 5 2 −1
 Expand using the first row:
o |𝐴𝑥 | = 6. |−1 1 | − 1. |31
| + 1. |
3 −1
|
2 −1 5 −1 5 2
 Calculate each minor:
−1 1
o | | = (−1)(−1) − (2)(1) = 1 − 2 = −1
2 −1
3 1
o | | = (3)(−1) − (5)(1) = −3 − 5 = −8
5 −1
o |3 −1| = (3)(2) − (5)(−1) = 6 + 5 = 11
5 2
 Substitute back:
o |𝐴𝑥 | = 6(−1) −1(−8) +1(11) = −6 + 8 + 11 = 13
Compute |𝑨𝒚 |:
 Replace the second column of A with B:
1 6 1 1 6 1
o 𝐴𝑦 = [2 3 1 ] ⟹ |𝐴𝑦 | = |2 3 1 |
1 5 −1 1 5 −1
 Expand using the first row:
o |𝐴𝑦 | = 1. |3 1 | − 6. |2 1 | + 1. |2 3|
5 −1 1 −1 1 5
 Calculate each minor:
3 1
o | | = (3)(−1) − (5)(1) = −3 − 5 = −8
5 −1
2 1
o | | = (2)(−1) − (1)(1) = −2 − 1 = −3
1 −1
o |2 3
| = (2)(5) − (1)(3) = 10 − 3 = 7
1 5
 Substitute back:
o |𝐴𝑦 | = 1(−8) −6(−3) +1(7) = −8 + 18 + 7 = 17
Compute |𝑨𝒛 |:
 Replace the third column of A with B:
1 1 6 1 1 6
o 𝐴𝑧 = [2 −1 3] ⟹ |𝐴𝑧 | = |2 −1 3|
1 2 5 1 2 5
 Expand using the first row:
o |𝐴𝑧 | = 1. |−1 3| − 1. |2 3| + 6. |2 −1|
2 5 1 5 1 2
 Calculate each minor:
−1 3
o | | = (−1)(5) − (2)(3) = −5 − 6 = −11
2 5
 2 3
o | | = (2)(5) − (1)(3) = 10 − 3 = 7
1 5
o |2 −1
| = (2)(2) − (1)(−1) = 4 + 1 = 5
1 2
 Substitute back:
o |𝐴𝑧 | = 1(−11) −1(7) +6(5) = −11 – 7 + 30 = 12
Step 4: Solve for x, y, and z
|𝐴𝑥 | |𝐴𝑦 | |𝐴𝑧 |
 x= |𝐴|
, 𝑦= |𝐴|
, 𝑧= |𝐴|
Final Solution:
13 17 12
 x= 7 , 𝒚= 7 , 𝒛= 7

 Quadratic equation: The term quadratic comes from Latin word “quadratus” meaning “square”.
A quadratic equation is a type of polynomial equation that has the highest degree of 2 for the variable. It
can be written in the standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0
where:
 x is the variable,
 a, b, and c are constants (with a ≠ 0, because if a = 0, the equation becomes linear).
Example of a Quadratic Equation:
2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0
Here:
 a = 2, b = −3, c = 1.

Methods to solve quadratic equation:

1. By Factorization:

This method involves expressing the quadratic equation as a product of two linear factors.

Steps for Factorization:

Step 1: Write the equation in standard form.
 Make sure the quadratic equation is in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Step 2: Factorize the quadratic expression.
 Split the middle term (bx) into two terms such that:
o Their product equals a⋅c (the product of the coefficient of x2 and the constant term),
o Their sum equals b (the coefficient of x).
Step 3: Write the expression as a product of two binomials.
 Group the terms and factorize further to express the quadratic as a product of two linear factors.
Step 4: Solve for x.
 Set each factor equal to zero and solve for x.

Example:
Solve x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.
 Step 1: Write in standard form.
o The equation is already in standard form: x2 + 5x + 6 = 0.
 Step 2: Find two numbers that multiply to 6 (the constant term) and add to 5 (the middle term).
o The numbers are 2 and 3 because:
o 2 × 3 = 6 and 2 + 3 = 5.
 Step 3: Rewrite and factorize.
o x2 + 5x + 6 = x2 + 2x + 3x + 6 ⟹ x(x + 2) +3(x + 2) = (x + 2) (x + 3)
  Step 4: Solve for x.
o Set each factor equal to 0:
o x+ 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
 The solutions are:
o x = −2 and x = −3

2. Completing the Square

The completing the square method is a systematic approach to solving a quadratic equation by rewriting it in
the form of a perfect square trinomial. This method is particularly useful when factoring is difficult or
impossible.

Steps for Completing the Square:

Step 1: Write the equation in standard form and isolate the quadratic and linear terms.
 Ensure the equation is in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, then isolate the x2-term and the x-term on one side:
 ax2 + bx = −c
Step 2: Make the coefficient of x2 equal to 1 (if needed).
 If a ≠ 1, divide through by a to normalize the quadratic term:
Step 3: Add and subtract the square of half the coefficient of x.
 Take half the coefficient of x, square it, and add it to both sides to complete the square. The value to add
is:
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 2
 ( )←
2
Step 4: Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side.
 The left side becomes a perfect square trinomial, which can be factored as:
 (x + p)2 = q
Step 5: Solve for x.
 Take the square root of both sides and solve for x:
 x + p = ±q

Example:
Solve x2 + 6x + 5 = 0
 Step 1: Isolate the quadratic and linear terms.
o x2 + 6x = −5
 Step 2: Add and subtract the square of half the coefficient of x.
o The coefficient of x is 6. Half of 6 is 3, and its square is 9.
o Add 9 or (6⁄2)2 to both sides:
o x2 + 2(x) (6⁄2) + (6⁄2)2 = -5 + (6⁄2)2 ⟹ x2 + 2(x) (6⁄2) + (6⁄2)2 = -5 + 9
 Step 3: Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side.
o (x + 3)2 = 4
 Step 4: Solve for x.
 Take the square root of both sides:
2
o (√𝑥 + 3) ← = √4 ⟹ x + 3 = ±2
 Solve for x:
o x + 3 = 2 ⟹ x = -3 + 2 = -1
o x + 3 = -2 ⟹ x = -3 - 2 = -5
 Solutions:
o x = −1 and x = −5.
∴(It can also be solved by directly adding 9 to both sides and then making the left side a perfect square (x + 3)2
and then proceed the process by taking root on both sides.)

3. Quadratic Formula

The quadratic formula method is a universal approach to solving quadratic equations. It works for all quadratic
equations, regardless of whether they can be factored easily.
The quadratic formula is derived by completing the square on the general form of a quadratic equation:
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0
The formula for the roots (x) of the equation is:
−𝒃±√𝒃𝟐 −𝟒𝒂𝒄
x=
𝟐𝒂

Steps for Solving Using the Quadratic Formula:

Step 1: Write the equation in standard form.
 Ensure the equation is in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Step 2: Identify coefficients a, b, and c from the quadratic equation.
Step 3: Substitute a, b, and c into the quadratic formula.
Step 4: Calculate the discriminant.
 The discriminant is the term inside the square root:
 D = b2 − 4ac
o If D > 0, there are two distinct real solutions.
o If D = 0, there is one real solution (a repeated root).
o If D < 0, there are two complex solutions.
Step 5: Simplify the solution.
 Solve for x using the plus (+) and minus (−) signs to find the two possible solutions.

Example:
Solve 2x2 − 4x − 6 = 0
 Step 1: Write in standard form.
o The equation is already in standard form: 2x2 − 4x − 6 = 0.
 Step 2: Identify a, b, and c.
o a = 2, b = −4, c = −6
 Step 3: Substitute into the quadratic formula.
−(−4)±√(−4)2 −4(1)(−6)
o x=
2(2)
 Step 4: Simplify the discriminant.
4±√16−(−48) 4±√64
o x= ⟹
4 4
 Step 5: Solve for x.
4±8
o x=
4
4+8 12
o x= ⟹ =3
4 4
4−8 −4
o x= ⟹ = −1
4 4
 Solutions:
o x = 3 and x = −1.