​ ​ ​ Principles of Geographic Information Systems

Q.3 a.

Write a note on:

i. Local horizontal datum

A local horizontal datum is a reference system used for geodetic measurements that is best
suited for a particular country or region. It originates from a point on the Earth's surface within or
near the area of interest. Local datums are designed to provide the best fit to the geoid in that
specific region, minimizing errors in horizontal measurements within that area. However, they
are not geocentric, meaning their origin is not at the Earth's center of mass. This can lead to
significant discrepancies when comparing coordinates across different local datums or with
global datums. Historically, many countries established their own local datums to suit their
surveying and mapping needs before global systems became prevalent.

ii. Global horizontal datum

A global horizontal datum is a geocentric reference system, meaning its origin is at the Earth's
center of mass. These datums, like WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984), are designed to
provide a consistent and uniform reference frame for geodetic measurements across the entire
Earth. Global datums are crucial for applications requiring worldwide consistency, such as
satellite navigation (like GPS), global mapping, and international collaborations in geosciences.
While global datums provide a consistent framework, they may not perfectly align with the local
geoid in every region, potentially leading to slightly larger errors in horizontal measurements
compared to a well-fitted local datum within its specific area of validity.

b. Explain 2D geographic coordinate system using a suitable example

A 2D geographic coordinate system is a spherical coordinate system used to locate positions on

the Earth's surface using two angles: latitude and longitude.
●​ Latitude: Measures the angular distance North or South of the Equator, ranging from 0° at
the Equator to 90° North or South at the poles. Lines of constant latitude are called
parallels. For example, Mumbai, India is located at approximately 19° North latitude.
●​ Longitude: Measures the angular distance East or West of the Prime Meridian (which
passes through Greenwich, England), ranging from 0° at the Prime Meridian to 180° East
or West. Lines of constant longitude are called meridians. For example, Mumbai, India is
located at approximately 72.8° East longitude.

Example: The geographic coordinates of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India are approximately

19.0760° N, 72.8777° E. These two values uniquely define Mumbai's location on the Earth's
surface in a 2D geographic coordinate system. It's a 2D system because it defines location on a
curved surface (Earth approximated as a sphere or ellipsoid) using two angular measurements.

f. Explain the reference surface for mapping the Earth's Surface.

The Earth's surface is a complex, irregular shape. For mapping purposes, we need to
approximate it with simpler, mathematically definable reference surfaces. There are three
primary reference surfaces used in mapping:
1.​ Geoid: The geoid is a equipotential surface of the Earth's gravity field which best fits, in a
least squares sense, global mean sea level. It's essentially the shape that the ocean
surface would take under the influence of gravity and Earth's rotation alone, if other
influences such as winds and tides were absent. The geoid is irregular and undulating due
to the uneven distribution of mass within the Earth. It is the most accurate representation of
mean sea level and is used as the vertical datum for heights.
2.​ Ellipsoid: An ellipsoid (or spheroid) is a mathematically defined surface that approximates
the geoid. It's created by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis. Different ellipsoids have
been defined to best fit the geoid in different regions or globally. For example, WGS 84
ellipsoid is a global ellipsoid used by GPS. Ellipsoids are smoother and simpler
mathematically than the geoid, making them easier to use for horizontal positioning and
calculations. Horizontal datums are defined with reference to an ellipsoid.
3.​ Topographic Surface: This is the actual surface of the Earth, including mountains, valleys,
and all other physical features. It's the surface we see and interact with. Maps ultimately
represent features on this topographic surface. However, for accurate mapping and
geodetic calculations, positions on the topographic surface are referenced to either the
geoid (for heights) or the ellipsoid (for horizontal positions) through various coordinate
systems and projections.

In summary, the ellipsoid serves as the primary reference surface for horizontal mapping and
geodetic calculations due to its mathematical simplicity, while the geoid is the reference surface
for vertical measurements and understanding gravity. The topographic surface is the actual
Earth surface being mapped, with positions referenced to the geoid and ellipsoid.

Q.4

a. Explain vector overlay operation using a suitable diagram

Vector overlay is a fundamental spatial analysis operation in GIS that combines the geometries
and attributes of two or more vector layers to create a new output vector layer. It's used to
identify spatial relationships and integrate data from different sources based on location. There
are several types of vector overlay operations, but the basic principle involves geometrically
combining features from input layers.

Types of Vector Overlay Operations (Common Examples):

●​ Intersection: Creates a new layer containing only the areas where features from all input
layers overlap. The output features inherit attributes from all input layers. (Think of it as
"AND" - where do they BOTH exist?)
●​ Union: Creates a new layer containing all features from all input layers. Where layers
overlap, the attributes are combined. (Think of it as "OR" - everything from either layer is
included).
●​ Identity (or Input Identity): Overlays an input layer with an identity layer. The output layer
contains all features from the input layer, and the portions that overlap with the identity
layer also inherit attributes from the identity layer.
 ●​ Clip: Extracts features from an input layer that fall within the spatial extent of a clip layer.
Only the geometry and attributes of the input layer within the clip area are retained.
●​ Erase: Removes features or portions of features from an input layer that fall within the
spatial extent of an erase layer.

(Conceptual Diagram - Difficult to draw directly in text, but imagine this):

Layer A (Polygons - e.g., Land Use) Layer B (Polygons - e.g.,

Soil Types)​
[Polygons with Land Use Attributes] [Polygons with Soil Type
Attributes]​
\ /​
\ Overlay Operation (e.g., Intersection)​
\ /​
------------------------------------​
Output Layer (New Polygons - Overlap Areas)​
[Polygons with BOTH Land Use & Soil Type Attributes for
overlap areas]​
------------------------------------​

In essence: Vector overlay operations geometrically combine spatial data and merge attribute
information based on the spatial relationships between features in different layers. They are
crucial for spatial data integration, analysis, and answering questions like "What soil types are
present in each land use zone?"

b. Write a note on neighborhood function. Explain any four.

Neighborhood functions are spatial analysis operations that examine the characteristics of the
area surrounding a specific location or feature. They analyze the values or properties of
neighboring cells (in raster data) or features (in vector data) to derive new information about the
central location or feature. Neighborhood functions are fundamental in spatial data processing
for tasks like smoothing, edge detection, surface analysis, and spatial statistics. They operate
using a defined "neighborhood," which could be a window of cells around a central cell in raster
or a defined distance or number of neighbors in vector data.

Four Neighborhood Functions (Raster Context):

1.​ Focal Mean (Average) Filter: Calculates the average value of cells within a defined
neighborhood window and assigns that average to the central cell of the window in the
output raster. This is a smoothing filter, reducing local variations and noise in the data.
Useful for generalizing data or reducing the impact of outliers.
2.​ Focal Sum Filter: Calculates the sum of values of cells within a neighborhood window.
Useful for aggregating values within a local area, for example, summing population counts
within a moving window to visualize population density trends.
3.​ Focal Maximum Filter: Identifies the maximum value within a neighborhood window and
 assigns it to the central cell. This can be used for edge detection (by highlighting areas
where values change rapidly) or for identifying the highest value within a local area.
4.​ Focal Majority Filter: Determines the most frequent value (majority) within a
neighborhood window and assigns it to the central cell. Useful for noise reduction and
generalization in categorical raster data (e.g., land cover), smoothing out isolated pixels
and emphasizing dominant classes within local areas.

d. List and explain the measurements on raster data.

Raster data, composed of a grid of cells, allows for various types of measurements, both in
terms of cell values and spatial characteristics. These measurements can be categorized
broadly into:

1. Measurements based on Cell Values (Attribute Data):

●​ Cell Value: The most basic measurement is the value stored in each individual cell. This
value can represent various phenomena like elevation, temperature, land cover class, etc.
Analyzing individual cell values directly is often the starting point for many raster analyses.
●​ Descriptive Statistics: Calculate statistical summaries of cell values within a raster
dataset or a defined region. Common statistics include:
○​ Minimum, Maximum, Range: Identify the extreme values and spread of data.
○​ Mean (Average): Central tendency of the data values.
○​ Median: Another measure of central tendency, less sensitive to outliers than the mean.
○​ Standard Deviation, Variance: Measure the dispersion or variability of data values.
○​ Sum: Total of all cell values (meaningful for certain types of data).
○​ Histograms: Frequency distribution of cell values, showing how many cells fall into
different value ranges.

2. Spatial Measurements (Based on Cell Location and Arrangement):

●​ Distance:
○​ Euclidean Distance: Straight-line distance between cells. Can be calculated from
each cell to a source (e.g., distance to nearest road).
○​ Cost Distance: Distance weighted by a cost surface raster, representing the "cost" of
moving between cells (e.g., cost of travel considering terrain slope).
●​ Area: Calculate the area represented by cells of a specific value or within a defined region.
Area is derived from the cell size and the number of cells.
●​ Perimeter/Edge Length: Measure the length of boundaries between regions of different
cell values. Useful for quantifying shape complexity or edge density.
●​ Shape Metrics: More advanced metrics to quantify the shape and configuration of regions
(patches of cells with the same value). Examples include compactness, shape index,
fractal dimension.
●​ Connectivity/Contiguity: Analyze how cells or regions are connected or adjacent. Identify
contiguous regions (patches) of cells with the same value, measure their size and shape,
and analyze their spatial relationships.
●​ Direction/Orientation: Calculate aspect (direction of slope) from elevation rasters. Analyze
the directional trends in spatial patterns.

These measurements on raster data are essential for extracting meaningful information,
quantifying spatial patterns, and performing spatial analysis in various GIS applications. They
allow us to move beyond just visualizing raster data to truly analyzing its quantitative and spatial
properties.

Q4. e. Explain using example how Raster overlay operation can be performed using
decision table

Raster overlay operation combines two or more raster layers to create a new raster layer where
the output cell values are determined by the corresponding cell values of the input rasters based
on a set of rules. A decision table is a powerful way to define these rules, especially for
complex overlays.

Example: Forest Fire Risk Assessment

Imagine we want to create a raster map showing forest fire risk. We have three input raster
layers:
1.​ Vegetation Type: (Values: 1=Coniferous, 2=Deciduous, 3=Grassland) - Coniferous forests
are more flammable.
2.​ Slope: (Values: 1=Gentle, 2=Moderate, 3=Steep) - Steeper slopes encourage fire spread.
3.​ Proximity to Roads: (Values: 1=Far, 2=Medium, 3=Near) - Areas closer to roads are at
higher risk due to human activity.

We can create a decision table to combine these layers and determine the fire risk level (Output
Raster: Risk Level - Values: 1=Low, 2=Medium, 3=High).

Decision Table:

Vegetation Type Slope Proximity to Risk Level

Roads

1 (Coniferous) 3 (Steep) Any 3 (High)

1 (Coniferous) Any 3 (Near) 3 (High)

Any 3 (Steep) 3 (Near) 3 (High)

1 (Coniferous) 2 (Moderate) 2 (Medium) 2 (Medium)

2 (Deciduous) 3 (Steep) 1 (Far) 2 (Medium)

 Any Any Any 1 (Low)

How it works: The overlay operation processes each cell location across all input rasters. For
each cell, it checks the combination of values from the Vegetation Type, Slope, and Proximity to
Roads rasters against the decision table. Based on the matching rule in the table, it assigns the
corresponding "Risk Level" value to the output raster cell at that location.

Result: The output raster map will show areas classified as Low, Medium, or High fire risk
based on the combined influence of vegetation, slope, and proximity to roads, as defined by our
decision table rules. Decision tables make complex raster overlays more organized and
rule-based.

f. Explain network analysis.

Network analysis in GIS is a set of spatial analysis techniques used to study the movement and
relationships along interconnected linear features, known as networks. These networks are
composed of nodes (intersections or points of interest) and edges (links or segments
connecting nodes, often representing roads, rivers, or utility lines).

Network analysis helps answer questions related to:

●​ Connectivity: How features are connected within a network.
●​ Accessibility: How easily locations can be reached within a network.
●​ Flow: How resources or movement occur along the network.
●​ Optimization: Finding the most efficient paths or locations within a network.

Common Network Analysis Operations:

●​ Shortest Path: Finding the route with the minimum cost (distance, time, etc.) between two
or more points on a network. Example: Finding the quickest driving route between two
addresses.
●​ Service Area (Buffer): Determining the region reachable within a given distance or travel
time from a location along a network. Example: Mapping the area within a 10-minute drive
of a hospital.
●​ Closest Facility: Identifying the nearest facility (e.g., hospital, fire station) from a given
location along a network. Example: Finding the closest fire station to a reported incident.
●​ Location-Allocation: Selecting optimal locations for facilities to best serve a set of
demand points within a network. Example: Deciding where to build new stores to maximize
customer access.
●​ Route Optimization for Multiple Stops (Traveling Salesperson Problem - TSP): Finding
the most efficient order to visit multiple locations and return to the starting point. Example:
Planning delivery routes for a truck with multiple stops.

Example: Emergency Response Planning

Imagine a city planning emergency services. Using network analysis on the city's road network,
they can:
●​ Calculate shortest paths from fire stations to different areas to ensure rapid response
times.
 ●​ Determine service areas around hospitals to identify areas with good healthcare access
and areas that are underserved.
●​ Use closest facility analysis to automatically dispatch the nearest ambulance to an
accident location.
●​ Employ location-allocation to decide the optimal locations for new fire stations to minimize
response times across the entire city.

Network analysis is crucial for applications in transportation, logistics, urban planning, resource
management, and many other fields where understanding and optimizing movement and
connectivity within networks is important.

Q5. Attempt any three of the following

a. Write the relationship of Geographic Information System and maps.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and maps are fundamentally intertwined. Maps are a
primary output and a core visualization method of GIS. While maps have existed for
centuries as static paper representations of geographic information, GIS provides the digital
tools and environment to create, analyze, manage, and dynamically display maps.

Here's the relationship:

●​ Maps as Output: GIS software is used to create a wide variety of maps, from simple
reference maps to complex thematic maps that visualize analyzed spatial data. GIS allows
for highly customizable and data-driven map creation.
●​ GIS Enhances Mapping: GIS goes beyond traditional mapmaking. It's not just about
drawing lines and colors; it's about linking spatial data to attribute information, enabling
powerful analysis and interactive exploration that traditional paper maps cannot offer.
●​ Maps as Interface: Maps are often the primary interface through which users interact with
GIS data and analysis results. Visualizing information on a map makes complex spatial
relationships and patterns easier to understand.
●​ Data Source for Maps: GIS manages and processes geographic data from various
sources. This data, once analyzed and organized within GIS, forms the basis for creating
accurate and informative maps.
●​ Evolution of Maps: GIS has revolutionized mapping. Maps are no longer static; they can
be interactive, dynamic, and updated in real-time. Web GIS and online mapping platforms
exemplify this evolution, making maps accessible and powerful tools for information
dissemination.

In essence, GIS is the engine that powers modern mapmaking and map use, moving maps
from static documents to dynamic, analytical, and interactive tools for understanding our world.
Maps are the visual language of GIS, making complex geographic information accessible and
understandable.

b. Write about visualization strategy.

A visualization strategy in GIS is a planned approach to effectively communicate geographic

information through visual representations, primarily maps, but also including graphs, charts,
and other visual aids. It's about thinking purposefully about how to visually present spatial data
to best convey a specific message to a target audience.

Key elements of a good visualization strategy include:

●​ Defining the Purpose: What is the core message you want to communicate? What
question should the visualization answer? A clear purpose guides all subsequent design
choices. (e.g., "Show the areas with highest population density," "Compare deforestation
rates over time").
●​ Understanding the Audience: Who is the intended audience for the visualization? Their
background knowledge, technical expertise, and interests will influence design choices.
(e.g., Visualization for policymakers will differ from one for the general public).
●​ Selecting Appropriate Visual Methods: Choosing the right type of map (choropleth, point
symbol, heatmap, etc.), chart, or graph is crucial. Consider the data type (qualitative,
quantitative), the spatial phenomena being represented, and the message.
●​ Effective Cartographic Design: Applying cartographic principles to ensure clarity,
accuracy, and visual hierarchy. This includes:
○​ Symbology: Using meaningful symbols and colors to represent features and data
values.
○​ Classification: Grouping data values appropriately for thematic maps.
○​ Labeling: Placing labels clearly and effectively.
○​ Layout and Composition: Arranging map elements (title, legend, scale bar, etc.) in a
visually balanced and informative way.
●​ Considering Interactivity (if applicable): For digital visualizations, interactivity can be a
powerful tool for exploration. Designing interactive elements like pan, zoom, identify, and
time sliders can enhance user engagement and understanding.
●​ Evaluation and Refinement: After creating the visualization, it's important to assess its
effectiveness. Does it clearly communicate the intended message? Is it easily understood
by the target audience? Iteration and refinement are often necessary to optimize the
visualization.

A well-defined visualization strategy ensures that GIS outputs are not just technically sound, but
also effective communication tools that inform, persuade, and enable better decision-making
based on geographic data.

c. What is cartography? Explain.

Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making maps. It is the discipline concerned
with all stages of map creation, from data collection and processing to map design, production,
and ultimately, map use and communication.

Explanation of the components:

●​ Art: Cartography is an art because effective map design involves aesthetic judgment,
creativity, and visual communication skills. Mapmakers must make artistic choices about
color palettes, symbol styles, typography, and overall layout to create visually appealing
and understandable maps. It's about effectively conveying information aesthetically.
●​ Science: Cartography is also a science because it is based on scientific principles of
measurement, data representation, spatial analysis, and projection. Accuracy, precision,
and objective representation of geographic reality are crucial scientific aspects of
 cartography. Understanding geographic phenomena and applying scientific methods to
map data are essential.
●​ Technology: Modern cartography heavily relies on technology, especially Geographic
Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, GPS, and computer graphics. Digital mapping
tools have revolutionized map production, analysis, and dissemination. Cartographers
utilize software, hardware, and digital techniques throughout the mapping process.

Scope of Cartography:

Cartography encompasses a wide range of activities:

●​ Data Collection and Generalization: Gathering geographic data from various sources
(surveys, remote sensing, databases) and simplifying complex geographic features for map
representation (generalization).
●​ Map Projections and Coordinate Systems: Selecting appropriate map projections to
transform the Earth's curved surface onto a flat map, and understanding coordinate
systems for accurate spatial referencing.
●​ Map Design and Symbolization: Choosing effective symbols, colors, patterns, and
typography to represent geographic features and data, applying principles of visual
hierarchy and clarity.
●​ Map Production and Dissemination: Creating maps in various formats (paper, digital,
web-based) and distributing them to users through different media.
●​ Map Use and Evaluation: Understanding how maps are used by people, and evaluating
map effectiveness in communication and information transfer.

In essence, cartography is the bridge between geographic data and map users. It's the
discipline that ensures maps are not only technically accurate but also visually effective and
communicate geographic information in a clear, meaningful, and user-friendly way.

d. What do you mean by "HOW do I SAY, WHAT to WHOM and how is it EFFECTIVE?" in
GIS Explain.

This question is essentially asking about the core principles of effective map communication
within a GIS context. It breaks down the communication process into key components when
creating maps to convey geographic information.

Let's analyze each part:

●​ "WHAT to SAY": This refers to the geographic message or story you want to
communicate through your map. It's the substantive content you want to convey to your
audience. This could be:
○​ Data patterns: Distribution of population density, spread of a disease, patterns of land
use.
○​ Spatial relationships: Correlation between income and access to parks, proximity of
schools to residential areas.
○​ Trends over time: Changes in forest cover over decades, urban growth, migration
patterns.
○​ Important locations or features: Highlighting critical infrastructure, areas of
environmental concern, points of interest.
 In GIS, "WHAT to SAY" is derived from your geographic data and the analysis you perform
on it.
●​ "WHOM to SAY": This refers to your target audience. Understanding your audience is
crucial because it dictates how you should design and present your map. Consider:
○​ Their background knowledge: Are they experts in GIS or geography, or a general
public audience?
○​ Their purpose for using the map: Are they decision-makers, researchers, students,
or the general public?
○​ Their needs and interests: What information are they seeking? What level of detail do
they require?
○​ Their technical capabilities: Will they be viewing a static paper map or an interactive
web map?
Knowing "WHOM to SAY" to helps you tailor your map's complexity, language, and design.
●​ "HOW do I SAY": This refers to the cartographic methods and design choices you
make to communicate your message effectively. This is where the art and science of
cartography come into play. "HOW" encompasses:
○​ Map type selection: Choosing the most appropriate map type to visualize your data
(choropleth, point symbol, etc.).
○​ Symbology: Using effective symbols, colors, and patterns to represent features and
data values.
○​ Labeling and annotation: Placing labels clearly and using descriptive text to explain
map features and patterns.
○​ Layout and composition: Arranging map elements in a visually balanced and
informative way.
○​ Generalization and simplification: Simplifying complex geographic features for clear
map representation at a given scale.
GIS tools provide the "HOW" - the software and techniques to implement your cartographic
design choices.
●​ "how is it EFFECTIVE?": This is about evaluating the success of your map
communication. Did you achieve your purpose? Is your map clear, understandable, and
impactful for your intended audience? Effectiveness can be assessed by:
○​ Clarity: Is the map easy to read and interpret?
○​ Accuracy: Does the map represent geographic information correctly?
○​ Completeness: Does the map include all necessary information (legend, scale, etc.)?
○​ Visual impact: Is the map engaging and memorable?
○​ User feedback: Gathering input from users to see if the map effectively communicates
the intended message.
Effectiveness testing helps refine your map design and ensure successful communication.

In summary, "HOW do I SAY, WHAT to WHOM and how is it EFFECTIVE?" is a concise

framework for thinking about purposeful and audience-centered map communication within
GIS. It emphasizes that creating effective maps is not just about using GIS software, but also
about thoughtfully planning the message, understanding the audience, applying sound
cartographic principles, and evaluating the success of the communication.

e. Write a note on map cosmetics.

"Map cosmetics" refers to the additional cartographic elements and design considerations that
enhance a map's visual appeal, clarity, and professionalism, making it more user-friendly
and effective in communication. These elements are supplementary to the core geographic data
portrayal but are crucial for a well-designed map.

Key aspects of map cosmetics include:

●​ Neatlines and Borders: Clearly defining the map extent with a neatline and potentially
adding borders for visual framing. This improves map organization and readability.
●​ North Arrow: Indicating geographic orientation, especially important for maps where north
is not intuitively obvious. Standardizes map reading.
●​ Scale Bar: Providing a visual representation of map scale, allowing users to understand
distances on the map. Essential for quantitative map interpretation.
●​ Title and Subtitle: Clearly stating the map's subject and providing context. A concise and
informative title is crucial for quick understanding. Subtitles can add detail.
●​ Legend: Explaining the symbols, colors, and patterns used on the map to represent
different features or data values. A well-organized and clear legend is vital for map
interpretation.
●​ Data Source and Credits: Acknowledging data sources and map creators, adding
credibility and allowing users to assess data reliability. Important for transparency and
proper attribution.
●​ Labels: Careful placement and styling of labels to identify features and locations without
cluttering the map. Legible and well-placed labels enhance map readability.
●​ Color Schemes: Choosing appropriate color palettes that are visually harmonious,
differentiate features effectively, and are meaningful to the data being represented.
Effective color use improves visual hierarchy and thematic emphasis.
●​ Overall Layout and Composition: Arranging all map elements (map body, legend, title,
scale bar, etc.) in a balanced and visually pleasing manner. Good composition guides the
viewer's eye and improves overall map aesthetics.
●​ Typography: Selecting legible and visually appropriate fonts for titles, labels, and other text
elements. Consistent and well-chosen typography enhances map readability and
professionalism.

While map cosmetics are often seen as "finishing touches," they are not merely decorative.
They significantly impact map usability and communication effectiveness. Well-applied
cosmetics make maps easier to understand, more engaging, and convey a sense of
professionalism and authority. Neglecting map cosmetics can result in maps that are cluttered,
confusing, and less effective at delivering their intended message.

f. How to map time series? Explain using suitable examples.

Mapping time series data involves visualizing geographic information that changes over time. It
aims to show spatial patterns and temporal trends simultaneously on a map. There are several
effective methods to map time series data in GIS:

Methods and Examples:

1.​ Animated Maps (Temporal Animation):
○​ Description: Creating a sequence of map frames that represent data at different time
 points. These frames are played in sequence to show changes over time as an
animation.
○​ Example: Spread of a Disease: An animated map showing the increasing prevalence
of a disease (e.g., dengue fever) across a city over several weeks. Each frame
represents a week, with color intensity showing disease incidence.
○​ Software: GIS software often has animation tools, or animations can be created by
exporting map frames and assembling them in video editing software.
○​ Pros: Visually powerful for showing trends and processes unfolding over time, good for
presentations and storytelling.
○​ Cons: Can be less effective for detailed comparison between specific time points,
viewers need to watch the entire animation to grasp the full temporal pattern.
2.​ Small Multiples (Choropleth Series):
○​ Description: Creating a series of small, identical maps, each showing data for a
different time period. These maps are arranged side-by-side or in a grid for easy visual
comparison.
○​ Example: Urban Growth: A series of choropleth maps showing population density for
a city every decade from 1950 to 2020. Each small map represents a decade, using
the same color scheme to allow for visual comparison of population change over time.
○​ Software: Easily created in GIS by creating multiple map layouts or using layout tools
to arrange map frames.
○​ Pros: Excellent for direct comparison of spatial patterns at different time points, allows
viewers to easily see changes and trends, good for static documents and reports.
○​ Cons: Can become visually crowded with many time periods, less dynamic than
animation, might not effectively show continuous change.