UNIT I

OVERVIEW OF C

C the most widely used computer language-is being taught today as a core subject in almost all
the undergraduate programmes. The increasing popularity of C is probably due to its many
desirable qualities.

It is a robust language whose rich set of built-in functions and operators can be usedto
write any complex program.
Programs written in C are efficient and fast. This is due to its variety of data types and
powerful operators.
C language is well suited for Structured Programming.
C program is a group of building blocks called Function.
C is a general-purpose structured programming language that is powerful, efficient and
compact.
C combines the features of a high-level language with the elements of the assembler and is,
thus, close to both man and machine.
Easy to learn
Structured language
Produces efficient programs
Can handle low-level activities
Can be compiled on a variety of computers

 C was invented to write an operating system called UNIX.

 C is a successor of B language which was introduced around 1970.
 The language was formalized in 1988 by the American National Standard Institute
(ANSI).
 By 1973 UNIX OS almost totally written in C.
 Today C is the most widely used System Programming Language.
 Most of the state of the art software has been implemented using

History of C

Dennis Ritchie invented C language. Ken Thompson created a language which was based upon
a language known as BCPL and it was called as B. B language was created in 1970, basically for UNIX
operating system Dennis Ritchie used ALGOL, BCPL and B as thebasic reference language from which
he created C.

Year Language Developed By Comments

1960 ALGOL International Committee too conceptual, too simple
1963 CPL Cambridge University Difficult to learn and implement
1967 BCPL Martin Richards Only for particular problems
1970 B Ken Thompson Only for particular problems
1972 C Denis Ritchie reliable, simple, easy to use

o ALGOL - Algorithmic Language

o CPL - Combined Programming Language
o BCPL - Basic Combined Programming Language
o ANSI – American National Standard Institute
o ISO – International Standard Committee
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF C

 The success of Unix was the most important factor as Unix used C for building its utilities, its
success had carried C.
 C remained a simple and small language meant for building system components. C was held to be
sufficiently abstract that humans can read – which is why C is considered a middle-level language.
 C was not designed in isolation but to write useful tools that interact with large systems. C is
regarded as a tool for building larger tools.

(Linux,Database,3D Movie)

1.2 SAMPLE C PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// printf() displays the string inside quotation
printf("Hello, World!");
return 0;
}

Output

Hello, World!

1.3 C PROGRAM STRUCTURE

A C program basically has the following form:

 Pre-processor Commands
 Functions
 Variables
 Statements & Expressions
 Comments

The following program is written in the C programming language. Open a text file hello.cusing
editor and put the following lines inside that file.

#include <stdio.h>main()
{
..... /* My first program*/

printf (“C is a very good programming language.”);

..... /* End */
}

1.4 EXECUTING C PROGRAM

The following steps are involved in the execution of a program:

- Fetch: The control unit is given an instruction.

- Decode: The control unit then decodes the newly received instruction.

- Execute: During the execution the Control unit first commands the correct part of hardware to take
action.
1.5 CONSTANTS

A constant is a name given to the variable whose values can't be altered or changed. A constant is
very similar to variables in the C programming language, but it can hold only a single variable during the
execution of a program.

1.6 VARIABLES

Variables are containers for storing data values, like numbers and characters.

1.7 DATA TYPES

Each variable in C has an associated data type. It specifies the type of data that the variable can
store like integer, character, floating, double, etc. Each data type requires different amounts of
memory and has some specific operations which can be performed over it. The data type is a
collection of data with values having fixed values, meaning as well as its characteristics.

1.8 CHARACTER SET

The character set is set of valid characters’ which are recognized by language compiler. A
character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent information. The type
char is used to store a single character.

o All the uppercase letters A to Z, lowercase letters a to z, the digits 0 to 9 and some
special symbols are called characters.
o A character must be a single value character and should be enclosed between two
single quotation marks. For example 'a', 'b', 'c', '1', '2', '>', '?' etc.

Upper Case Letters:A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Lower Case Letters:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Digits:0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Special Symbols:
 s.no Spl.char Meaning s.no Spl.char meaning
1 < Less than 12 ] Right square bracket
2 > Greater then 13 ( Left parentheses
3 : Colon 14 ) Right parentheses
4 , Comma 15 / slash
5 { Left brace 16 \ Back slash
6 } Right brace 17 ` Tilde
7 [ Left square bracket 18 + plus
8 - Minus 19 & Ampersand
9 * Asterisk 20 _ Underscore
10 % Percentage 21 = Equal
11 # Hash 22 “ Double quote

1.9 C TOKENS

C tokens are the basic buildings blocks in C language which are constructed together to writea
C program.
Each and every smallest individual unit in a C program are known as C tokens.

Keywords
Identifiers
Constants
Strings
Special symbols
Operators

1.10 KEYWORDS AND IDENTIFIERS

Keywords

There are certain reserved words called keywords that have standard, predefined meaning
in C. These keywords can be used only for their intended purpose but they cannot be used as
programmer defined identifiers. They are 32 in numbers as shown in below:

Keywords
Auto double Long typedef
Break else Register union
Case extern Return unsigned
Char float Short void
Const for size of volatile
continue goto Static while
default if Struct enum
Do int Switch signed
 Identifiers

Identifiers are the names that are given to various program elements like variables,
functions, arrays and procedures.

Identifiersconsist of letters and digits in any order, except the first character must beletter.
Both upper case and lower case letters are permitted but commonly lower case lettersare
used.
And both upper case and lower case are not interchangeable.
The underscore (_) can also be included and is considered as to be letter. Anunderscore is
often used in middle of an identifier.
The ANSI (American National Standard Institute) compiler allows at least 31characters in
an identifier name.

1. Valid identifiers: basic pay, AGE,emp_sal,address20

2. Invalid identifiers: 9A,Auto,bassi.pay

1.11 CONSTANTS

A constant value is the one which does not change during the execution of a program.
C supports several types of constants:

Constants

Numeric Constants Character

Constants
Numeric Constants

 Integer Constants

 Real Constants

Character Constants

 Single CharacterConstants

 String Constants

Integer Constants

An integer constant is a sequence of digits. There are 3 types of integers namely

1. Decimal integer
2. Octal integers
3. Hexadecimal integer.

Decimal Integers constant

Decimal Integers consists of a set of digits 0 to 9 preceded by an optional + or - sign.

Spaces, commas and non-digit characters are not permitted between digits. In this first digit must
be something other than zero. For Example, valid decimal integer constants are 743
 Octal Integer Constant
Octal Integers constant consists of any combination of digits from 0 through 7 with a0 at
the beginning. For Example, valid octal integer constants are

0743
034
043567

Hexadecimal Integer Constant

Hexadecimal integer constant is preceded by OX or Ox, they may contain alphabets from A
to F or a to f. The alphabets A to F refer to 10 to 15 in decimal digits. For Example, valid
hexadecimal integer’s constants are

0x4 0x9f
0x63
0X643
Real Constant
Real Constants consists of a fractional part in their representation. Integer constants are
inadequate to represent quantities that vary continuously. These quantities are represented by
numbers containing fractional parts like 25.052. For example, valid real constants are
5000.0
String Constants
A string constant is a set of characters enclosed in double quotation marks. The characters
in a string constant sequence may be an alphabet, number, special character and blank space. For
Example, valid string constants are 'John' '12456' 'HELLO !'
1.12 VARIABLES

A variable is a data item whose value can change during execution of program. It is a
memory location used to store a data value. Variable names are case sensitive.
Example of variable names is
employee
student_id
image1
Examples of invalid variable names are435
2_name
%cdf Rules

apply on variables

 They must always begin with a letter

 The length of a variable must not be more than 8 characters.
 White space is not allowed
 A variable should not be a Keyword
 It should not contain any special characters

VARIABLE DECLARATION IN C
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there is one variable existing with
the given type and name so that compiler proceed for further compilation without needing
complete detail about the variable.

Syntax: data type list-of-variable;

1.13 DATATYPES

"Data type can be defined as the type of data of variable or constant store."
When we use a variable in a program then we have to mention the type of data. This can be
handled using data type in C. the variety of data types available allow the programmer to select the
type appropriate to the needs of the application as well as the machine.

Keyword Format Specifier Size Data Range

char %c 1 Byte -128 to +127

unsigned char <-- -- > 8 Bytes 0 to 255

int %d 2 Bytes -32768 to +32767

long int %ld 4 Bytes -231 to +231

unsigned int %u 2 Bytes 0 to 65535

float %f 4 Bytes -3.4e38 to +3.4e38

double %lf 8 Bytes -1.7e38 to +1.7e38

long double %Lf 12-16 Bytes -3.4e38 to +3.4e38

 The basic data types can be augmented by use of data type qualifiers short, long, signed and unsigned.
For example, integer quantity can be defined as short int, long int or signed int andunsigned int.
Data Types

Derived Types Fundamental Types User-defined Types

Arrays Integral Structures

Function TypesFloat Unions
s Types Enumeration
Character
Integer Data Type

Integers are most commonly data type used in C. int are used for all arithmetic’s and
logical operations. The integer variables in C are declared as
int x; inty,z;
int w = 10;

These statements declares integer variable x,y,z and w which can store integer values.
Rules apply on int

 It can't be fractional.
 No blank space or comma is allowed.
 Memory occupied by int value is of 2 bytes.
 It can vary from -32768 to +32767.
 To display anint variable the %d is used.

Character Data Type

The type char is used to store a single character. All the uppercase letters A to Z, lowercase
letters a to z, the digits 0 to 9 and some special symbols are called characters. A character must be
a single value character and should be enclosed between two single quotation marks. The char in
C are declared as.

char 'x'; char

'y','z';
char 'w' = 10;
These statements declares character variable x,y,z and w which can store character values.
Rules apply on char
 Only store alphabets, digits and special symbols.
 Maximum one character is allowed to store.
 Memory occupied by char value is of 1 bytes.
 It can vary from -128 to +127.
 To display anint variable the %c is used.

Float Data Type

Floating point numbers are numbers having a decimal point number. they have greaterrang
and express in decimal numbers. So, they are sometimes called as real numbers. The floating point
variables in C are declared as float x;
float length, breath;float z
= 10.50;
 These statements declare floating point variable x, length, breath and z which can store floatvalues.

Rules apply on floating point

 They can be fractional or exponential.

 They can be +ve or -ve.
 No blank space or comma is allowed.
 Memory occupied by float value is of 1 word.
 It can vary from 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38.
 To display a float variable the %f is used.
Double Data Type
All floating point numbers are converted into double values automatically whenever
they are used in any operation. The double variables in C are declared as
double x;
Rules apply on double
 They can be fractional or exponential.
 They can be +ve or -ve.
 No blank space or comma is allowed.
 Memory occupied by double value is of 2 words.
 It can vary from 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308.
 To display a double variable the %f or %e is used.

1.14 DECLARATION OF VARIABLES

Declaration of a variable in a computer programming language is a statement used to specify the

variable name and its data type.

All declaration statements must end with a semi-colon(;).

For example:

int age;
float weight;
char gender;

1.15 ASSIGNING VALUES TO VARIABLES

Variables are created for use in program statements such as,

Value = amount+rate*amount;

1.16 ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT

Values can be assigned to variables using the assignment operator = as follows:

variable_name= constant;

Exampe: initial_value=0; final_value=100; are valid statements

1.17 DECLARING A VARIABLE AS CONSTANT

Variables can be declared as constants by using the “const” keyword before the datatype of the
variable. The constant variables can be initialized once only.
 const int height = 8;

1.18 AS VOLATILE

The volatile keyword in C is used to indicate to the compiler that a variable's value may change
unexpectedly. This is often the case when a variable is being accessed by multiple threads or when it
represents hardware that is external to the computer.

1.19 OPERATORS

Operator Name Operators

Assignment =

Arithmetic +, -, *, /, %

Logical &&, ||, !

Relational <, >, <=, >=, ==, !=

Shorthand +=, -=, *=, /=, %=

Unary ++, --

Conditional ()?:;

Bitwise &, |, ^, <<, >>, ~

ARITHMETIC OPERATORS

The Arithmetic Operators are used to performed arithmetic operation on variables.

There are five arithmetic operators in C as shown below:

Operator Meaning
+ Addition or Unary Plus
- Subtraction or Unary Minus
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus Operator

The operands acted upon by Arithmetic Operators must represent numeric values. Thus,operands
can be integer, quantifier, floating point or characters.

The Arithmetic Operators are used as

 a+b a-b
a*b a/b
a%b

Here a and b are constants or variable, known as operands

Integer Arithmetic

When an arithmetic operation is performed on two integers than such an operation is

called as integer arithmetic. It always gives an integer as the result.

Operation Result

x+y 13

x-y 7

Floating Point Arithmetic

When an arithmetic operation is performed on two real numbers or fraction numbers such
an operation is called floating point arithmetic.

Operation Result
x+y 14.5
x–y 10.5
x*y 25.0

RELATIONAL OPERATORS

The Relational Operators are used to performed comparisons between variables or between
variable and constant. The values of relational expression are either one or zero. It is one if the
specified relation is true and zero if the relation is false.

There are six Relational Operators in C as shown below:

Operator Meaning
< is less than
> is greater than
is less than or
<=
equal to
is greater than
>=
or equal to
== is equal to
!= is not equal to

The value of relational operator is either true or false. For example

5 < 10 is true and 5 > 10 is false.

s.no Expression Interpretation value

 1. (i<j) True 1

2. ((i+j)>=k) True 1

3. Ki=3 False 0

4. (j==2) True 1

When arithmetic expressions are used on either side of a relational operator, the arithmetic
expressions will be evaluated first and then the results compared.Relational expressions are
used in decision statements such as if and while to decide the course of action of a running
program.

LOGICAL OPERATORS

The logical operator is used for combining simple condition, and forming a complex
condition. That is, logical operators are used to combine two or more relational expression. They
return either a ‘true’ or ‘false’.

Operator Meaning
&& AND

|| OR

! NOT

AND & OR

Logical AND (&&) return true when both operands are true and false otherwise false.
Logical OR (||) return true when either of its operands are true and return false if boththe
operands are false.

Operand1 Operand2 AND oper1&&oper2 OR oper1||oper2

0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

NOT(!)

Logical NOT (!) return true when its operand result is false and return false when its operandresult
is true.

Operand !operand
1 0
0 1

EX:

s.no Expression Interpretation value

1. (i>=6)&&(c==’z) True 1
 2. (f<11)&&(i>100) False 0

43 (c!=’p’)||((i+f)<=10) True 1

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS

The Assignment Operators are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable. It is
used to assign the R.H.S. value of any expression into L.H.S. variable. The most commonly used
Assignment Operators is ‘=’.

In addition, C has of ‘shorthand’ assignment operators of the form

v op= exp;

The assignment statement v op = exp;

1. The simple assignment

2. The multiple assignment
3. The compound assignment

The Simple Assignment

The simple assignment operator (=) takes the following general form:

Syntax: <identifier> =<expression>

Ex: i) i=8, ii) gross=basic+hra+da;

The Multiple Assignments

The multiple assignment more than one variable can be assigned with single value or
expression.

Syntax: variable1=variable2=….=variable= expression;

The Compound Assignment

The compound assignment operator takes the following form:

Syntax: <identifier><operator>=<expression>

Ex: i=i+1 , sum=sum-i

INCREMENT DECREMENT OPERATOR (UNARY OPERATOR)

Increments and Decrement Operators are also called Unary Operators because theyhave
only one operand.

++ Operator
-- Operator

Statemen Value of m Value of x

t
m=8 8 0
x = ++m 9 9
x = m++ 10 9
 Rules for ++ and – Operators

Increment and decrement operators are unary operators and they require variable as their
operands.
When postfix ++(or --) is used with a variable in an expression, the expression is evaluated
first using the original value of the variable and then the variable is incremented (or
decremented) by one.
When prefix ++ (or --) is used in an expression, the variable is incremented (or decremented)
first and then the expression is evaluated using the new value of the variable.
The precedence and associatively of ++ and – operators are the same as those of unary
+ and unary -.

CONDITIONAL OPERATOR(TERNARY OPERATOR)

Conditional Operator also called Ternary Operator because it have three operands andcan
be written out with (? :). It is used to evaluate an expression returning a value if that expression is
true and a different one if the expression is evaluated as false.

Syntax: exp1(condition) ? exp2(result1) : exp3(result2)

Where exp1, exp2,andexp3 are expressions.

The operator?: works as follows: exp1 is evaluated first. If it is nonzero (true), then the expression
exp2 is evaluated and becomes the value of the expression. If exp1 is false, exp3 isevaluated and
its value becomes the value of the expression. Note that only one of the expressions (either exp2
or exp3) is evaluated.

Expression Result
7 == 5 ? 4 : 3 returns 3, since 7 is not equal to 5
7 == 5 + 2 ? 4 : 3 returns 4, since 7 is equal to 5 + 2
returns the value of a, since 5 is
5 >3 ? a : b
greaterthan 3

1.20 EXPRESSION

An expression is a combination of variables, constants and operators written according to

the syntax of language. In C every expression evaluates to a value .there are three types of
expression.

1. Arithmetic expression
2. Relational expression
3. Logical expression
Arithmetic Expression

An arithmetic expression is a combination of variables, constants, and operators arranged

as per the syntax of the language. C can handle any complex mathematical expressions.
Remember that C does not have an operator for exponentiation.

Arithmetic expression is formed by connection constants or variable by arithmetic operators. The

general form is

a*b–c axb–c
 (m + n) * (x + y) (m + n) (x + y)
a*b/c (ab / c)
EVALUATION
3*x*x+2*x+1 3x2 +2x + 1
OF
EXPRESSIONS

Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the form

Variable = expression;

Example of evaluation statements are

x = a * b – c;y = b /
c * a;
z = a – b / c + d;
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

2 Marks

1. Define constant.
2. What is meant by Operand?
3. What is Character set?
4. What are the fundamental data types available in C?
5. Write Importance of C.
6. Define variables.
7. Define data types.
8. How to declare a variable?
9. Define Keywords.
10. What are the classification of constants in C?

5 Marks
1. Describe the Data types in C.
2. Write a Sample C program.
3. Describe the basic Structure of C program.
4. Discuss about expression.

10 Marks
1. Explain Operators in C.
2. Explain about constants with examples.
3. Explain about variables with example.
 UNIT II

DECISION MAKING AND BRANCHING

CONTROL STATEMENTS

Control statements are required where we want to have any control over the executionof the
statement i.e. whether to execute any set of statement and for how many times is statement would
be executive. These statements control the flow of execution.

There are two types of control statements:

1. Decision Control Statements
2. Loop Control Statements

C program executes program sequentially. Sometimes, a program requires checking of certain

conditions in program execution. C provides various key condition statements to check condition
and execute statements according conditional criteria.

These statements are called as 'Decision Making Statements' or 'Conditional Statements.'

If Statement
Switch Case
Go to Statement
Conditional Operator

2.1 DECISION MAKING WITH IF

The if statement is a powerful decision-making statement and is used to control the flow of
execution of statements. It is basically a two-way decision statement and is used in conjunction
with an expression. It takes the following form:

if (test expression);

It allows the computer to evaluate the expression first and then, depending on whether the value of
the expression (relation or condition) is ‘true’ (or non-zero) or ‘false’ (zero’), it transfers the control
to a particular statement. This point of program
Entryhas two paths to follow, one for the true condition
and the other for the false condition.

Fals
Test

True
The if statement implemented in different forms depending on the complexity of conditionsto be
tested. The different forms are:

1. Simple if statement
2. if… else statement
3. Nested if…. Else statement
4. else if ladder
2.2 SIMPLE IF
This is a conditional statement used in C to check condition or to control the flow of
execution of statements. This is also called as 'decision making statement or control statement.'
The execution of a whole program is done in one direction only.

Syntax
if(condition)
{
Statements;
}
2.3 ELSE IF

This is also one of the most useful conditional statements used in C to check conditions.
Syntax
if(condition)
{
true statements;
}
else
{
false statements;
}

2.4 NESTED IF ELSE

It is a conditional statement which is used when we want to check more than 1 condition at a
time in a same program. The conditions are executed from top to bottom checking each condition
whether it meets the conditional criteria or not. If it found the condition is true then
it executes the block of associated statements of true part else it goes to next condition toexecute.

Syntax

if(condition)
{
if(condition)
{
Statements;
}
else
{
Statements;
}
}
else
{
Statements;
}

2.5 ELSE IF LADDER

 There is another way to putting ifs together when multipath decisions are involved. A multipath
decision is a chain of ifs in which the statement associated with each else is an if.When a series of
many conditions have to be checked we may use the ladder else if statement which takes the
following general form.

If (condition1) Statement
– 1; Else if (condition2)
Statement-2;

Else if (condition3)
Statement-3;

Else if (condition)
Statement-n;

Else

Default statement; Statement-x;

Syntax Description

 This construct is known as if else construct or ladder.

 The conditions are evaluated from the top of the ladder to downwards. As soon onthe
true condition is found, the statement associated with it is executed and the control is
transferred to the statement – x (skipping the rest of the ladder.
 When all the condition becomes false, the final else containing the default statement
will be executed.

2.6 SWITCH
This is a multiple or multi-waybranching decision making statement.

 When we use nested if-else statement to check more than 1 condition then the
complexity of a program increases in case of a lot of conditions.
 Switch case checks the value of a expression against a case values, if condition
matches the case values then the control is transferred to that point.

Syntax
switch(expression)
{
case expr1:
Statements-1;break;
case expr2:
Statements-2;break;
''''''''''''''''
''''''''''''''''
Case expr-n:
Statements-n;break;
default:
}
 In above syntax, switch, case, break are keywords.
The expression is an integer expression or characters.
expr1, expr2 are known as 'case labels.'
Caselabels end with a semicolon (: ).
If case is found whose value matches with the value of the expression, then the
block of statements that follow the case are executed.
Statements inside case expression need not to be closed in braces.
Break statement causes an exit from switch statement.
Default case is optional case. When neither any match found, it executes.

Rules for declaring switch case

 The case label should be integer or character constant.
 Each compound statement of a switch case should contain break statement toexit
from case.
 Case labels must end with (:) colon.

Advantages of switch case

 Easy to use.
 Easy to find out errors.
 Debugging is made easy in switch case.
 Complexity of a program is minimized.

2.7 GOTO STATEMENT

It is a well-known as 'jumping statement.' It is primarily used to transfer the control of
execution to any place in a program. It is useful to provide branching within a loop.
 When the loops are deeply nested at that if an error occurs then it is difficult to get exited
from such loops. Simple break statement cannot work here properly. In this situation, go to
statement is used.
 A go to be often used at the end of a program to direct the control to go to the input
statement, to read further data.
Syntax

goto [expr];

Figure
2.8 DECISION MAKING AND LOOPING
'A loop' is a part of code of a program which is executed repeatedly. A loop is used using
condition. The repetition is done until condition becomes condition true.
A loop declaration and execution can be done in following ways.

o Check condition to start a loop

o Initialize loop with declaring a variable.
o Executing statements inside loop.
o Increment or decrement of value of a variable.

Types of Looping Statements

Basically, the type of looping statements depends on the condition checking mode. Condition
checking can be made in two ways as: Before loop and after loop. So, there are 2(two) types of
looping statements.

 Entry controlled loop

 Exit controlled loop Entry

Controlled Loop

In such type of loop, the test condition is checked first before the loop is executed.
Some common examples of these looping statements are:

o while loop
o for loop

Exit Controlled Loop

In such type of loop, the loop is executed first. Then condition is checked after block of
statements are executed. The loop executed at least one time compulsorily Some common
example of this looping statement is:

o do-while loop

2.8.1 WHILE
This is an entry controlled looping statement. It is used to repeat a block of statements until
condition becomes true.

Syntax while(condition)
{
statements;
increment/decrement;
}

Program
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i = 1;
while (i <= 5) {
printf("%d\n", i);
++i;
}
return 0;
}

Output

1
2
3
4
5

2.8.2 DO-WHILE
This is an exit controlled looping statement.

Sometimes, there is need to execute a block of statements first then to check condition. At that
time such type of a loop is used. In this, block of statements are executed first and then condition
is checked.

Syntax

do

statements; (increment/decrement);

}while(condition);

2.8.3 FOR

This is an entry controlled looping statement.

In this loop structure, more than one variable can be initialized. One of the most important features
of this loop is that the three actions can be taken at a time like variable initialization, condition
checking and increment/decrement. The for loop can be more concise and flexible than that of
while and do-while loops.

Syntax
for(initialisation; test-condition; incre/decre)

Statements;

The execution of the for statement is as follows;

Initialization of the control variables is done first, using assignment statements such
as i=1 and i=0. The variables i and count are known as loop control variables.
The value of the control variable is tested using the test-condition. The test- condition
is a relational expression, such as i<10 that determines when the loop will exit.
When the body of the loop is executed, the control is transferred back to the for
statement after evaluating the last statement in the loop.
Features

More concise,Easy to use

Highly flexible
More than one variable can be initialized.
More than one increment can be applied.
More than two conditions can be used.
Program:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i;
for (i = 1; i < 11; ++i)
{
printf("%d ", i);
}
return 0;
}

Output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2.8.4 JUMPS IN LOOPS

Jump Statement in C is used in C programming to transfer the program control from one part of the
code to another. C provides three types of Jump Statements in C, namely, break, continue, and goto. The
break statement is used to terminate the execution of a loop or switch statement.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

2 Marks

1. Define GOTO.
2. What is meant by JUMP Statement?
3. Write the Syntax of IF Statement.
4. Write the difference between While and Do while.
5. Write the Syntax of For loop.
6. Define ‘IF’ Statement.
7. What is meant by break statement.
8. Write the syntax of Switch Statement.
9. What are the types of Control Statement?
10. What are the types of Branching Statement?

5 Marks
1. Write the difference between While and Do while.
2. Explain Switch and Goto Statement.
3. Write the difference between IF and Else IF.

10 Marks
1. Discuss in detail about Control Statement.
2. Discuss in detail about Branching Statement.
 UNIT III
ARRAYS

Array is a collection of homogenous data stored under unique name. The values in an array are
called as 'elements of an array.' These elements are accessed by numbers called as 'subscripts or
index numbers.' Arrays may be of any variable type.Array is also called as 'subscripted variable.'

Types of an Array

1. One / Single Dimensional Array

2. Two Dimensional Array

3.1 DECLARATION AND ACCESSING OF ONE AND TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

One / Single Dimensional Array

The array which is used to represent and store data in a linear form is called as 'single or one
dimensional array.'

Syntax
<data-type><array_name> [size];

Example

int a[3] = {2, 3, 5};

Declaration

Like any other variable, arrays must be declared before they used but with adifference of
squarebrackets [].

data type [size];

The type specifies the type of the elements that will be contained in the array, such as int floator
char and the size indicates the maximum number of elements that can be stored inside the array
for ex:
float height[50];
Initialization of arrays

We can initialize the elements in the array in the same way as the ordinary variables when they are
declared. The general form of initialization off arrays is:

type array_name[size]={list of values};

The values in the list care separated by commas, for

example the statement

int number[3]={0,0,0};
Features
o Array size should be positive number only.
o String array always terminates with null character ('\0').
o Array elements are countered from 0 to n-1.
o Useful for multiple reading of elements (numbers).

Disadvantages

o There is no easy method to initialize large number of array elements.

o It is difficult to initialize selected elements.

Two Dimensional Array

The array which is used to represent and store data in a tabular form is called as 'two
dimensional array.' Such type of array specially used to represent data in a matrix form.

The following syntax is used to represent two dimensional arrays.

Syntax

<data-type><array_nm> [row_subscript][column-subscript];

Example
inta[3][3];

3.2 INITIALIZING TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

Like one dimensional arrays, two dimensional arrays may be initialized during theirdeclaration
as

int X [3][3] = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

It will declare a array variable with two subscript values and value inserting in this array will be start
from row to column direction. we can write above statement by surrounding element of each row
by braces as

int X [3][3] = {{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9}}

3.3 MULTI DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS

Initialization

Like one dimensional arrays, two dimensional arrays may be initialized during theirdeclaration
as

int X [3][3] = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}

It will declare a array variable with two subscript values and value inserting in this array will be start
from row to column direction. we can write above statement by surrounding element of each row
by braces as

int X [3][3] = {{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9}}

Initialization of Multidimensional Arrays

In C, multidimensional arrays can be initialized in different number of ways. int

c[2][3]={{1,3,0}, {-1,5,9}};
OR
int c[][3]={{1,3,0}, {-1,5,9}};
OR
int c[2][3]={1,3,0,-1,5,9};

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

2 Marks

1. Define Arrays.
2. Write the declaration of Arrays.
3. Write the Initialisation of one dimensional Arrays.
4. What are the types of Arrays.
5. Define Multi dimensional Arrays.

5 Marks
1. Write the Declaration and Initialisation of One dimensional Arrays.
2. Briefly explain Multi dimensional Arrays.
10 Marks
1. Explain the Declaration and Initialisation of Arrays.
 UNIT IV
FUNCTIONS

C functions can be classified in two categories: Library functions and User defined functions.
The difference between this two functions is, Library functions are already built in and we need not
to write its code, whereas a User defined function has to be written to get it executed during the
output.

4.1 THE FORM OF C FUNCTIONS

A function definition, also known as function implementation shall include the following
elements;
1. function name
2. function type
3. list of parameters
4. local variable declarations
5. function statements
6. a return statement.
All the six elements are grouped into two parts, namely,
1. Function header(first three elements)
2. Function body(second three elements)
Syntax

4.2 RETURN VALUES AND TYPES

A function may or may not send back any value to the calling function. If it does, it is done
through the return statement. While it is possible to pass to the called function any number of
values, the called function can only return one value per call, at the most.

The return statement can take one of the following forms:

return;or

return (expression);

The first, the ‘plain’ return does not return any value; it acts much as the closing brace of the
function. When a return is encountered, the control is immediately passed back to the calling
function.
 As example of the use of a simple return is as follows:

if(error)return;

4.3 CALLING A FUNCTION

When a program calls a function, the program control is transferred to the called function. A called
function performs a defined task and when its return statement is executed or when its function-ending
closing brace is reached, it returns the program control back to the main program.
To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with the function name, and if the
function returns a value, then you can store the returned value.
#include <stdio.h>

/* function declaration */
int max(int num1, int num2);

int main () {

/* local variable definition */

int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;
/* calling a function to get max value */
ret = max(a, b);

printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret );

return 0;
}

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2) {

/* local variable declaration */

int result;

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1;
else
result = num2;

return result;
}
Output
Max value is : 200

4.4 CATEGORIES OF FUNCTIONS

 Functions without arguments and without return values.

 Functions without arguments and with return values.
 Functions with arguments and without return values.
 Functions with arguments and with return values.

4.5 NESTED FUNCTIONS

A nested function is a function defined inside the definition of another function. It can be defined
wherever a variable declaration is permitted, which allows nested functions within nested functions.
4.6 RECURSION
Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. In programming languages, if
a program allows you to call a function inside the same function, then it is called a recursive call of
the function.
void recursion() {
recursion(); /* function calls itself */
}
int main()
{ recursion();
}

4.7 FUNCTIONS WITH ARRAYS

#include <stdio.h>
void printArray(int * arr, int size)
{
int i;
printf("Array elements are: ");
for(i = 0; i < size; i++)
{
printf("%d, ", arr[i]);
}
}
int main()
{
int arr[5];
printArray(arr, 5); // Pass array directly to function printArray
return 0;
}
Output: Array elements are: 0, 0, -295874432, 22032, -735842928,

4.8 CALL BY VALUE

The call by value method of passing arguments to a function copies the actual value of an argument into
the formal parameter of the function.

// C program to illustrate call by value

#include <stdio.h>
// Function Prototype
void swapx(int x, int y);

// Main function
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 20;

// Pass by Values
swapx(a, b);
printf("In the Caller:\na = %d b = %d\n", a, b);
return 0;
}
// Swap functions that swaps
 // two values
void swapx(int x, int y)
{
int t;
t = x;
x = y;
y = t;
printf("Inside Function:\nx = %d y = %d\n", x, y);
}

Output

Inside Function:
x = 20 y = 10
In the Caller:
a = 10 b = 20

4.9 CALL BY REFERENCE

In call by reference method of parameter passing, the address of the actual parameters is passed to
the function as the formal parameters.
 Both the actual and formal parameters refer to the same locations.
 Any changes made inside the function are actually reflected in the actual parameters of the caller.

// C program to illustrate Call by Reference

#include <stdio.h>

// Function Prototype
void swapx(int*, int*);

// Main function
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 20;

// Pass reference
swapx(&a, &b);

printf("Inside the Caller:\na = %d b = %d\n", a, b);

return 0;

// Function to swap two variables

// by references
void swapx(int* x, int* y)
{
 int t;

t = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = t;

printf("Inside the Function:\nx = %d y = %d\n", *x, *y);

}

Output

Inside the Function:

x = 20 y = 10
Inside the Caller:
a = 20 b = 10
Thus actual values of a and b get changed after exchanging values of x and y.

Difference between the Call by Value and Call by Reference

The following table lists the differences between the call-by-value and call-by-reference methods of
parameter passing.

Call By Value Call By Reference

While calling a function, instead of passing the values

While calling a function, we pass the values of
of variables, we pass the address of variables(location
variables to it. Such functions are known as
of variables) to the function known as “Call By
“Call By Values”.
References.

In this method, the value of each variable in the In this method, the address of actual variables in the
calling function is copied into corresponding calling function is copied into the dummy variables of
dummy variables of the called function. the called function.

With this method, the changes made to the

With this method, using addresses we would have
dummy variables in the called function have no
access to the actual variables and hence we would be
effect on the values of actual variables in the
able to manipulate them.
calling function.

In call-by-values, we cannot alter the values of In call by reference, we can alter the values of
actual variables through function calls. variables through function calls.

Values of variables are passed by the Simple Pointer variables are necessary to define to store the
technique. address values of variables.

This method is preferred when we have to pass This method is preferred when we have to pass a
some small values that should not change. large amount of data to the function.
4.10 STORAGE CLASSES

Variables in C have not only data type but also storage class that provides informationabout
their location and visibility. The storage class decides the portion of the program withinwhich the
variables are recognized.

int m; main()
{
inti;
float balance;
…….
……. function1;
}
function1()
{
inti;
float sum;
…….
……
}

Storage class Meaning

Auto Local variable known only to the function in which it is
declared. Default is auto.
static Local variable which exists and retains its value even after
thecontrol is transferred to the calling function.
extern
Global variable known to all functions in this file.Local
register
variable which is stored in the register.

4.11 CHARACTER ARRAYS AND STRING FUNCTIONS

A string is actually a one-dimensional array of characters in C language. These are often used to
create meaningful and readable programs.
A character array is a collection of variables which are of character datatype. String is a class that is
instantiated to declare strings. Using index value you can access a character from a character array.

Key Differences Between Character Array and String

1. A character array is a collection of variables which are of character datatype. String is a class that is
instantiated to declare strings.

2. Using index value you can access a character from a character array. On the other hand, if you want to
access a particular character in a string, you can access it by function string’s_name.charAt(index).

3. As an array is not a datatype similarly a character also is not a datatype. On the other hand, String
being a class act as a reference type hence, it can be said String is a data type.

4. You can not apply any operator on a character array whereas, you can apply operators on String.

5. Being an array character array has a fixed length and its boundaries can be easily overrun. Where
String does not have any boundaries.
 6. Array elements are stored in a contiguous memory location hence that can be accessed faster than
string variable.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

2 Marks
1. Define Function.
2. Write the categories of Function.
3. Define Recursion.
4. What is meant by Storage Class.
5. Define nested function.
5 Marks
1. Explain fuction with arrays.
2. Explain the form of C function.
3. Write the C program for Recursion Function.

10 Marks

1. Discuss about categories of function.

2. Explain call by value and call by reference.

 UNIT V
POINTERS

5.1 DEFINITION
Pointer is a variable which holds the memory address of another variable. Pointers are
represented by '*'. It is a derive data type in C. Pointer returns the value of stored address.

Syntax

<data_type> *pointer_name;

5.2 DECLARING AND INITIALIZING POINTERS

A pointer variable contains the memory location of another variable. We begin the
declaration of a pointer by specifying the type of data stored in the location identified by the pointer.
The asterisk tells the compiler that we are creating a pointer variable. Finally wegive the name of
the pointer variable. The pointer declaration syntax is as shown below.

type * variable name

5.3 ACCESSING A VARIABLE THROUGH ADDRESS AND THROUGH POINTER

To access the value stored in the variable num via the pointer variable ptr we have to use the value
at the address of * operator. We already have the address of variable num stored in variable ptr . So, using
*ptr will give use the value stored at the address i.e., value stored in num variable.
5.4 POINTER EXPRESSIONS

C supports a rich set of built-in operations like arithmetic, relational, assignment, conditional, etc.
which can be performed on identifiers. Just like any other variable, these operations can be
also performed on pointer variables.

Example: c = (*ptr1 > *ptr2) ? *ptr1 : *ptr2; As shown in example, assuming *ptr1=20 and *ptr2=10 then the
condition here becomes true for the expression, so it'll return value of true expression i.e. *ptr1, so variable
'c' will now contain value of 20. Address of variable x = 0x7fff3b690fd4

Arithmetic Operators

We can perform arithmetic operations to pointer variables using arithmetic operators. We can add
an integer or subtract an integer using a pointer pointing to that integer variable. The given table shows
the arithmetic operators that can be performed on pointer variables: Examples:*ptr1 + *ptr2
*ptr1 * *ptr2
*ptr1 + *ptr2 - *ptr3
We can also directly perform arithmetic expressions on integers by dereferencing pointers. Let’s look at
the example given below where p1 and p2 are pointers.
*p1 + 10, *p2 - 5, *p1 - *p2 + 10, *p1/2

// Program showing pointer expressions

// during Arithmetic Operations
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
// Integer variables
int a = 20, b = 10;

// Variables for storing arithmetic

// operations solution
int add, sub, div, mul, mod;

// Pointer variables for variables

// a and b
int *ptr_a, *ptr_b;
 // Initialization of pointers
ptr_a = &a;
ptr_b = &b;

// Performing arithmetic Operations

// on pointers
add = *ptr_a + *ptr_b;
sub = *ptr_a - *ptr_b;
mul = *ptr_a * *ptr_b;
div = *ptr_a / *ptr_b;
mod = *ptr_a % *ptr_b;

// Printing values
printf("Addition = %d\n", add);
printf("Subtraction = %d\n", sub);
printf("Multiplication = %d\n", mul);
printf("Division = %d\n", div);
printf("Modulo = %d\n", mod);
return 0;
}
Output:
Addition = 30
Subtraction = 10
Multiplication = 200
Division = 2
Modulo = 0
Note: While performing division, make sure you put a blank space between ‘/’ and ‘*’ of the pointer as
together it would make a multi-line comment(‘/*’). Example:
Incorrect: *ptr_a/*ptr_b;
Correct: *ptr_a / *ptr_b;
Correct: (*ptr_a)/(*ptr_b);

Relational Operators

Relational operations are often used to compare the values of the variable based on which we can
take decisions. The given table shows the relational operators that can be performed on pointer variables.

Example:

*ptr1 > *ptr2

*ptr1 < *ptr2

 The value of the relational expression is either 0 or 1 that is false or true. The expression will return
value 1 if the expression is true and it’ll return value 0 if false.

// Program showing pointer expressions

// during Relational Operations
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Initializing integer variables
 int a = 20, b = 10;

// Declaring pointer variables

int* ptr_a;
int* ptr_b;

// Initializing pointer variables

ptr_a = &a;
ptr_b = &b;

// Performing relational operations

// less than operator
if (*ptr_a < *ptr_b) {
printf(
"%d is less than %d.", *ptr_a, *ptr_b);
}

// Greater than operator

if (*ptr_a > *ptr_b) {
printf(
"%d is greater than %d.", *ptr_a, *ptr_b);
}

// Equal to
if (*ptr_a == *ptr_b) {
printf(
"%d is equal to %d.", *ptr_a, *ptr_b);
}

return 0;
}
Output:
20 is greater than 10.
Output:
20 is greater than 10.

Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to the identifiers. There are multiple shorthand
operations available. A table is given below showing the actual assignment statement with its shorthand
statement. Examples:
*a=10
*b+=20
*z=3.5
*s=4.56743

// Program showing pointer expressions

// during Assignment Operations
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Initializing integer variable
int a = 30;
 // Declaring pointer variable
int* ptr_a;

// Initializing pointer using

// assignment operator
ptr_a = &a;

// Changing the variable's value using

// assignment operator
*ptr_a = 50;

// Printing value of 'a' after

// updating its value
printf("Value of variable a = %d", *ptr_a);

return 0;
}
Output:
Value of variable a = 50

Conditional Operators

There is only one mostly used conditional operator in C known as Ternary operator. Ternary
operator first checks the expression and depending on its return value returns true or false, which
triggers/selects another expression.
Syntax: expression1 ? expression2 : expression3;
Example:
c = (*ptr1 > *ptr2) ? *ptr1 : *ptr2;
 As shown in example, assuming *ptr1=20 and *ptr2=10 then the condition here becomes true for the
expression, so it’ll return value of true expression i.e. *ptr1, so variable ‘c’ will now contain value of 20.
 Considering same example, assume *ptr1=30 and *ptr2=50 then the condition is false for the
expression, so it’ll return value of false expression i.e. *ptr2, so variable ‘c’ will now contain value 50.
// Program showing pointer expressions
// during Conditional Operations
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Initializing integer variables
int a = 15, b = 20, result = 0;

// Declaring pointer variables

int *ptr_a, *ptr_b;

// Initializing pointer variables

ptr_a = &a;
ptr_b = &b;

// Performing ternary operator

result = ((*ptr_a > *ptr_b) ? *ptr_a : *ptr_b);

// Printing result of ternary operator

printf("%d is the greatest.", result);
return 0;
}
Output:
20 is the greatest.
Unary Operators

There are mainly two operators which are given as follows.

Examples:
(*ptr1)++
(*ptr1)--

// Program showing pointer expressions

// during Unary Operations
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Initializing integer variable
int a = 34;

// Declaring pointer variable

int* ptr_a;

// Initializing pointer variable

ptr_a = &a;

// Value of a before increment

printf("Increment:\n");
printf(
"Before increment a = %d\n", *ptr_a);

// Unary increment operation

(*ptr_a)++;

// Value of a after increment

printf(
"After increment a = %d", *ptr_a);

// Value before decrement

printf("\n\nDecrement:\n");
printf(
"Before decrement a = %d\n", *ptr_a);

// unary decrement operation

(*ptr_a)--;

// Value after decrement

printf("After decrement a=%d", *ptr_a);

return 0;
}
Output:
Increment:
Before increment a = 34
After increment a = 35

Decrement:
Before decrement a = 35
After decrement a=34
Bitwise Operators

Binary operators are also known as bitwise operators. It is used to manipulate data at bit level.
Bitwise operators can’t be used for float and double datatype. A table is shown below with all bitwise
operators:
Examples:
*ptr1 & *ptr2
*ptr1 | *ptr2
*ptr1 ^ *ptr2

// Program showing pointer expressions

// during Bitwise Operations
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
// Declaring integer variable for
// storing result
int and, or, ex_or;

// Initializing integer variable

int a = 1, b = 2;

// Performing bitwise operations

// AND operation
and = a & b;

// OR operation
or = a | b;

// EX-OR operation
ex_or = a ^ b;

// Printing result of operations

printf("\na AND b = %d", and);
printf("\na OR b = %d", or);
printf("\na Exclusive-OR b = %d", ex_or);
return 0;
}
Output:
a AND b = 0
a OR b = 3
a Exclusive-OR b = 3

5.5 POINTER INCREMENTS AND SCALE FACTOR

When we increment pointer its value is increased by the length of the data type that it points to. This
length is called scale factor.

Ex :- if p1 is an integer pointer with the initial value say 2800,then after the operations p1=p1+1,the value of
p1 will be 2802,not 2801. when we increment pointer its value is increased by the length of the data type
that it points to. This length is called scale factor
.
5.6 POINTERS AND ARRAYS

When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a base Address and sufficient amount of storage
to contains all the elements of the array in memory location. Base address is the location of the first
element of the array.

int x[5] = {1,2,3,4,5}

Element x[0] x[1] x[2] x[3] x[4]

Value 1 2 3 4 5
Address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008

So, base address is,

x = &x[0] = 1000

If we declare p as integer pointer, then we can make the pointer p to point to the array x by the following
statements.
p = x or p = &x[0]
Now we can access every element of x using p++ to move from one element to another.
p = &x[0] (=1000)
p+1 = &x[1] (=1002)
p+2 = &x[2] (=1004)
p+3 = &x[3] (=1006)
p+4 = &x[4] (=1008)

/*Program of sum n array elements*/

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x[10],i,*p,n,sum=0;
printf("enter the N:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("enter the the data:\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&x[i]);
p = x;
/*Program of sum n array elements*/

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\n%d",*p);
sum=sum + *p;
p++;
}
printf("\nsum=%d",sum);
}

OUTPUT
Enter the N: 5
Enter the data :
12345
Sum=15

5.7 POINTERS AND FUNCTIONS

In C, like normal data pointers (int *, char *, etc), we can have pointers to functions. Following is a
simple example that shows declaration and function call using function pointer.

#include <stdio.h>
// A normal function with an int parameter
// and void return type
void fun(int a)
{
printf("Value of a is %d\n", a);
}

int main()
{
// fun_ptr is a pointer to function fun()
void (*fun_ptr)(int) = &fun;

/* The above line is equivalent of following two

void (*fun_ptr)(int);
fun_ptr = &fun;
*/

// Invoking fun() using fun_ptr

(*fun_ptr)(10);

return 0;
}
Output:
Value of a is 10
Why do we need an extra bracket around function pointers like fun_ptr in above example?
If we remove bracket, then the expression “void (*fun_ptr)(int)” becomes “void *fun_ptr(int)” which is
declaration of a function that returns void pointer. See following post for details.

5.8 POINTERS AND STRUCTURE

In C, like normal data pointers (int *, char *, etc), we can have pointers to functions. Following is a
simple example that shows declaration and function call using function pointer.
#include <stdio.h>
// A normal function with an int parameter
// and void return type
void fun(int a)
{
printf("Value of a is %d\n", a);
}

int main()
{
// fun_ptr is a pointer to function fun()
void (*fun_ptr)(int) = &fun;

/* The above line is equivalent of following two

void (*fun_ptr)(int);
fun_ptr = &fun;
*/

// Invoking fun() using fun_ptr

(*fun_ptr)(10);
 return 0;
}
Output:
Value of a is 10
Why do we need an extra bracket around function pointers like fun_ptr in above example?
If we remove bracket, then the expression “void (*fun_ptr)(int)” becomes “void *fun_ptr(int)” which is
declaration of a function that returns void pointer. See following post for details.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

2 Marks
1. Define Pointers.
2. Write the scale factor of pointers.
3. Write the declaration of pointers.
4. What is pointer and structure.
5. What are all the Pointer expression?

5 Marks
1. Explain pointer initialization and declaration.
2. Disucss about pointer and structure.

10 Marks
1. Describe about Pointer expression.
2. Explain: i)Pointers and arrays
ii)Pointers and Functions.