Power System Protection and Switchgear

Protection of Transmission Lines using Distance Relays

Dr. BHAVESHKUMAR BHALJA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
 Distance Relay
 Depending on the requirements, transmission lines are protected by
overcurrent, distance, and pilot relaying systems.
 The current-based scheme fails in many situations and does not provide
instantaneous protection to the entire line.
 Moreover, the coordination of overcurrent relays is very difficult,
particularly for a large, interconnected power system.
 Pilot relaying is used to protect a line when high-speed protection of an
entire line is desirable.

 Distance relaying scheme has been widely used for the protection of
transmission lines for the last five decades.

2
 Fault Distance Measurement
 The operation of distance relays is mainly based on the impedance
measured at the relaying point. The voltage-to-current ratio of the
fundamental frequency components seen at the relaying point is an
indicator of the system’s normal or fault condition.
A B

KS
Z2
ZA ZB
GA Z1 GB
IA
IB
RF
Relay IF F1 F2
F3
3
 Fault Distance Measurement
 A distance relay is connected at bus A and bus B to protect the
transmission line having an impedance
ZL = RL + jXL.
 KS is the set value of impedance.
 For an internal fault at F1, the measured impedance at bus A lies in the
first quadrant of the impedance plane and is less than the set value of
impedance (Z1 < KS).

 For an external fault at F2, it lies in the first quadrant of the impedance
plane, but it is greater than the set value of impedance (Z2 > KS).

 For a backward or reverse fault at F3, it lies in the third quadrant of the
impedance plane (negative impedance).

4
 Fault Distance Measurement
 The faults F1 to F3 are assumed not to have any fault resistance value.

 For internal fault, the fault trajectory of the impedance moves from pre-
fault condition (load area) to its post-fault steady state measurement.
X
 As soon as the fault trajectory enters (Imaginary)
F2
the trip area and settles down on a
KS
line defined by the transmission line
angle (φL = tan−1(XL/RL)), the relay F1
Line to be
(local and remote end) sends a trip φL Protected Load Area
signal to the respective breakers (local R (Real)
F3
and remote end).

5
 Stepped Distance Characteristic
 Backup protection is made possible in distance protection by stepped
distance characteristics. It is one of the most commonly used backup
protection schemes on high voltage (HV) and EHV transmission lines. In
such a scheme of protection, a distance relay has three zones of
protection.

6
 Stepped Distance Characteristic
 The first zone or the high-speed zone, designated as zone 1, is set to trip
without any intentional time delay and provides primary protection for the
line section to be protected.

 To avoid unnecessary operation on faults beyond the remote end due to

the transient overreach and errors in the instrument (current and voltage)
transformers (CTs and VTs), zone 1 is adjusted to reach 80–90% of the
length of the line section.

 The second zone, designated as zone 2, is used to provide high-speed

protection for the remainder of the line with an adequate margin.

7
 Stepped Distance Characteristic
 It gives instantaneous protection for the line section that is uncovered by
zone 1 and time-delayed protection for half of the following line section.

 It should be adjusted so that it will be able to operate even for arcing

faults at the end of the line.

 Even if the arcing faults did not have to be considered, the underreaching
tendency of the relay because of the effect of intermediate current
sources and the errors in the data, CTs, potential transformers (PTs), and
relays, should be taken into account.

 It is customary to have the second-zone unit reach 50% of an adjoining

line section.
8
 Stepped Distance Characteristic
 The second-zone relays have to be time delayed to coordinate with relays
at the remote bus, and the typical time delays are of the order of 0.3–0.6s.

 The third zone, designated as zone 3, is used to provide remote backup to

the first and second zone of an adjacent line sections when a relay or
breaker fails to clear the fault locally.

 The usual practice is to extend its reach beyond the end of the largest
adjoining line section or more than double the line section to be
protected.

 The third-zone operation is usually delayed by about 1.4–1.8 s.

9
 Stepped Distance Characteristic
 The third-zone reach setting is a more complex problem.

 It has been observed that the zone 3 unit trips under heavy and unusual
loading conditions, and thereby leads to the cascade tripping of the power
system.

 The third-zone setting must be blocked in case of extreme loading

conditions. In certain conditions, its reach can be modified.

 There are certain critical locations where zone 3 protection can be

removed if an alternative protection functions in other forms are
available.
10
 Reach of Distance Relay
 The settings of phase distance relays are done on the basis of the positive-
sequence impedance between the relaying point and the fault point.
 On the other hand, the settings of ground distance relays are carried out
on the basis of the zero-phase-sequence impedance.
 Hence, the corresponding distance or impedance is known as the reach of
the relay.

 Now, the relay is always connected on the secondary side of the CT and PT.

 Hence, to transfer the impedance of the line referred to the primary of CTs
and PTs to line impedance referred to the relay side, the following
equation is to be used.
11
 Reach of Distance Relay
 The settings of phase distance relays are done on the basis of the positive-
sequence impedance between the relaying point and the fault point.
 On the other hand, the settings of ground distance relays are carried out
on the basis of the zero-phase-sequence impedance.
 Hence, the corresponding distance or impedance is known as the reach of
the relay.

 Now, the relay is always connected on the secondary side of the CT and PT.

 Hence, to transfer the impedance of the line referred to the primary of CTs
and PTs to line impedance referred to the relay side, the following
equation is to be used.
12
 Reach of Distance Relay
 where, the CTr is the ratio of the CT primary current to the CT secondary
current, and the PTr is the ratio of the primary phase-to-phase voltage to
the secondary phase-to-phase voltage. These values are under balanced
three-phase conditions. CTr
Z= sec Z pri ×
PTr
 The phenomenon when a distance relay operates beyond its zone of
protection or for impedances greater than its set value is known as
overreaching of the relay.
F1 F2
 Similarly, the tendency of a distance relay not to operate within its zone of
protection or lower than its set value of impedance is known as
underreaching of the relay.
13
 Reach of Distance Relay
 The value of DC offset in the fault current is responsible for the
overreaching of distance relay.
 The ratio of DC offset to the fundamental frequency component depends
on the instant at which the fault occurs.

 However, the instant of fault is not predicated, and hence, it is not in the
user’s hand. The rate of decay of DC offset depends on the X/R ratio of the
system, which is very high for modern power systems.

 However, this DC offset is present only up to the first few cycles after the
inception of fault. This overreach is transient in nature as the DC offset
decays rapidly. Hence, this overreach is widely known as transient
overreach.
14
 Reach of Distance Relay
 As the transient overreach disappears after a few cycles, the second and
the third zone of distance relays are not affected by this phenomenon.
 Conversely, the first zone or high-speed protection zone is affected by the
transient overreach.
 The percentage transient overreach is defined as
Zx − Zy
× 100
Zy
 where, Zx is the maximum impedance for which the relay will operate with
an offset current wave, for a given adjustment.

 Zy is the maximum impedance for which the relay will operate for
symmetrical currents, for the same adjustment as for Zy.
15
 Reach of Distance Relay
 As the angle of system (ϕ = tan−1(X/R)) increases, the transient overreach
increases.

 Furthermore, it also increases for long EHV and UHV lines as the value of
inductive reactance is very high because of the greater spacing between
conductors and also because of the bundling of conductors.

16
 Selection of Measuring Unit
 The discrimination of fault condition against heavy load and such other
conditions when the relay is not required to operate requires the
measurement of not only the magnitude but also the angle of the
impedance of the line up to the fault point.
 Many types of distance relays have therefore been developed and applied
for line protection.
1. Impedance relay
2. Reactance relay
3. Mho or admittance relay
4. Ohm or angle impedance relay
5. Offset mho relay
6. Quadrilateral and other special characteristics
17
 Selection of Measuring Unit
 The conventional representation of the operating characteristics of these
relays on R–X (impedance) plane (polar characteristic) along with their
positive torque region (PTR) and negative torque region (NTR) is as under.

 Impedance relay requires separate directional unit.

 There is a possibility of maloperation of the reactance element, because of

power swings and loading condition. Hence, to overcome maloperation, a
fault detector unit is used in conjunction with the reactance element.
Moreover, separate directional element is also required to prevent the
maloperation of this unit in case of reverse faults.

18
 Selection of Measuring Unit
X X Block
PTR X
ZR
ZR Block XR θ Trip θ
θ
n
R R R
L
Trip
NTR MHO
Reactance
Impedance
X X
X Block
Block
Block Trip
Trip Trip
R n
R
R
L
Offset MHO Ohm Quadrilateral

19
 Selection of Measuring Unit
 Mho elements are inherently directional, and no separate directional unit
is required. However, mho element cannot incorporate the value of the
fault resistance.

 Hence, in practical field, a quadrilateral element is widely used, which

incorporates reasonable value of fault resistance.
 The function of zone 3 is to provide backup protection in case a relay or a
breaker in the next bus section fails to clear a fault. Inaccuracy due to the
loads and power infeed are worse with zone 3 because there are two
buses between the relay and the cut-off point of the relay.

20
 Selection of Measuring Unit
 Overreaching can cause the third-zone unit to trip undesirably for a fault
on the other side of a large distribution transformer.

 Further, if the setting is too large, the third-zone unit becomes susceptible
to operation on power swings.

 In addition, the discrimination between faults and loads becomes poor.

 Therefore, at certain lines, the recent practice is to omit the third zone of
the distance relay and use only the two zones of the distance element.

21
Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays

Phase Distance Relays Ground Distance Relays

(i) L-L (i) L-G
(ii) L-L-L (ii) L-L-G
(iii)L-L-L-G

22
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
 The impedance measurement rendered by distance relay should be a
positive-sequence impedance of transmission line between the relaying
point and the fault point.

 It is essential that this measurement should remain unaltered irrespective

of fault:

R
F1 F2

23
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
(𝐢𝐢) Three−phase fault
IR=I1+I2+I0 VR=V1+V2+V0
IY=α2I1+ α I2+I0 VY= α 2V1+ α V2+V0
IB= α I1+ α 2I2+I0 VB= α V1+ α 2V2+V0

Now, in case of three−phase short circuit, VR = VY = VB = 0 at fault point

Hence, V1 = V2 = V0 = 0 as per the symmetrical component matrix
Also, as V2 and V0 are zero, I2 and I0 will vanish.

Relaying
Point 𝑉𝑉1′ =𝑉𝑉1 + 𝐼𝐼1 × 𝑍𝑍1

Fault
24
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
Here, VR, = V1, , VY, = α 2 V1, , VB, = αV1,
Also, the current in three phases will be,
IR = I1 , IY = α 2I1 , IB = αI1
VR, = V1, =
V1 + I1Z1 , VY, =
α 2 (V1 + I1Z1), VB, =+
α(V1 I1Z1 )
to, VR, I1=
but as V1 =0, the equation will reduce = Z1 , VY, α 2I1=
Z1 , VB, αI1Z1
VR, VY, VB,
This means, = = = Z1
IR IY IB

25
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
VY =VB
α 2V1+ α V2+V0 = α V1+ α 2V2+V0
(ii) Two−phase fault V1 =V2
In case of a Y−B fault, VY =VB , IR =0 and IY =−IB
Using symmetrical equations, (VY −VB )=V1 (𝛼𝛼 2
− 𝛼𝛼)+V2 (𝛼𝛼 − 𝛼𝛼 2 )=0
V1 =V2 Fault
Similarly, IR +IY +IB =3I0 =0 ⇒ I0 =0
Relaying
IR = I1 +I2 +I0 = 0 ⇒ I1 +I2 = 0
I1 =−I2 Point
The sequence network for such a fault is shown in Fig. Fault
V1, = 𝑉𝑉1 + 𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍1 , V2, = 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍2
Relaying
Point
𝑉𝑉2′ = 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝐼𝐼1 × 𝑍𝑍1

26
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
As I2 =-I1 and V1 =V2 for two-phase fault and Z1 =Z2 for transmission line
V1, =
V1 + I1Z1 , V2, =
V1 − I1Z1

As the zero sequence current and hence zero sequence voltage are absent in two-phase faults,
VR, =
V1, + V2, , VY, =
α 2 V1, + αV2, , VB, =
αV1, + α 2 V2,
VR, = V1 + I1Z1 + V1 − I1Z1 = 2V1 IR = I1 + I2 = 0
V=
Y
,
V1 (α 2 + α) + I1Z1(α 2 − α) IY = α 2I1 + αI2 = I1 (α 2 − α)
VB, = V1 (α + α 2 ) + I1Z1(α − α 2 ) IB =αI1 + I1 (α − α 2 )

VYB, 2I1Z1(α 2 − α)
= = Z1
IY − IB 2I1(α 2 − α)

27
Quantities to be fed to Phase Distance Relays

28
 Quantities to be fed to Ground Distance Relays
(iii) Two−phase to ground fault
In case of a Y−B−g fault, VY =VB =0, IR =0 Relaying Point Fault
IR =I1 + I2 + I0 = 0 ⇒ I1 = −(I2 + I0 )
and, using symmetrical equation, V1 =V2 =V0
Hence, V𝑌𝑌, = 𝛼𝛼 2 𝑉𝑉1, + 𝛼𝛼𝑉𝑉2, + 𝑉𝑉0, , V𝐵𝐵, = 𝛼𝛼𝑉𝑉1, + 𝛼𝛼 2 𝑉𝑉2, + 𝑉𝑉0,
,
𝑉𝑉𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 = (V𝑌𝑌, − V𝐵𝐵, ) = V1, (𝛼𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛼) + V2, (𝛼𝛼 − 𝛼𝛼 2 )
=(V1 + 𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍1 )(𝛼𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛼) + (V1 + 𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍1 )(𝛼𝛼 − 𝛼𝛼 2 )
= 𝑍𝑍1 (𝛼𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛼)(𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 )
Similarly, (IY −IB ) = (𝛼𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛼)(𝐼𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐼2 )
,
𝑉𝑉𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
Hence, = 𝑍𝑍1
IY −IB

29
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
(iv) Single−phase to ground fault
In case of a R−g fault, VR =0, IY =0, IB =0
Using Symmetrical component matrix, I1 =I2 =I0
𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉0 = 0
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅, = 𝑉𝑉1, + 𝑉𝑉2, + 𝑉𝑉0,
= (𝑉𝑉1 + 𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍1 ) + (𝑉𝑉2 + 𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍2 ) + (𝑉𝑉0 + 𝐼𝐼0 𝑍𝑍1 )
=(𝑉𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑉2 + 𝑉𝑉0 ) + 𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝐼𝐼2 𝑍𝑍2 + 𝐼𝐼0 𝑍𝑍0
= 2𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝐼𝐼1 𝑍𝑍0
IR = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I1

If the relay is suppplied with current

,  Z 0 - Z1  VR, VR,
I =
R IR + I0   ,Then, ' = Z1
=
 1 Z IR  Z - Z 
IR + I0  0 1 
 Z1 
30
 Derivation of Denominator
IR = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I1

If the relay is suppplied with current

,  Z0 - Z1  VR, VR,
I =
R IR + I0   ,Then, ' = Z1
=
Z
 1  IR  Z -Z 
IR + I0  0 1 
 Z1 
3I1Z1 + I0 Z 0 − I0 Z1 3I1Z1 + I1Z 0 − I1Z1
=
Z1 Z1
2I1Z1 + I1Z 0
Z1

31
 Quantities to be fed to Distance Relays
 Thus, six distance relays are required to protect a transmission line
against all types of faults.
 The input of these relays are summarized in the Table.

32
 Important Equations
CTr
Z=
sec Z pri ×
PTr

𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 =
cos(∅ − 𝜃𝜃)

33
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 Whenever a fault occurs, there is a possibility of involvement of
resistance, which varies depending upon the types of fault.

 For double-line and triple-line faults, the value of resistance is negligible

and contains only arc resistance. This arc resistance changes with
reference to time as the fault current continues to flow.

 However, for faults that involve ground, the value of fault resistance is
significant.

34
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 In this situation, the fault path consists of arc resistance in series with
tower footing resistance and resistance of ground.

 The value of tower footing resistance depends on the resistivity of soil. For
all practical purposes, it is considered as a constant parameter in case of
fault and varies between 5 and 50 ohm.

 The resistance of ground depends on the types of the surface.

35
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 Whenever a fault occurs, the value of arc resistance is very small and can
be neglected, particularly during the first few cycles. It increases as the
fault current prolongs. However, for all practical relaying calculations, the
value of arc resistance is assumed to be constant and is given by,

76V 2
Rarc =
Ssc

36
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 Since ground resistance may vary considerably, a ground distance relay
must not be practically unaffected by large variation in fault resistance.
X
Reactance
RF
ZR′ Impedance
ZR″
Mho
R
Quadrilateral

37
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 It is noted that the reactance relay is not affected by the fault resistance
and is, therefore, suitable for protecting the short transmission lines
where fault resistance could be comparable to the line reactance.

 Mho relay can incorporate more fault resistance than the impedance relay.
Hence, for long transmission lines, mho relay is preferred.

 The distance relay having quadrilateral characteristic is even better than

the mho relay.

38
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 For a fault at the middle of the line, the apparent impedance seen by the
relay at bus A is given by,

Ea = I A pZ L + RF × ( I A + I B )

EA  I 
Za = = pZ L + RF ×  1 + B 
IA  IA 
 IB 
Z a =pZ L + RF +  RF 
 I A 

39
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 Because of the pre-fault power flow, the phase angles of the two sources
(A and B) connected through the transmission line differ, resulting in a
phase shift of the currents flowing from each side of the line to the fault.
Thus, not only does the resistance measured at the relay location differ
from the actual resistance from the relaying point to the fault, but also the
measured inductive reactance is affected.

 The error in the inductive reactance due to fault resistance can be positive
or negative depending on the pre-fault power flow direction. It becomes
more pronounced with the increase in pre-fault power flow and fault
resistance.

40
 Effect of Fault Resistance
 If the pre-fault power flows from bus A to bus B, then the measured
reactance at the relay location is less than the inductive reactance from
the relay location to the fault, causing an eventual tripping for an external
fault.

 On the other hand, if the pre-fault power flows from bus B to bus A, then
the measured reactance is greater than the actual reactance from the
relay location to the fault, and an internal fault within the first zone of
protection may not be detected, resulting in a delayed fault clearance.

41
Effect of Fault Resistance

42
 Effect of Power Swing
⮚ Power swing causes large fluctuations in the power flow between two areas of a power
system due to changes in load magnitude and direction, line switching, loss of generation,
faults, and other system disturbances.

⮚ These large fluctuations die down if the swing is stable.

⮚ On the other hand, if the swing is unstable, the fluctuations cannot die down; it causes large
fluctuations of voltages and current, and may finally result in a loss of synchronism.

⮚ With the presence of power swing, the locus of load impedance can enter the operating zone
of the distance relay.

43
 Effect of Power Swing
⮚ Directional or bidirectional relay may mal-operate because of the unstable
power swings, which can generate high currents.

⮚ Furthermore, the unwanted operation of short time undervoltage relays also

occurs because of the reduction in voltages.

⮚ During large frequency excursions, digital distance relays measure a wrong

value of phasors and may mal-operate.

⮚ Mho relays are likely to operate undesirably on large power swings.

⮚ This tendency of undesired operation is less with relays having quadrilateral
characteristics.

44
 Effect of Power Swing
⮚ When the power angle difference is close to 180°, the
apparent impedance seen by a distance relay can be
within the operating zone of the relay.
⮚ Hence, the relay sees this condition as a three-phase fault.

⮚ A blocking function is provided, which blocks the

operation of a distance relay in case of a power swing.

⮚ However, if a fault occurs, particularly symmetrical in

nature, during a power swing, then this function is not
useful.

Behavior of relays on power swings

45
 Effect of Overload Condition
⮚ For a particular value of load, the locus of apparent
impedance enters the third zone of a relay (point A and
point B), and the relay will operate.

⮚ Hence, the setting of the third zone of distance relay is

decided by the probable overload.

⮚ The value of load at which the relay is on the verge of

operation is known as the loadability limit of the relay.

Fig. Effect of overload on mho and

quadrilateral distance relay characteristics

46
 Effect of Overload Condition
⮚ The loadability limit of the quadrilateral distance relay
(point B) is significantly greater than that of a mho
distance relay (point B).

⮚ Quadrilateral characteristic of distance relay is commonly

used for transmission line protection because of its ability
to accommodate the predetermined arc resistance while
maintaining sufficient margin from the load region.

Effect of overload on mho and

quadrilateral distance relay
characteristics

47
Thank You

48
 Carrier Aided Schemes for Transmission Lines
⮚ Owing to installation of compensation devices, distribution reforms and
deregulated environment, modern power systems closely operate near to
their stability limits.

⮚ Hence, fault clearing time becomes more and more important.

⮚ Failure to comply the said requirements may result into instability of the
system and in the worst case, it may lead to the shutdown of the larger
parts of the network or complete blackout.

1
 Introduction
Transmission Line Protection

Current based Scheme Distance Relaying Pilot Protection

⮚ Current based protection scheme cannot be used as it does not provide

instantaneous operation throughout the entire length.
⮚ Moreover, it also suffers with the problem of transient overreach.

⮚ Distance protection, which is free from communication channel, is the

most widely used form of protection for EHV and UHV lines. However,
they have several limitations.
2
 Introduction
Middle Portion
⮚ As 80–90% of the faults on long
A BB
Covered by R1 & R2 R1 (II)
In Zone - 1
overhead lines are SLG faults, all UHV R1 (I)
and EHV lines protection devices are
equipped with single-pole tripping
facility.
⮚ As 85% of the faults are transient in R1 R2

nature, most protective devices have an R2 (II) R2 (I)

auto-reclosing feature.
Section Not Section Not
Covered by Covered by
Zone-1 of R2 Zone-1 of R1

3
Basic Block Diagram of Pilot Protection system

A B

R1 R2

Communication
Channel Communication
Communication
Equipment Equipment

4
Basic Block Diagram of Pilot Protection system

1. CTs, PTs
2. Signal conditioning block
3. CC, SG, modem etc;

Equipment that are used for

transmission of data in the
form of Text, Voice or
Binary

5
 Types of Pilot Communications
⮚ The transmission of information via pilot can be achieved by several ways.
However, the exact method of utilizing the pilot signals depends on many
factors.
Pilot Communication Based Pilot Communication Based on
on Signal Frequency
(a)Continuous signal (a) Direct current
(b)Discrete signal (b) Power frequency
(c) Audio frequency
(d) Power line carrier frequency
(e) Radio frequency
(f) Microwave frequency
(g) Fibre optics

6
 Pilot Communication Based on Signal
⮚ Continuous (analog) signal: Here, all the information such as amplitude of
a quantity, system frequency, phase shift, and width of the pulse of
infinite number of levels are considered at regular intervals between
specified minimum and maximum levels.

⮚ Discrete (digital) signal: Here, all the information of a limited number of

levels is passed in digital form. The communication of information in
digital form offers high channel density. Moreover, one can connect
different types of devices through programming using digital signals.

7
 Pilot Communication Based on Frequency
⮚ Direct Current: Certain older types of protection schemes use this type of
pilot signal for transmission. However, it is almost obsolete.

⮚ Power frequency: In order to use a power system fundamental frequency

for transmission, a pair of pilot wires is connected across the secondary of
the CT, on both ends of the line. This arrangement is widely known as pilot
wire relaying scheme.

⮚ Audio frequency: The normal audio frequency range is 0.02–20 kHz. In this
scheme, tone generators and receivers are used to transmit and receive
the audio frequency carrier. However, this scheme has also become
obsolete.
8
 Pilot Communication Based on Frequency
⮚ Power line carrier frequency:
⮚ The normal range of power line carrier frequency is 30–600 kHz.
⮚ Relaying signal is modulated and transmitted to the other end of the
transmission line.
⮚ A coupling capacitor is used to couple high frequency carrier signals with
the power system fundamental frequency of the high voltage conductors
of the line.
⮚ The problem of induced voltage is negligible as the frequency of the
carrier is much higher than the power system frequency.
⮚ Though the primary goal of this scheme is protection, it can also be used
for telecommunication, data transfer, and signalling purposes.

9
 Pilot Communication Based on Frequency
⮚ Radio frequency: The normal frequency range of this medium (10 kHz–0.1
GHz) is between the audio frequency and the infrared frequency regions.
⮚ In order to use radio frequency (RF) as a carrier, the utility has to acquire a
license for that region of the radio spectrum.
⮚ However, this medium is not used because of maloperation of the pilot
protection scheme due to interference with other frequency bands.

⮚ Microwave frequency: It has the frequency range 0.3–3 GHz.

⮚ As the electromagnetic wave propagates in a straight line, this medium is free
from refraction by the ionosphere and has little interference from lightning.
⮚ Furthermore, as its bandwidth is much wider than that of the carrier channel,
it can carry more information.

10
 Pilot Communication Based on Frequency
⮚ Fibre optics:
⮚ The wavelength of a signal in a fibre optic link is about 0.85–1.6 μm.
⮚ As the frequency of a signal in a fibre optic link is much higher than that of
the microwave signal, the communication capacity of a fibre optic link is
very high.
⮚ Moreover, a fibre optic link is immune to electromagnetic interference
because of its insulating property.
⮚ Furthermore, it is free from induced voltage.
⮚ In addition, there is no need for repeaters to transmit information from
one end to the other end of long EHV/UHV transmission lines.

11
 Wire Pilot Relaying Scheme
A B

⮚ In pre-fault/normal conditions, the CT

secondary current flows through the
restraining coil (RC) of each current
balance relay, whereas no current is
present in the operating coil (OC).
Summing transformer

⮚ Conversely, in case of a fault on the line,

the CT secondary current for the far end
CT reverses, and hence, the current will OC Pilot wires OC

flow through the OC of both relays. RC RC

Current balance relay

12
 Limitations of wire pilot relaying scheme
(1) It can be applied only to short transmission lines because of the high cost of
installation.

(2) Sensitivity of this scheme is reduced because of the charging current between the
pilot wires.

(3) This scheme requires special tuning to optimize signal transmission.

(4) It suffers from the problem of induced voltage from parallel power transmission
lines.

(5) Difference in ground potentials between the two ends causes connection
problems in the metallic link.

13
 Carrier Current Protection Scheme
⮚ The pilot wire relaying scheme is economical for short transmission lines only (15–
20 km).

⮚ Hence, for long transmission lines, the carrier current relaying scheme is used.

⮚ Moreover, this scheme is also used to achieve simultaneous tripping at both ends
of the transmission line.

⮚ In this scheme, a carrier signal is used either to initiate the tripping or to block the
operation of the relay.

14
 Carrier Current Protection Scheme
⮚ When the carrier signal is used to initiate the tripping of the relay, it is known as
carrier tripping scheme.

⮚ On the other hand, when the carrier signal is used to block the tripping of the
relay, it is known as carrier blocking scheme.

⮚ The carrier current protection scheme can be classified as follows:

(1) Phase comparison scheme

(2) Directional comparison scheme

15
 Phase comparison scheme
⮚ The phase comparison scheme compares the phase angle between currents at the
two ends of a line (current entering at one end and current leaving the other end).

⮚ During normal condition or out-of-zone (external) fault condition, the two

currents are out of phase, and hence, the phase difference between them is 180⁰.

⮚ Conversely, in case of in-zone (internal) fault, the two currents are in phase, and
the phase difference between them is 0⁰.

16
 Phase comparison scheme
A B
Wave trap
C D

F1 F2
Coupling
capacitor
Sequence RF Spark Sequence
network choke gaps network

Square wave & Square wave &

amplifier amplifier

Fault detectors Fault detectors

FD1 FD2 Communication FD2 FD1

channel
Transmitter Transmitter

Receiver Receiver

Decision Trip command Trip command

logic to to
Arming block breaker C breaker D Arming

17
 Phase comparison scheme
⮚ Coupling capacitors: Used to couple the carrier equipment to the high voltage
transmission line. They offer a low impedance path to the high frequency carrier
signal but a high impedance path to the 50 Hz power frequency signal.

⮚ Wave trap: It is a parallel tuned circuit. It offers low impedance to the power
frequency signal but high impedance to the carrier frequency signal. Thus, the
signal is trapped between the ends of the line.

⮚ There are several methods to couple the carrier frequency signal to one or more
of the conductors of the transmission line. The simplest method is single-phase
coupling, which uses one phase of the power line with ground as the return path.
It requires fewer coupling capacitors and wave traps.

18
 Phase comparison scheme
⮚ Spark gaps: Used to provide protection to the coupling equipment against
overvoltage.
⮚ Transmitter: It contains an oscillator block, which generates a high frequency
carrier signal. It also contains an amplifier block, which amplifies the signal.

⮚ Receiver: It contains an attenuator block, a matching element, and a filtering

circuit.

⮚ Square wave amplifier: It converts and amplifies the single-phase voltage to a

square wave.

19
 Phase comparison scheme
⮚ Fault Detectors (FDs): Two overcurrent fault detectors, namely FD1 and FD2, are
used.

⮚ The pickup setting of FD1 is low, and is used to start the carrier. It is more sensitive
than FD2 and must be set on the basis of the maximum load on the line.

⮚ FD2 is a high set relay. It waits for the comparison of the transmitted signal and
then arms the tripping circuit. The usual setting of FD2 is 125–200% of FD1.

20
 Phase comparison scheme

⮚ A scheme in which the signal is transmitted on the positive half of the square wave
and no signal is transmitted on the negative half of the square wave is known as
single-phase comparison scheme.

⮚ A decision logic block (either flip-flop or comparator) at each end compares the
received signal with the transmitted signal.

⮚ Let us assume that this scheme works on the blocking principle.

21
Phase comparison scheme
⮚ During an internal fault at F1, both
overcurrent fault detectors operate as
the current exceeds their pickup
settings.
⮚ They issue a local input signal to the
decision logic block.
⮚ As the square wave input from the
local end and the receiver input to the
decision logic block are in phase, the
trip signal is initiated as both signals
are present.

22
 Phase comparison scheme
⮚ For an external fault at F2, the phase
of the receiver input to the decision
logic block is out of phase with the
local input square wave.
⮚ As the signal is transmitted from the
far end (bus B) to the local end (bus
A), the receipt of a carrier signal
from the channel prevents tripping.
⮚ It is to be noted that the local
square wave is used to turn the
carrier signal on and off.

23
 Phase comparison scheme
⮚ Since a single-phase comparison scheme transmits the signal
only during the positive half cycle, there is a delay of one half
cycle in tripping.

⮚ A remedy is to use a dual phase comparison scheme, which

transmits the signal on both halves of the square wave.
Therefore, it issues a trip signal on each half cycle.

24
 Directional Comparison Scheme
⮚ In this scheme, the direction of power flow at the local and far ends of the line is
compared.

⮚ In case of an internal fault, the direction of the power flow reverses, which
initiates the tripping signal.

⮚ During an external fault, the direction of power flow is outwards, and hence, no
tripping is initiated.

25
Blocking and Unblocking Carrier Aided Distance Scheme
⮚ When a carrier signal is used to block the tripping of relays, the scheme is known
as carrier blocking scheme.

⮚ In this scheme, the relays located at each end monitor the region within as well as
behind the protected line.

⮚ A blocking signal is to be sent for any fault behind the relay at either end of the
line and tripping is prevented.

26
 Carrier Blocking Scheme
⮚ Both distance relays (R1 and R2) are
set to overreach the remote
terminals.

⮚ They are set to 120–150% of the

protected line length so that they will
operate for all in-zone (internal)
faults.

⮚ Moreover, reverse looking relays

(RLRs) are also used at each end to
provide blocking signals for all
external (out of zone) faults occurring
on either side of the bus (between AB
and CD).

27
 Carrier Blocking Scheme
⮚ During an internal fault at any point within
the zone of the line (say F1), both distance
elements (R1 and R2) at each end operate
instantaneously.

⮚ It is to be noted that no signal transmission

takes place since there is no fault in the
regions of the reverse looking relay at each
side (RLRA and RLRB).

⮚ Therefore, the contacts of the receiver relay

(RR1-1, RR2-1) at both ends remain in closed
condition.

28
 Carrier Blocking Scheme
⮚ During an external fault beyond the bus B
(say F2), the distance relay R2 at bus B will
not operate.

⮚ However, the reverse looking relay RLRB at

bus B picks up and sends a blocking signal at
bus A.

⮚ As the blocking signal is present at bus A,

even after the operation of relay R1 at bus A,
the CB will not trip due to opening of RR1-1
contact.

⮚ The CB will trip only when the blocking signal

is not available (as in this situation, it sees
the fault in the first zone).
29
 Control circuit of Carrier Blocking Scheme
⮚ Note: The blocking signal must be received at
each end before the local distance element
operates for faults at F2 or F3.

⮚ In the field, the normal practice is to use a

timer that provides a time delay to ensure
that no unwanted tripping would occur for a
fault on the adjoining line on each side of the
bus.

30
 Disadvantage of Carrier Blocking Scheme
⮚ There is a possibility of maloperation in case of failure of carrier signal, relay, or
communication equipment.

⮚ During an internal fault, there is a possibility of prevention or attenuation of the carrier

signal so that a trip signal would not be received.

31
 Carrier Aided Transfer Tripping scheme
⮚ Transfer tripping scheme is a viable scheme, particularly when
the communication channel is independent of the power line.

⮚ Tripping schemes are more advantageous than blocking

schemes because of the following reasons:

⮚ In the tripping scheme, there is no need to use an additional

time delay or coordination time, which is mandatory for the
blocking scheme to avoid maltrip during external faults.

32
 Carrier Aided Transfer Tripping scheme
⮚ The setting of the blocking relay is lower than that of the
tripping relay.
⮚ There is a possibility of maloperation of the blocking relay in
case of heavy loading or highly unbalanced condition

⮚ Transfer tripping principle can be achieved in two ways.

(1) Underreach transfer tripping scheme

(2) Overreach transfer tripping scheme

33
Under-reach Transfer Tripping scheme
Zone 1 of both relays, R1 and
R2, is set to reach only the
original 80% of the total line
length.

In case of a fault within the first

zone of both relays (say at F1),
they, along with the fault
detectors (FD1 and FD2),
operate instantaneously and trip
the respective breaker at each
end.

34
Under-reach Transfer Tripping scheme
In the case of a fault in the remaining
20% of the line section on each side
(say at F2), the distance relay R2
operates instantaneously, and at the
same time, sends a transfer tripping
carrier signal at bus A.

The relay R2 shifts the transmitted

signal from the guard frequency to
the trip frequency.

Instantaneous tripping is initiated at

bus A after the closure of the guard
relay contact and the receiver relay
contact (RR1-1).

35
Under-reach Transfer Tripping scheme

36
Under-reach Transfer Tripping scheme
Here, the incoming carrier signal is used
to trip the breaker directly, and hence, this
scheme is known as Direct Underreach
Transfer Tripping (DUTT) Scheme.

Disadvantages
1. It may mal-operate due to inadvertent
closing of the receiver relay’s contact.
This can happen during maintenance
or calibration, or because of the noise
initiated by switching in the substation
or transients during relay operations.
2. As this scheme requires phase
selection at each end, it cannot be
used when single-phase auto-
reclosing is involved.

37
Under-reach Transfer Tripping scheme
Remedy:
Use DUTT scheme with dual transmitter–
receiver sets.

However, the dependability of this solution

is limited since there are twice as many
components involved.

Moreover, it is also costlier than the

conventional direct underreach transfer
tripping scheme

38
Permissive Inter-Tripping or Permissive Underreach Transfer Tripping Scheme
As discussed earlier, the remote
end receiver relay (RR) operates
as and when it receives tripping
carrier signal and instantly trips
the associated CB directly for
fault in the remaining 20% of the
line section on each side.

However, to avoid maloperation

due to noise and to ensure the
actual internal fault on line
section, a permissive underreach
transfer tripping scheme is used.

39
Permissive Inter-Tripping or Permissive Underreach Transfer Tripping Scheme
In this scheme, the received carrier
signal from the far end is utilized to
trip the breaker after conforming that
the local fault detector unit is
operated.

Thus contact of local fault detector

(FD1-1) and receiver relay contact
(RR1-1) are connected in series with
the auxiliary trip coil of CB (86).

Here, no purposeful time delay is

added in breaker operation at each
end; hence, associated line breakers
are tripped within same time for fault
within first zone or in the remaining
20% of the line section.
40
 Disadvantageous of Carrier Un-blocking Scheme
⮚ The prime limitation of direct underreach transfer tripping scheme is its maloperation due to inadvertent
closing of the receiver relay’s contact. This can happen during maintenance or calibration, or because of the
noise initiated by switching in the substation or transients during relay operations.

⮚ As this scheme requires phase selection at each end, it cannot be used when single-phase auto-reclosing is
involved.

Remedy-1:- Remedy-2:-
⮚ The remedy is to use the direct underreach ⮚ Another remedy is to use permissive underreach
transfer tripping scheme with dual transmitter– transfer tripping scheme.
receiver sets. ⮚ In this scheme, the received carrier signal from the
⮚ However, the dependability of this solution is far end is utilized to trip the breaker after ensuring
limited since there are twice as many components that the fault detector unit is operated.
involved. ⮚ The coordination between the received carrier
⮚ Moreover, it is also costlier than the conventional signal from the far end and the local fault detector
direct underreach transfer tripping scheme. unit avoids maloperation due to noise on the line.

41
Over-reach Transfer Tripping scheme
During an internal fault at any point
within the protected line section
(say F1), both relays R1 and R2
operate instantaneously as they
sense this fault in their first zone.

At the same time, they also send a

carrier signal to the far end, which
closes the contact of the receiver
relay to trip the CB at each end.

42
Over-reach Transfer Tripping scheme

In case of an external fault on either

side of bus B or bus A (say F2),
relay R1 operates in its first zone
and sends a carrier signal at bus B
to close the contact of receiver
relay RR2.

43
Over-reach Transfer Tripping scheme

However, no tripping is initiated at

bus B as relay R2 does not operate.
Since relay R2 does not operate at
bus B, no carrier signal is
transmitted to bus A.

Therefore, tripping is prevented at

bus A even though the local fault
detector unit operates.

44
Over-reach Transfer Tripping scheme

45
Dis-advantages of Over-reach Transfer Tripping scheme

⮚ High speed tripping in the overreach transfer tripping

scheme is entirely dependent on the pilot channel. Failure
of this pilot channel will lead to non-isolation of the fault.

⮚ If Power Line Carrier (PLC) is used as a pilot channel, then it

is difficult to send a signal in case of a fault.

46
Thank You

47
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR
PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

Dr. BHAVESHKUMAR BHALJA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
 Introduction
Faults in transformer can be categorized by:
1.Incipient faults
2.Internal faults
3.External faults
1. Incipient Faults
They are also known as minor faults and do not affect
the transformer immediately. However, if they are
allowed to persist for a longer period of time then they
can transfer into internal faults within the transformer.
2
 Reasons for Occurrence of Incipient Faults
a) Leakage of Oil
 Due to leakage of oil in transformer tank, oil level will
drop and in the worst case connections to bushings
and parts of winding will get exposed to air.
 This increases winding temperature which in turn
damage the insulation of the winding.
 Oil level indicator is used in conservator tank to detect
this abnormalities.

3
 Reasons for Occurrence of Incipient Faults
b) Deterioration of oil level
 As load changes, temperature of oil changes which
affects the oil level. Usually, oil tank is completely filled
whereas conservator tank is half filled. The unfilled
portion is kept to allow changes of oil level.
 The conservator tank extracts air via breather so that
moister cannot enter into the oil as otherwise dielectric
strength of oil gets deteriorated. The breather contains
oil cup and silica gel. The moisture is absorbed at two
stages 1st in oil cup and 2nd in silica gel.
4
 Reasons for Occurrence of Incipient Faults
c) Failure of cooling system
 Oil and winding temperature will increase due to
failure of cooling system. It may happen due to failure
of oil pump, failure of fan or radiator blockage.
 Oil temperature indicator and winding temperature
indicator is used to detect these situations.

5
 Reasons for Occurrence of Incipient Faults
d) Inter-turn fault
Shorting of few turns of one of the winding cannot be
detected by relays. This can increase winding
temperature due to local overheating. In the worst
case, this can transfer into major fault.

6
 Reasons for Occurrence of Incipient Faults
How to detect Incipient Faults?
Incipient faults can create a heat which decomposes
the oil into gases which are inflammable in nature. This
condition is detected by gas operated relays.

7
 Gas Operated Relay
 Buchholz Relays
 This type of relay is used only in those transformers
which contain conservator tank as it is connected in a
pipe that is between the main tank and the conservator
tank.
 It consists of an oil-tight container having two internal
floats. These floats operate and actuate mercury
switches which in turn gives alarm or tripping. The relay
is full of oil and the floats remain engaged in seats due
to buoyancy.
8
 Buchholz Relays
 Working of Buchholz Relays:
• During incipient fault, gas is generated in the form of
small bubbles and pass upwards through the relay to the
conservator tank. In this process, they become trapped in
the housing of the relay and the oil level falls.
• The upper float is no longer under the upward thrust of
oil. Hence, it falls down and tilts the mercury switch
which in turn shorts the two contacts.
• This issues an alarm indicating that a serious fault is
slowly developing.
9
Buchholz Relays

10
 Buchholz Relays
• In case of serious fault in the transformer, the gas
generation is in much larger quantity.
• The oil is displaced in the relay by the gases towards
the conservator tank.
• Due to this, the baffle plate is deflected by the force of
oil and gas mixture tilts the lower float and finally the
mercury switch.
• This will energise the trip coil of breaker and the
breaker isolates the transformer from the supply.
11
 Buchholz Relays
 Drawbacks of Buchholz Relays:
• The vibration and shocks caused by some reasons
may mal-operate the relay.
• Minimum operating time is 0.1 sec which is
considered slow.
• It is limited to applications for protection against
incipient faults and non-electrical faults.

12
 2. Internal Faults in Transformer
1. Overcurrent Protection LV HV

 When cost of differential relays

are not justified (small
transformers), overcurrent
protection is used in transformer
for protection against short
circuit.
 Overcurrent relays are usually
used to provide back-up
protection in transformers.

13
 Internal Faults in Transformer
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection

• The HV side of Δ-Y x’mer is normally Y connected and the

LV side is Δ connected. The Vph of a Y connected HV
winding is reduced to 0.707 times and per phase current
carried out by LV winding is reduced to 0.707 times.

14
 Internal Faults in Transformer
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection

• If the neutral of the star connected HV winding is isolated

or grounded through high impedance (non effectively
earthed), the voltage of healthy phases increases.
• The voltage will be equal to line voltage in case of an
isolated neutral and 80% of line voltage in case of high
impedance grounding depending upon value of
impedance.
15
 Internal Faults in Transformer
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection
• This voltage rise is not limited to the insulation of a
transformer only but also affected line insulators of lines
emanating from a substation. The cost of insulation is
very high to cope up with this higher voltage stress.
• The solidly grounded system do not suffer from this
disadvantage. However, the magnitude of earth fault
current will be very high. However, considering
economics, HV systems are normally solidly (effectively)
grounded.
16
 Internal Faults in Transformer
2. Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection
 Necessity
 In case of earth fault on star side of delta-star
transformer, zero-sequence current is not reflected
on delta side.
 Therefore, differential protection is less sensitive for
such faults and hence, separate earth fault
protection is required.

17
 Internal Faults in Transformer
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection (External fault)
 During an external
fault, the fault
current circulates in
the pilot wires and
no current flows
through the relay.
 Hence, relay does
not operate.

18
 Internal Faults in Transformer
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection (Internal fault)
 During an internal fault,
the fault current flows
through the neutral CT
and not through the line
CTs.
 Therefore, CT secondary
current flows through
the relay and relay
operates if it exceeds
pick-up value.
19
 Internal Faults in Transformer
3. Differential Protection
• The volt-ampere on either
side of the transformer is CT1 CT2

equal. Thus, if CTs on either

side are properly chosen, Transformer

the difference in current

will be almost zero. Differential

• The CTs on either side are relay

collected to form a
circulating current system.
20
 I. Circulating Current Differential Protection
 The currents entering
and leaving the
equipment to be
protected are compared.
 If these currents are not
equal, the current equal
to difference of the two
currents flows through
third branch (F2), which
signifies a fault.

21
 I. Circulating Current Differential Protection
 Working
• If there is no internal fault, i.e. normal load or external fault (F1)
condition, both currents I1 and I2 and therefore instantaneous
values of CT secondary currents i1 and i2 will be same in
magnitude and phase relation.
• In an internal fault condition (F2), the balance of the currents I1
and I2 is disturbed i.e. I1≠I2. Hence i1≠i2 and the differential
current (i1-i2) will flow through the relay.
• If this current is higher than relay pick-up, the relay will operate
isolating the transformer from the system.

22
 Problems in Circulating Current Differential Protection
 Polarity of CTs
• The polarity of CT is very important in differential
protection, because otherwise sum of two currents (i1 +
i2) will flow through the relay (mal-operation).

23
 Problems in Circulating Current Differential Protection
 Unequal Lead Length du to Location of CTs and Relays:
• Protected equipment and CTs are located in the
switchyard (transformer and busbar). The relay is
installed in the control room.
• The control wiring is required to be done. These wires
are known as pilot wires and the currents i1 and i2 are
known as circulating pilot currents.
• The voltage drop on each side of CT is unequal. Hence,
spill current flows through the relay.

24
 Problems in Circulating Current Differential Protection
 Non-identical CT Saturation Characteristics:
• In practice, the characteristics of two CTs never coincide
exactly even if they are purchased from the same
supplier. This may cause spill current through relay even
when primary currents are equal (no internal fault). If
this spill current exceeds pick-up of the relay, an
undesirable operation may occur.
• This spill current is especially large for a heavy external
(through) fault.
• Remedy is to use biased differential protection scheme.
25
II. Biased or Percentage Differential Protection

26
 II. Biased or Percentage Differential Protection
 Working
• This scheme has two coils. (i) restraining/bias coil, which
restrains the operation of the relay. (ii) operating coil,
which produces operating torque for the relay.
• The operating coil is connected at the midpoint of the
restraining coil.
• If the restraining coil has N turns, both currents (i1 and i2)
flows through half turns (N/2). Hence the average
restraining current will be equal to (i1+i2)/2.
27
 II. Biased or Percentage Differential Protection
 Relay Settings:
• The relay has two type of settings.
• (i) Basic or sensitivity setting: It is the value of the
operating coil current above which the relay can operate.
It is often termed as percentage of rated current of a
relay.
• (ii) Bias setting: It is defined as the ratio of minimum
current through operating coil for causing operation to
the average restraining current. %bias = i1 − i2 ×100
(i1 + i2 ) / 2
28
 II. Biased or Percentage Differential Protection
• If the pick-up ratio (i1-i2)/ 3.0

Differential current (i1-i2) (p.u.)

((i1+i2)/2) is more than pre-set
% bias and if the current(i1-i2) Operate
2.0
exceeds basic setting, the relay
operates.
• In case of external faults, there 1.0
Non-operate
can be high spill current (i1-i2).
But (i1+i2)/2 will also be high 0.2
reducing the pick-up ratio 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
below the bias setting, making Through bias current (i1+i2)/2 (p.u.)

the relay stable.

29
 Factors to be considered for Transformer Protection
a) Line current transformer primary rating
• The transformer voltage and current rating is different
for primary and secondary.
• Therefore primary rating of the CTs used in primary and
secondary side are different, whereas the secondary
current can be of the same level.
• However, CTs have some standard primary and
secondary current ratings.
(50/100/150/200/250/300/350/400 etc)
30
 Factors to be considered for Transformer Protection
a) Line current transformer primary rating
• A CT with either the rated current or more than that is
chosen. Owing to this fact, there is a mismatch in the
secondary current. In the differential protection
scheme, this mismatch is to be taken care of and the
relay should not operate for this unbalanced current.
• For example, for a 100 MVA, 220 kV/132 kV, delta/star
transformer, the CTs chosen will have the ratio of 300/1
A and 450/1 A.
31
 Factors to be considered for Transformer Protection
(b) No load current of the transformer
I P = K × IS + I0
• CT ratios are selected based on nominal
transformation ratio hence some spill current will
always flow through the relay because of no load
current component.
• No-load current is of the order of 1-2% of the rated
current and the basic setting of the relay can take
care of this component.
32
 Factors to be considered for Transformer Protection
(c) Inherent phase shift of currents in transformer
• The primary and secondary currents are not in phase in
three-phase transformer connected in delta-star.
• It is evident that current IR and Ir are in phase because
two windings are mounted on same limb.

33
(c) Inherent phase shift of currents in transformer

Line currents are given by:

I RL = I R − I B
I YL = I Y − I R
I BL = I B − I Y

It is clear form this vector

diagram that secondary line
current Ir leads the primary
line current IRL by 30°.
34
(c) CT connections to cover phase shift in transformer
• The CT connection should be made in such a way
that it compensates the phase differences
between the line currents on each side of the
power transformer.
• Differential current should be same (magnitude
as well as phase wise).

35
(c) Remedy to cover phase shift in transformer
• The CTs on the star side of the transformer are
connected in delta, whereas on the delta side of the
transformer, they are connected in star.
• Moreover, this will eliminate the zero-sequence current
on the star side while the zero sequence component on
the delta side will not produce current outside the delta.
• The CTs on both sides would need to be connected in
delta if the transformer were connected star/star.
36
Differential Protection

Biased
differential
Relay

37
Differential Protection

38
(d) Bias to cover tap changing facility and CT
mismatch
• In most of the cases, tap changing transformers
are used, and thus, the CTs can be chosen on the
basis of a fixed tap (nominal tap).
• Transformer operation on any tap other than this
will result in mismatch of CT secondary current.

39
(d) Bias to cover tap changing facility and CT mismatch
• This mismatch of current will be over and above the
mismatch due to the use of standard ratio CTs.
• This unbalanced current may be sufficient to cause
the differential relay to operate. In practice, the
mean tap is taken as the nominal tap.
• A biased differential relay may avoid unwanted
operation of the relay under such circumstances.

40
 (e) Interposing CTs (ICTs) to compensate mismatch of line
CTs
• Ideally, differential current should be zero.
• However, it is not equal due to mis-match in CT ratio. If
this gap is not much, the bias can take care of this and the
relay remains stable against this mismatch.
• However, the situation is more serious once the gap in the
two currents is more either because of the standard CT
ratios or because of the tap changing transformer.

41
 (e) Interposing CTs to compensate mismatch of line CTs
• For the tap changing transformer, the CTs are selected on
the basis of the nominal tap, which is generally a central tap.
• For any other tap position, the CT mismatch will be more.
To address this, the bias should be either dynamically
changed on the basis of the operating tap or set
corresponding to the worst case scenario.
• The higher bias will adversely affect the relay sensitivity of
the transformer operation at other taps.
42
(e) Interposing CTs to compensate mismatch of line CTs
• Interposing CTs are used to match the relay currents
under through-load conditions corresponding to the
ratings of the transformer.
• For a tap changing transformer, this is achieved
corresponding to the nominal tap. For any other tap
position, the bias can take care of CT mismatch.

43
(f) Magnetising Inrush
• Magnetizing inrush is a condition when the transformer
draws a very large current from the supply while the
load current is either zero or of nominal magnitude.

44
(f) Magnetising Inrush
• This flux is symmetrical or asymmetrical in nature which depends
on switching instant of a voltage signal given to the primary
winding of a transformer.
• If switching of a transformer is carried out at the instant when
the voltage wave is at its peak value, then the flux is symmetrical
in nature and is given by

• where, ∅maxis the maximum value of steady state flux in the core
of a transformer and ∅R is the residual flux present in the core of
the transformer.
45
(f) Magnetising Inrush
• In this situation, the B-H curve operates in the linear region.
Hence, the magnitude of magnetizing inrush current is
restricted to a normal value.
• Since the flux is directly proportional to the current causing it,
magnetizing inrush results in a large flux/flux density in the
core with the objective of keeping the core volume minimal.
Transformers are designed to operate just below the knee
region of the B–H curve of the core material. During normal
operation, the flux is within the linear region of the B–H
curve.
46
Symmetrical FluxMagnetic flux in steady state Hysteresis
Flux

time Current

Voltage

time
time

47
(f) Magnetising Inrush
• Conversely, if the switching of a transformer is done at
an instant when voltage wave is passing through zero,
then the flux is asymmetrical in nature and it is given by,

• In this condition, upper point of B-H curve gets

elongated (it does not remain in linear region). Hence, in
order to produce the same amount of flux, the
magnitude of current becomes very high.
48
 Differential Protection
Flux

Asymmetric Hysteresis
al
magnetic
time current
flux

Some problems caused by inrush currents:

• Damage to the transformer
• False operation of transformer protections Inrush Current
• Adverse effects on power quality
• Direct current problems time
49
(f) Magnetising Inrush
• During magnetizing inrush, a large flux results in
saturation of the transformer core.
• Thus, the flux waveform will be asymmetrical with
respect to the time axis and will contain a DC value.
• The nature and magnitude of the inrush current will
be decided by the direction and magnitude of the
residual magnetization flux in the core and switching
instant.
50
e) How to detect Magnetising Inrush? (it is not a fault)
• On harmonics analysis, it is found that this flux consists
of a significant amount of second and odd harmonics.
Name of Component Percentage of Fundamental Component
DC Component 55
2nd Harmonic 63
3rd Harmonic 26.8
4th Harmonic 5.1
5th Harmonic 4.1
6th Harmonic 3.7
7th Harmonic 2.4

51
e) Magnetising Inrush
• Conventionally, during energization, current-magnitude-
based protective relays are blocked for the initial few
cycles till the input current settles down around the rated
current. Several solutions are as follows:
I. Harmonic restraint
II. Harmonic blocking
III. Resonance blocking
IV. DC bias
V. Wave-shape monitoring
52
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR
PROTECTION OF GENERATORS-I

Dr. BHAVESHKUMAR BHALJA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
 Introduction

• A generator is the heart of an electrical power system, as it

converts mechanical energy into its electrical equivalent,
which is further distributed at various voltages.

• The capacity of generators has increased in recent times from

50 MW to 500 MW, with the result that the loss of any single
unit may cause system instability.

2
 Introduction
• The generator is the most expensive electrical equipment in a
power plant. Hence, its protection requires more
consideration, to reduce the outage period by rapid clearance
of faults.
• A modern generating unit is a complex system comprising the
generator stator winding, associated transformer, rotor with
its field winding and excitation system, and prime mover with
its associated auxiliaries.

3
 Importance of Generator Protection

 Complex systems

 Subjected to hazardous
operating condition.

 Possibility of different fault

like electrical, mechanical,
grid and excitation system
side.

4
 Consequences of Fault in the Generator
 Insulation, windings and stator core can be damaged.
 Large forces, caused by large fault currents, can give damage to other
components in the plant.
 Risk of explosion and fire.
 Mechanical stress on generator and turbine shafts.
 Huge revenue losses due to outage of generator.
 Damages on the stator iron.
 Increased voltage on “healthy phase”.

5
Faults and Abnormal Conditions in Generator

6
 Use of IEEE Standards
Standard Title Applicability
IEEE Guide for AC Generator Ground For designing ground fault
C37.101 protection scheme.
Protection.
For protection scheme against
C37.102 IEEE Guide for Generator Protection. stator and rotor fault.

IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency For protection against off-

C37.106 nominal frequency operation.
Protection for Power Generation.

The above standards are created/maintained by the IEEE PSRC & IAS.
The said standards are updated every 5 years.

7
 Types of Protection in Generator

• Differential protection
• Stator ground fault protection
• Rotor earth fault protection
• Field winding protection
• Stator winding turn-to-turn fault protection,
• out-of-step protection,
• loss-of-excitation protection.

8
 Differential Protection (stator faults)

• The breakdown (BD) of insulation may result in a fault b/w

conductors and b/w conductor and iron core. The BD may be
caused by O/V OR by O/H which in turn can be caused by O/L,
unbalanced currents, ventilation troubles OR failure of the
cooling system. It may also be caused by damage to the
insulation by conductor movement due to forces exerted by
s/ck or out of step conditions.

9
 Differential Protection (stator faults)

• Short-circuit currents cause by these faults can cause

enormous damage to the generator winding and core. Hence,
these faults should be cleared by high-speed differential
relays.
• Faults b/w conductors can be repaired by re-taping or
replacing the conductor. However, faults b/w conductor and
the iron laminations are a serious because the arc may sinter
the laminations, which may necessitate rebuilding of the core.

10
 Differential Protection (stator faults)

• Differential protection covers all types of phase–phase and

phase-to-ground faults.

• Protection against the stator phase faults is normally covered

by a high-speed differential relay covering the three phases
separately.

• Applied to generators with ratings more than 1 MVA.

11
 Why Generator Differential Protection?
• Used for protection against phase faults (not ground faults).

• Phase faults occur due to breakdown of insulation between

conductors (O/V OR O/H due to short-circuits).

• Magnitude of current is very large. Hence, to avoid damage to

winding and core, phase faults are cleared by high speed
differential relays.

12
Requirements Generator Differential Protection
• Polarity of CTs
• Identical CT Saturation
Characteristics.
• Relay coil should be connected at
equipotential point (A and B).
• Equal lead lengths on both sides of
the CTs.

13
Circulating Current/Mertz-Price Differential Protection
CT1 IA1 Generator I CT2
Neutral of the A2 R Terminals of the
Generator
Generator
Y F

Earthing B
Resistances ia1 ia2
Main
Circuit
Breaker
Id =ia1- ia2

Relay coil

14
Circulating Current/Mertz-Price Differential Protection
• If the CTs are identical in nature, then the functioning of the
differential relay is straightforward.
• However, in practice, it is impossible to achieve CTs with
identical saturation characteristic.
• Hence, the secondary currents of the CTs are unequal even
though the primary currents are the same.
• This current is widely known as spill current. This spill current
passes through the relay and may mal-operate the relay if its
value exceeds the setting of the relay.

15
Circulating Current/Mertz-Price Differential Protection
• Moreover, if the length of the connecting wires (also known as
pilot wires) is unequal, then the value of the spill current
increases.
• In order to avoid mal-operation of the differential relay in these
situations, two solutions are used.
I. A stabilizing resistance is connected in series with the relay.
II. Biased differential protection scheme
• However, incorporation of stabilizing resistance reduces the
sensitivity of the relay during an internal fault.
16
 High Impedance Differential Protection
Neutral of the
Generator Terminal of the
Generator

External fault
A (LLL)
RL= Lead Resistance
RCT= CT Resistance
RST= Stabilizing Resistance
IR
VR

B
17
 High Impedance Differential Protection
Voltage across the relay circuit is given by,
VR = IR × (RR + XR) = if × (RCT + RL)
Normally, LR is small and hence, XR <<< RR

VR = IR × RR =if × (RCT + RL)

IR = If × (RCT + RL)/(RR)

18
 High Impedance Differential Protection
(𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 )
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 ×
(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 )
The desired values of stabilising
resistance can be calculated using,
(𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 )
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑓 × - 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆
VR
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = - 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆
where 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 is pick-up of the relay.
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
RR is the relay burden =
(𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 )2
19
 High Impedance Differential Protection
The value of RStab can be considered as nearly 1/3 of the
calculated value, in practice.
The knee-point voltage (KPV) of a CT decides the working range
of the CT, and it should be high for higher saturation flux density.

The KPV of the CT is given by

VK ≥ 2VR
Stabilizing resistor RStab limits the spill current below the relay
setting.

20
 Important points about Rstab
 Addition of Rstab avoids unwanted operation of the relay due to unequal
lead lengths and non-identical CT saturation characteristics.

 However, it has following disadvantages.

 Addition of Rstab reduces sensitivity of the relay during internal faults.

 It creates high voltage across CT secondary during heavy through faults.

21
Actual AC and DC Circuit

22
 Biased Differential Protection
• The main drawback of Mertz-Price differential protection is
the reduction in sensitivity of the relay due to the
incorporation of the stabilizing resistance.
• Hence, to minimize this effect and also to increase the
sensitivity of the differential relay, biased/percentage
differential protection scheme is used.
• Figure shows the principle of the biased percentage
differential protection scheme where no additional stabilizing
resistance is connected in series with the relay..

23
 Biased Differential Protection
Neutral of the 𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼2
Generator
Terminals of the
Generator

𝑖𝑖2
𝑖𝑖1

Differential Relay

24
 Biased Differential Protection
• The biased percentage differential relay has two settings,
namely, basic setting and bias setting.
• Basic setting is the difference between two CT secondary
currents 𝑖𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑖2 .
• Bias setting is the ratio of the difference between two
secondary currents to the average values of those two
currents, that is.
𝑖𝑖1 −𝑖𝑖2
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑖𝑖1 +𝑖𝑖2 × 100
2

25
 Biased Differential Protection
The first slop gives
the basic setting of
the relay, and usually,
it is set to 5% of the
rated current.

26
 Biased Differential Protection
Bias setting is shown
in the second slop of
the characteristic,
which is set to 120%
of the rated current
with a slop of about
30%.

27
 Biased Differential Protection
The third slop is
designed considering
the mismatch between
two CTs (non-identical
CT saturation
characteristics of two
CTs), which is set to
about 70%.

28
 Protection against ground faults
• Why we need a separate protection against stator ground
faults?

29
 Protection against ground faults
• 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 9050 A.
• If e/f occurs at the terminal of the generator,
15.75 × 103
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
√3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛
15.75×103 2
𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 × 3 × 10−3 × ( 240 ) =4059 Ω
3
15.75 × 10
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = 2.24 𝐴𝐴
√3 × 4059
2.24
= 0.025% 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
9050
𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 will be still less if fault occurs at other locations. Hence,
a separate protection is required.
30
 Protection against ground faults
• Stator e/f protection.

• Fault between stator conductor and core.

• Fault current flows through arc, which is destructive in nature.

31
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Causes of stator earth fault
• It occurs due to failure of insulation between the conductor
and core.
• As the conductor is at a high voltage and the core being
earthed, the breakdown of insulation between the conductor
and core will result in an arc between the conductor and
core.
• This ground fault current having high temperature causes
failure of insulation between laminations and even sinter the
laminations.
32
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Consequences of stator earth fault
• This will result in increase of eddy current losses and damage
to a large portion of stator core.
• Repair of such a damage will take quite a long time (of the
order of a month) resulting in loss of revenue.
• If the earth-fault occurs near the terminal, the destruction
would be irreparable.
• Hence, stator ground faults are very destructive if the ground
fault current is large.
33
 Protection against ground faults
• The stator ground faults are very destructive if magnitude of
ground fault current is very large.

• Hence, for large generators, the ground fault current is limited

to a very low value such that the resultant arc is not intense.

• This is achieved by inserting a resistor/reactor (𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 ) in the

neutral circuit of the generator.

34
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding of generator
• Earth-fault current in the generator can be limited by an
impedance placed in the neutral circuit.
• It is found that to avoid the possibility of transient over-voltages
due to ferro-resonance, its value should not be higher than:
106
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = = 4246Ω
6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

C = Capacitance of the generator stator circuit to

earth/phase=0.25 μF and f = System frequency (50 Hz).
15.75 × 103
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 = = 2.14 𝐴𝐴
√3 × 4246

35
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding of generator
• The neutral of the generator is normally at zero potential
which may rise to very high voltage (12.85 kV peak for 15.75
kV rated generator) during an earth-fault.

• Hence a high Ohmic resistor (4246 Ω) with high voltage

rating (9086.44 V) is required which will be very costly.

36
 Protection against ground faults
Neutral potential increases from zero to
4246×2.14 =9086.44 V
(peak value 12.85 kV).

Hence, high ohmic resistor with high

voltage rating is required.

Now a days, utility uses resistance loaded

distribution transformers (NGT).

37
 Protection against ground faults
• The value of 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 will be
2402
𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 = 4246 × = 0.985 Ω
157502

The voltage rating of 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 is 240 V.

38
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding transformer (NGT)
• To avoid large magnetizing current
flow to NGT, the primary winding
voltage rating should be at least
1.5 times of generator rated phase
voltage (15.75 kV).
• The secondary voltage is kept low
(240 V). It reduces the value of
neutral grounding resistor by
4246×(2402/157502)=0.985 Ω
39
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
 Neutral grounding transformer (NGT)
• The kVA rating of the NGT should be at least:
103VGVT
kVA =
3N 2 R
VG = Phase-phase voltage rating of the generator in kV
VT = High voltage rating of the NGT in kV
N = Turns ratio
R = Resistor value connected across the LV side of NGT
• Similarly, the continuous rating of the resistor should be at
least: 103VG2
kW =
3N 2 R
40
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
• This protection scheme is If
employed in alternator with
small impedance grounding.
• The fault current If, for the
earth-fault will be
1000 × VG × P
I f=
3 × Z n ×100
VG = phase-phase voltage of alternator in kV
P = fault location in % from neutral end
Zn = Ohmic rating of neutral impedance

41
 Stator Earth Fault Protection
• The fault current If, will be negligibly small for the fault near neutral.
The percentage of winding unprotected can be found as:
• Let Q be the relay pick-up expressed as a percentage of the CT rating
and PCT be the CT primary rating. The relay pick up will be:
QPCT
I pu= ( primary ) A
100
• Relation between pick-up and percentage winding will be as follows:
10 PVG QPCT QPCT × 3 × Z n
= P=
3Z n 100 1000 × VG

42
 Disadvantages of High Impedance Grounding (non-effective grounding)

 In case of e/f. on one of the phases,

potential of healthy phases will rise to
Vph-n + 𝐼𝐼𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Rn.

 Hence, the insulation between stator

core and conductor must withstand
this value.

43
 Protective Scheme for Stator Ground Faults
Neutral End Terminals
 For an e/f. on any phase, the fault current (𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 ) is
given by,
10 × 𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺 × 𝑃𝑃
𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 = 1
√3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛
The relay pick-up current (𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ) is given by,
Z
𝑄𝑄×𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
A
n
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 2 Fault location (P)
100

𝑄𝑄 × 𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × √3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃 = 3
1000 × 𝑉𝑉𝐺𝐺
For example, if relay pick-up is 5% of CT rating (Q), with CT ratio = 50/5 A and if the
machine is rated at 11 kV (VG) having 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 = 200 Ω then P =7.87%

44
 Protective Scheme for Stator Ground Faults
Neutral End Terminals
 Equation (1) suggests that higher the value of 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 ,
less will be the value of 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 and hence, less threat of
the damage of the generator core.

 However, as observed from equation (3), higher

value of 𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 leads to a greater portion of the winding
unprotected. Z
n
Fault location (P)
 This is the limitation of current based e/f protection
scheme.

45
 Reverse Power Protection
• Reverser power protection is against failure of prime mover of
an alternator.
• When prime mover fails, alternator will run as synchronous
motor taking power from bus. There is no harm for the
alternator but it can damage the turbine blades as prime
mover act as load on the motor.
• This reversal of power is sensed by a reverse power relay. It is
basically a directional relay with leading maximum torque
angle, as alternator runs as an overexcited synchronous motor.
• It is time delayed and class-A protection scheme.
46
 Reverse Power Protection
• The normal flow of power is
from alternator to the bus.
• If input to the prime mover of
any one of the alternator
stops, the busbar will feed
that alternator and make it
run as a synchronous motor.
The prime-mover will act as a
load on the motor. This means
flow of power is reversed.
47
 Reverse Power Protection
 Effect of reversal of power on different prime movers
• Steam turbines: The turbine acts as a pump and the steam is
trapped. Hence, turbine blades get overheated due to
windage. The heat caused by turbulence of the trapped
steam can de-temper and damage the turbine blades.
• Hydro Turbines: On reversal of power, the water flow
reduces and hence bubbles are formed causing cavitation in
the turbine. The turbine blades can be damaged due to the
forces generated as a result of cavitation.

48
 Reverse Power Protection
• Diesel turbines: Motoring protection for diesel engines is
necessary to prevent the danger of fire or explosion resulting
from unburnt fuel.
• Gas Turbines: A gas turbine, when it runs as a pump, will load
the generator working as a motor.

49
 Why Reverse Power Protection is time delayed?
• As overheating of turbine blades does not occur
instantaneously once the generator starts acting as a
motor.
• In case of an internal fault, differential protection acts
instantaneously. At that time bus feed the internal fault
and if reverse power also trips instantaneously, operators
will be in doubt about the reason of tripping.
• Sufficient time delay should be provided to prevent
undesired tripping during transient power reversals.
50
 Reverse Power Protection
 Protective Scheme
• Low forward-power relays,
32GR, 32GY, and 32GB
remain in operated
condition during normal
operation of alternator.
• These relays are set to drop
off when the forward power
reduces below 0.5-3% of the
rated power of alternator.

51
 Reverse Power Protection
 DC Control circuit
• On reversal of power,
32G(R/Y/B) drop off in
protection circuit which
leads to de-energization of
the auxiliary relay 32GX.
• When 32GX de-energizes,
its contact 32GX-1 starts
the timer 2/32-G. After
pre-set time delay,
alternator trips.
52
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• Causes: Faulty field breaker OR failure of the exciter.

• 1st Impact:
• When generator loses its field, its speed increases and it
will act an IG. Therefore, induced currents will be
generator in the rotor. These rotor currents will overheat
the rotor core. The time to reach high rotor overheating
depends on the rate of slip.

53
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• 2nd Impact:
• When generator speed increases, it takes a higher share
of the load w.r.t. other generators of the system. Hence,
stator current increases which in turn overheat stator and
its windings. The magnitude of stator current depends on
the speed of the generator.

54
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• 3rd Impact:
• When generator loses excitation, it draws reactive power
from the system. Before loss of excitation, the generator
was supplying reactive power to the system. Hence, the
total reactive power load on the system will be nearly
double than the reactive power supplied by the generator
earlier. If the system is unable to feed this large reactive
power requirement, it will be unstable resulting in
collapse of voltage.
55
 Field Failure Protection (40)
• 3rd Impact:
• Quick AVRs can relieve the system to a great extent.
However, this relief depends on the rate and amount of
voltage reduction. Due to this reason, Field Failure relay is
always accompanied by an undervoltage relay.

56
 Why Field Failure Protection (40) is time delayed?
• 3rd Impact:
• If the system is capable of supplying additional reactive
power to the generator (the field of which has failed),
there is no risk of system instability. There is no
immediate danger to the generator operating as an IG. If
steps are taken to shed the load automatically, this
situation can be tolerated for several minutes. Hence,
field failure protection is a time delayed and class B
protection.
57
 Protective Scheme
• When the excitation is lost, the equivalent generator
impedance traverses a path from the 1st quadrant in to 4th
quadrant (generator starts running at a super-
synchronous speed).
• Hence, the MHO relay with its characteristic in the
negative reactance area is best suited.

58
Protective Scheme
• It is usual to offset the
𝑋𝑋𝑑𝑑′
relay characteristic by .
2
Its diameter = 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 .
• Hence, the mal-operation
during power swing and
loss of synchronism is
prevented.

59
 Protective Scheme
• It is not always necessary to isolate the generator from
the system immediately after the operation of loss of field
relay unless there is a danger of system instability.
• Thus the relay should be arranged to operate
instantaneously in case of collapse in system voltage.
• The U/V relay is set to drop-off if the voltage drop below
70% of the normal voltage.

60
Thank You

61
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR
PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS

Dr. BHAVESHKUMAR BHALJA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1
 Introduction
• Large HV induction motors are used to drive water
pumps, fans, and other auxiliary items in industries
and power generating plants.
• Therefore, loss of motor due to any type of fault
results in loss of production, which finally results in
loss of revenue.
• Hence, protection of induction motor is very
essential for its satisfactory working.

2
 Introduction

• The type of protection scheme applied to the motor

depends mainly on the size of the motor, its
importance, and the load connected to the motor.
• For example, fuses are adequate to protect small
motors that drive unimportant loads, whereas a
comprehensive motor protection scheme using
sophisticated digital/numerical relays is required to
protect large-size motors used in industries.

3
 Faults/Abnormal Conditions in Induction Motor
• The majority of the faults are due to insulation
failure and mechanical failure.
• The main cause of failure of motor is excessive
heating. If it is sustained for a long period, the motor
will finally burn out. Overheating also reduces the
lifetime of the motor.
• For example, if a motor is continuously overheated
by 10° above its specified rated temperature limit, its
life can be reduced by almost 50%.
4
Faults/Abnormal Conditions in Induction Motor
• Overloading
• Single Phasing
• Phase Unbalance
• Phase Reversal
• Short Circuit
• Earth Fault
• Stalling or Locked Rotor
• Underload

5
 Starting of an IM
During starting of IM, ‘s’ is unity and hence,
rotor current is given by,
𝑠𝑠𝐸𝐸2
𝐼𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠22
As the IM develops speed, ‘s’ reduces and
hence, 𝐼𝐼2 and 𝐼𝐼1 decreases.

Starting time depends on acceleration of the

IM.

6
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
𝑠𝑠𝐸𝐸2
𝐼𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑅22 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠22

As mechanical load , Speed , Slip , 𝐼𝐼2 , 𝐼𝐼1 , heat generated .

However, heat dissipated also increases, which is proportional to 𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑4 .

Equilibrium state is reached when heat generated = heat dissipated.

If we increase load further then equilibrium state is reached but with higher
temperature than the earlier one.

In this situation, insulation of the conductor is deteriorated, which depends on class

of insulation used.

7
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
The time within which the temperature
reaches to a value equal to the
maximum allowable limit of an insulation
for a given O/L. is inversely proportional
to the square of the current.

This is achieved by thermal withstand

characteristic of an IM.

8
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
Hot curve: motor is overloaded from
standstill.

Cold Curve: motor is overloaded from

the rated condition.

The above two are thermal withstand

characteristics of IM.

9
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
Two relay characteristics (hot and cold)
are used against two thermal withstand
characteristics of IM.

The hot characteristic of the relay

should not overlap with starting
characteristic of an IM.

10
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
• Thermal overload element, which is accomplished
through motor thermal image modelling, accounts
for all thermal processes in the motor during its
starting and running at normal, overload, and
standstill (stop) conditions.
• The basic function is to operate the motor within its
predefined temperature withstand limit (thermal
limit).

11
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
•Acceleration curves give an indication of the amount of
current and the associated time for the motor to accelerate
from a stop condition to a normal running condition.
•For large motors two acceleration curves are provided:
•(i) at the rated stator voltage (100%)
•(ii) at 80% of the rated stator voltage
•(soft starters are commonly used to reduce the amount of
inrush current during starting).

12
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
•3-phase motors are designed such that the overloads are
below the thermal withstand limit of the machine.
•The motor thermal limit curves consist of three running
conditions of the motor:
(i) the locked rotor or stall condition,
(ii) motor acceleration
(iii) motor running overload.
•Ideally, the curves should be provided for both hot and
cold running conditions of the motor.
13
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
150

A. Cold running overload

50 B. Hot running overload
A
C. Acceleration curve at 80% of
Time (s)

20
rated voltage
10
B D. Acceleration curve at 100% of
5 rated voltage
C D

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Multiple of rated current of induction motor (A)

Motor thermal limits and acceleration curves

14
 Thermal Overload Protection (49)
•The thermal relay (49)
characteristic has to match the
thermal limit curve of the motor.
•Hence, settings of the relays have
to match with the thermal curve.
•IDMT o/c. relay (51) is used for
locked rotor protection whereas
the instantaneous o/c. relay (50) is
used for protection against s/ckt.

Starting curve and relay curve for induction motor

15
 Protection against Unbalance currents (46)
• Unsymmetrical faults within the motor or on the feeder
may produce unbalanced voltages and hence,
unbalanced currents. The typical conditions that can
give rise to unbalanced currents are:

1. Single phasing due to the disconnection of fuse for

large motors.
2. Unbalanced fault conditions and failure of breakers.

16
 Protection against Unbalance currents (46)
⮚ The motor draws excess current because of single
phasing.
⮚ Hence, its winding will be overheated, which leads to
deterioration/damage of insulation.
⮚ In case of unbalancing of currents, I2 is produced which
may overheat/damage the rotor structure.

17
 Protection against Unbalance currents (46)
⮚ To protect large motor against such unbalance,
negative sequence relay (46) is used.
⮚ However, for small motors, phase unbalanced relay is
usually used.

⮚ Each motor is designed for specific permissible

unbalance according to the industry standards. The
general equation for allowable negative sequence
current is

18
 Protection against Unbalance currents (46)

⮚ The other philosophy is to use DMT and IDMT relays.

⮚ DMT relay is used in the first stage of negative
sequence protection, whereas IDMT relay is used for
the second stage of protection.
⮚ The typical setting range of this relay is I2 = 10–50% in
steps of 5%.
⮚ This setting is decided on the basis of the ratio of Z2/ Z1.

19
 Protection against Phase Reversal (47)
•The induction motor takes the negative sequence
current if there is a change in the phase sequence in the
supply circuit of the motor.
•In this situation, the motor will run in the opposite
direction.
•The loads designed to run in a specific direction may be
damaged. The protection against phase reversal is
achieved through the measurement of I2.

20
 Protection against Phase-fault (87)
•For short circuit in the stator windings of large motors
(beyond 1000 kW), differential protection is used.
•In order to minimize the burden and also to reduce error
due to long cable run, three current transformers (CTs)
are placed within the switchgear and one CT is located in
the neutral connection of the motor.

21
 Protection against Phase-fault (87)
• For small motors, phase fault protection is achieved
through overcurrent instead of differential relay as the
latter is expensive.
• The pickup of the relay is set above the maximum
starting current of the motor as otherwise the relay may
maloperate. If the setting is below the maximum
starting current, then an interlock is used, which blocks
the relay at the time of starting of the motor.

22
 Protection against Phase-fault (87)

• Modern digital relays use instantaneous relays along

with a definite time delay unit. The typical setting of
such relays is 400–2000% of the relay rated current.

23
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
What is stalling?

How this situation occurs?

(three conditions)
(i) A heavy load is thrown on the
motor.
(ii) Heavy load is connected to
the motor when it starts.
(iii) Rotor of IM may be locked due
to bearing failure OR gear
drive jamming.

24
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
How this phenomena occurs?

As load , speed , and it settles down at a lower steady state value.

If increase in load is gradual, the thermal O/L protection is sufficient.

However, in case of sudden/rapid increase in load, there will be a variation in

speed which leads two phenomena

(i) Mechanical stress on the pats of the rotor (due to variation in speed)
(ii) Electrical stress on the insulation of the winding (due to variation in
current)

25
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
• Stalling protection is required in a motor at the time
of starting or running.

• Any motor can dissipate more heat during the running

condition than when it is in a standstill condition.

• If a motor fails to start after the energization, then the

heat produced in the rotor and stator windings is 10 to
15 times the heat produced during the rated conditions.
26
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
• The motor can withstand this type of extreme heating
condition only for a limited time period.

• This time limit depends on the applied voltage and I2t

limit.

• A relay with I2t characteristic can be set for any

permissible overload.

27
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
Stalling Protection is applied in two different ways.
1. Stalling at the time of starting
• This function is activated only during the starting of the
motor, that is, during the course of the starting time
delay (tstart).

• It uses a speed signal from the motor and the time

delay (tstall).
28
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
• On detection of a start this function is activated, and
the time delay provided for safe stalling (tstall) begins.

• At the end of this time delay, the motor should gain the
acquired speed.

• If the motor does not gain the acquired speed, it is an

indication of locked rotor situation, and the relay
generates a tripping command.
29
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
2. Stalling at the time of running
•This function is activated immediately after the starting
period (tstart).
•Two parameters are required to be set in the relay (i) stall
rotor current threshold (Istall) and (ii) the stalled rotor time
(tstall).
•The relay detects the overcurrent caused by stalling and
generates a tripping command if the phase current
exceeds the Istall value.
5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 30
 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
•There are two settings of stalling relay
•(i) current setting range which is usually 150–600% of the
relay rated current
•(ii) time setting range which is usually 6–60 s.

5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 31

 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
•The normal practice for current setting is 1/3–1/4 of the
starting current of the motor.
•The time setting is done on the basis of the accelerating
time of the motor and safe stalling time of the motor.
•The time setting is higher than the accelerating time and
lower than the safe stalling time of the motor.

5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 32

 Protection against Stalling (Locked rotor) (51)
•The normal practice for current setting is 1/3–1/4 of the
starting current of the motor.
•The time setting is done on the basis of the accelerating
time of the motor and safe stalling time of the motor.
•The time setting is higher than the accelerating time and
lower than the safe stalling time of the motor.

5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 33

 Loss of Load Protection of Induction Motor

•The sudden reduction of load from the motor is known

as loss of load.
•The reasons for the loss of load are breakage of a
conveyor belt, prime failure on a pump, or shearing of a
drive pin.
•It is mandatory to trip the motor in this situation.

5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 34

 Loss of Load Protection of Induction Motor
•The usual practice is to use DMT relay, which recognizes
the difference between no-load before the application
of load and no-load after the application of load.
•In this relay, three parameters are required to be set,
namely,
(i) undercurrent threshold
(ii) time associated with this threshold
(iii) inhibit start time delay.

5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 35

 Undervoltage Protection of Induction Motor (27)
•When there is reduction in the voltage below the rated
voltage in a running motor, the current drawn by the
motor increases beyond the rated current of the motor.
•Hence, the insulation of the motor windings is damaged
because of heating.
•Thus, the undervoltage relay gives protection against this
phenomenon.
•The typical setting range of 27 is 70–100% of the rated
voltage.
5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 36
 Detailed Protection Schemes of Induction Motor
CT CB
Measurement of CBCT Phase A

temperature by Phase B
H Phase C
direct method
using RTDs or Three-phase
induction
thermistors (H) is motor
also illustrated. The IA
residual current IB 49/46 Three-
51/50
measurement is
phase
IC 50N/27 PT
Ie
carried out using
Digital
CBCT. relay

5/19/2020 BRB & RPM 37

Capabilities of Multifunction Digital Relay

➤ Sequential Events Recorder

➤ Event Reports, Motor Start Reports, Motor Operating Statistics, Load
Profiles, and Motor Start Trends
➤ Ethernet, Modbus TCP/IP*, IEC 61850*, Modbus RTU, Telnet*, FTP*,
SNTP*, and Device Net Communications
➤ I/O Expansion–Additional Contact Inputs, Contact Outputs, Analog
Inputs, Analog Outputs, and RTD Inputs
➤ Single or Dual Ethernet, Copper or Fiber-Optic Communications Port
➤ PTC Input
➤ Instantaneous Metering
➤ Forward/Reverse Control
➤ Reduced Voltage Starting
➤ Two-Speed Motor Control
➤ Breaker Wear Monitoring
➤ Differential Protection

Ref:- Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories Inc, "SEL-701-5 Motor Protection Relay," 38

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc, 2018.
Thank You

39
 Circuit Breaker
 All electrical devices used for making and breaking the
electrical circuits are grouped under the term “Electrical
Switchgear”.

 Relays, off-load switches, load-breaking switches, isolators,

fuses, circuit breakers and control panels can all be grouped
under electrical switchgear.

1
 Functions of Circuit Breaker
 It must be capable of closing on and carrying FL currents at rated
power factor continuously.

 It must be capable of successfully and rapidly interrupting the

heavy short-circuit currents at a very low power factor.

 After opening the contacts of CB, the gap must withstand the
steady –state power frequency system voltage continuously and
transient high-frequency voltage for a short duration of time.

2
 Functions of Circuit Breaker
 CBs must be capable of currying out making duty i.e. closing on
to a circuit in which a fault exists and immediately reopening to
clear the fault.
O + 0.3 s + CO + 3 min + CO

 CBs must be capable of successfully interrupting quite small

currents such as transformer magnetising currents OR line/cable
charging currents.

3
 Arc Interruption Theory in Circuit Breaker
 CB is a device that can open or close a HV circuit in a fraction
of a second.

 The opening and closing is achieved by the separable contacts

of the CB.

 When the movable contacts begin to separate, the CB begins

interrupting the current.

 Arcing phenomenon occur during opening of contacts.

4
 Introduction
 The arc plasma must be cooled and extinguished in a
systematic way so that the gap between the contacts can
again withstand the voltage in the circuit.

 The study of this phenomenon is very composite but has

enormous importance while selecting the operating
characteristic of the CB.

5
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• The separation of switching contacts of any CB leads to the
formation of gas and metal vapor between them in its current
carrying condition.
• Even when no potential is applied across the electrode, the
gas conducts and sets up a small current due to natural
ionization. This current is known as leakage current.
• When an electrical potential is applied across the two
electrodes, the charge carriers gain mobility, and their motion
depends on the applied electrical field intensity.

6
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• When the moving charges collide with the electrode (ions move
towards the cathode and electrons move towards the anode), they
disperse their charges, and a current flows between the electrodes.

• This process of current conduction in a gaseous medium is due to

an ionization process such as photoelectric or thermionic emission
and remains continuous till a potential is applied.

7
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• OP shows the linear relationship between
the current and the voltage in the initial
stage with a small value of applied voltage.
• The discharge current through the medium
is proportional to the applied potential
until an equilibrium is reached, where the
production of charge carriers is equal to
the charge carriers received by the
electrodes.

8
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• Afterwards, any increase in the applied
voltage does not give rise to a significant
current.
• This phenomenon depends on the intensity
of ionization, the quantity of gas between
the electrodes, and the gas pressure.
• PQ represents the saturation current limit.

9
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• If the electrical potential across the
electrode increases to a high level,
ionization occurs freely and free positive
charges gain a high velocity.
• Hence, they strike the cathodes with
enough force to knock out a number of
free electrons that maintain the discharge.
• Such discharge remains self-sustained
because it does not require any external
excitation.
10
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• This process rises exponentially, and the
current continues to increase between two
electrodes even when the applied voltage
remains constant.
• The voltage that forces such a high current
density (million charges) through a gas
medium is known as breakdown voltage.
• QR gives an indication of such a high
current at the breakdown voltage (VB).

11
 Fundamentals of Circuit Breaking
• The gases between the electrodes no more remain insulators but
provide a current conducting path.
• Owing to this, a continuous arc is formed between the electrodes,
which are surrounded by hot ionized gases.
• This phenomenon is applicable for both AC and DC voltages across
the electrodes.
• The quenching or extinction of high current is done externally.
• It is very important to decide the VB and insulating medium to
quench the arc while designing the CB.
12
 Arc Phenomenon
 The discharge occurs in AC and DC circuits is due to the increase in
voltage (up to VB) due to the self-inductance of the circuit at the
time of contact separation.

 The electrical arc has a low voltage drop across it, and hence, it
induces a large value of current.

13
 Arc Phenomenon
 Factors responsible for the formation of an arc:

1. The voltage across the electrode and its variation with time.
2. The nature, shape, and separation of electrodes.
3. The nature and pressure of the medium.
4. Presence of external ionizing and deionizing agents.
5. The nature, shape, and position of CB in which electrodes are
located.

14
 Characteristic of ARC
 Arc characteristic is the curve between the instantaneous
voltage across the electrode and the corresponding current
through the arc.

 The rate at which the current changes its value in the upper
range has no such effect on the decrease of the arc voltage.

 This is due to the non-linear resistance characteristic of the

arc, and the sluggish rate at which the heat content of the
nearby area of the arc establishes the new heat content.
15
 Characteristic of ARC
 The voltage drop across the electrode depends on the collection
of positive and negative charges in front of the cathode and the
anode, respectively, and it also depends on the electrode
material.

 The voltage drop across the main arc column mainly depends on
the types of gases surrounding it, the gas pressure and
magnitude of the arc current, and the length of the column.

16
 Characteristic of ARC
 The temperature at the middle
of the arc column is of the order
of 5000–8000 degree C.
 The temperature at the
periphery of the arc rod is of the
order of 2000–3000 degree C.
voltage distribution of an arc column

The voltage gradient across the main arc column is uniformly

distributed across the length of the arc.
17
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 The quenching of an arc in an AC circuit requires a mechanism
that converts the conducting path across the contacts of CB
into a non-conducting path.

 The AC current passes zero twice during each cycle.

 Hence, arc quenching is performed at natural current zero in

AC circuit.

18
Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit

wave shape of an arc current and arc voltage

19
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 There are two major peak voltage alterations that
occur at the time of high current zero crossing.

 When an AC current crosses its zero, the effect of the

deionization and cooling of the arc is major, which
causes the arc voltage to rise.

20
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
Instant of occurrence
of a fault
1&1/2 cycles

waveform of the voltage and current at the time of arc extinction

21
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 Restriking Voltage: At the time of zero crossing of the
arc current, the arc tries to get quenched.

 If the deionization process does not achieve enough

dielectric strength, the arc restrikes, and the voltage
at this instant is known as the Restriking voltage.

22
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 Arc Voltage: The voltage drop across the arc rod because of its
resistive nature is known as arc voltage. Owing to its resistive
nature, it is in phase with the arc current.

23
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 Transient Restriking Voltage (TRV): It is defined as the high
frequency restriking voltage that appears across the contact
of CB just after the arc extinction.

24
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 The TRV developed across the open contact of CB is given by
VC = Emax × (1 − cos ωt )

 This natural frequency is of the order of 1–10 kHz depending

on the system condition and parameters (L and C).
1
fn =
2π × LC

25
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage (RRRV): The higher
the frequency of the transient voltage, the sharper will
be the slope of its first voltage rise from zero to peak.

 The slope of this steepest tangent to the restriking

voltage curve is defined as the rate of rise of restriking
voltage (RRRV).

26
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 RRRV is measured by dividing the maximum amplitude of the first
peak to the time required to reach the first peak.
dVC d(Emax × (1 − cos ω t))
RRRV =
dt RRRV = RRRV = Emax × ω × sin ω t
dt

π
 The maximum RRRV occurs at ωt =
2
π
 Thus, at t=
2
LC the value of RRRV is maximum.

RRRV = Emax × ω

27
 Theory of ARC Quenching in AC Circuit
 Recovery voltage: The power frequency steady-state voltage
appearing across the contacts of the CB after the final arc
extinction is known as recovery voltage

28
 ARC Interruption Theories
 Various theories have been suggested by many researchers for
the fast and reliable treatment of arc interruption.

 (i) high resistance and (ii) low resistance interruption theories.

 Low resistance arc interruption theories:

 Slepian’s Theory (Race Theory)

 Cassie’s Theory (Energy Balance Theory)

29
 ARC Interruption Theories
 Slepian’s Theory (Race Theory)
 At each current zero, there is race
between the RRRV and the rate at
which the insulating medium
recovers its dielectric strength.
 If the rate at which the dielectric
strength progresses is faster than the
rate at which the voltage rises, the
arc will be quenched; otherwise, the
arc restrikes and is not interrupted. (a) Arc interruption (b) Dielectric failure

30
 ARC Interruption Theories
 Cassie’s Theory (Energy Balance Theory)
 If the rate of heat dissipation between the contacts is greater
than the rate at which heat is generated, the arc will extinguish
 Otherwise, it will restrike.

 At current zero, the hot arc between

the contacts of CB needs to be
cooled down to such a low
temperature that it no longer
conducts. Establishment of thermal interruption
with post current zero
31
 ARC Interruption Theories
 Cassie’s Theory (Energy Balance Theory)
 Owing to stored thermal energy, the arc has certain inertia, and
when the current approaches zero, there is still some electrical
conductivity left in the arc path. This gives rise to a post arc
current.
 The race between the energy removed
from the arc by cooling and the energy
input to the arc path by the post arc
current, determines whether the
interruption will be successful. Establishment of thermal interruption
with post current zero
32
 ARC Interruption Theories
 Cassie’s Theory (Energy Balance Theory)
 The time taken by this process is very short (microseconds).

 Difficulty to interrupt the arc depends

on
 (i) the rate of reduction of current
towards zero
 (ii) the rate of rise of recovery voltage
after current zero. Establishment of thermal interruption
with post current zero

33
 Factors Affecting RRRV, Recovery Voltage & TRV

1. Power Factor of the Circuit

2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault

3. Asymmetry of Short Circuit Current

4. Short Line Fault

34
 1. Power Factor of the Circuit
 The instantaneous value of recovery voltage depends on the power
factor of the circuit.

 Higher the value of the power factor, lower will be the value of the
voltage stresses across the contacts of the CB at the time of current
zero interruption.

35
 1. Power Factor of the Circuit
 During normal condition of a circuit, the interruption of load
current with high power factor (0.8) produces low voltage stress,
and hence, the value of restriking voltage and RRRV is less.

 However, during the clearance of fault, which is reactive in nature

with a low power factor (0.2) and of high magnitude, the
instantaneous value of the recovery voltage is very high.

36
 1. Power Factor of the Circuit
 Even the interruption of a small value of a reactive short circuit
current is more difficult compared to the resistive short circuit
current.
 The instantaneous value of recovery voltage is very high at current
zero because of low power factor, whereas its value is low for
resistive current interruption.

37
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault

 Faults:
 Those involve earth (L-G, L-L-G and L-L-L-G)
 Those which do not involve earth (L-L and L-L-L)

 It should be noted that though the contacts of a CB for all the

phases open simultaneously, the arc is not extinguished at all three
pairs of contacts simultaneously, as the arc is extinguished always
at the current zero and the current in R, Y and B phases do not pass
through zero simultaneously.

38
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault

 For a fault not involving ground (L–L and L–L–L) or the system itself
is not earthed, the voltage across the contact of the CB where the
arc extinguished first is 1.5 times the phase voltage.

39
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
If a fault on an earthed system involves the ground (L–g, L–L–g, and
L–L–L–g), the voltage appearing across the contact of the CB in which
the arc extinguished first is only the phase voltage (line-to-earth).

Neutral earth and fault grounded

40
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
If a fault on an non-earthed system involves the ground (L–g, L–L–g,
and L–L–L–g), the voltage appearing across the contact of the CB in
which the arc extinguished first is 1.5 times the phase voltage (line-to-
earth).

Neutral not earthed and fault grounded

41
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
If a fault on an earthed system does not involve the ground (L–L and
L–L–L), the voltage appearing across the contact of the CB in which the
arc extinguished first is 1.5 times the phase voltage (line-to-earth).

Neutral earthed and fault ungrounded

42
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault

 Switches S1, S2 and S3

represent CB contacts.
 Switch S4 decides whether
the fault is grounded or not.
 Switch S5 is used to connect
the system neutral to earth or
isolated.

43
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
 Procedure:
 Simulate different faults with
the given arrangement.
 Observe the Vph and Voltage
across the CB contacts (VCB).
 Calculate
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝

44
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
 Observations:

45
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
 Observations:

46
 2. Circuit Condition and Types of Fault
 Observations:

 The worst of the voltage stress occurs across CB contact gap when
a L-L fault occurs.
 If a slight asymmetry in the voltage wave is considered, this voltage
can be as bad as six time the P-N system voltage.
47
 3. Asymmetry of Short Circuit Current
 Most fault cases have a DC component in their short circuit current,
and hence, at least one or more phases can be asymmetrical in
nature by some degree.

 With the presence of an asymmetry in the short circuit current to

be interrupted, it is possible to set up varying values of recovery
voltage at current zero.

48
 3. Asymmetry of Short Circuit Current
 As the degree of asymmetry increases, the recovery voltage at
current zero reduces.
 It further depends on the interruption, which follows either the
major current loop or the minor current loop.

49
 4. Short Line Fault
 A short line fault or a fault very close to the line side terminal of a
CB enforces a severe duty on the CB.
 The interruption of a short line fault
creates a very high saw tooth
shaped TRV on the line side
terminal of the CB owing to line
side components.
 On the other hand, at the supply
side, the restriking voltage is normal
and gradually increases.
50
 4. Short Line Fault
 The TRV is of multiple frequencies with very steep RRRV for its
initial peak.

 If this steep RRRV, which can eventually reach several numbers,

occurs at a faster rate than the rate at which the breakdown
strength of the breaker gap increases, an arc reignition will take
place.

51
 4. Short Line Fault
• The magnitude of transient voltage is proportional to
the magnitude of the short circuit current.

• Further, its frequency is inversely proportional to the

distance of the line up to the fault point.
• After the interruption of fault current, the TRV is of
multiple frequencies (up to 100 kHz) with very steep
RRRV for its initial peak.
52
 4. Short Line Fault
 The value of RRRV also depends on:

(i) the surge impedance of the line up to the fault point, and its value
reaches several kV/μs in case of kilometric fault (fault within 1–2
km).

53
 4. Short Line Fault
 The short line fault test for a CB is considered as the most severe
short circuit test and is incorporated in the standard.

 This test is carried out to prove the ability of CB to handle such

extreme fault conditions and is useful in the short circuit rating
of CBs.

54
Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 While interrupting a small inductive currents such as
unloaded currents of transformers, the arc path is ionized by
the low current.

 This small inductive current is interrupted just before natural

current zero and thus induces high transient voltages, which is
known as current chopping.

55
Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 The magnetic energy present in the inductance of the circuit
is converted into electrostatic energy (the capacicance of the
system being charged).
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 𝐿𝐿�𝐶𝐶

 where, 𝐼𝐼 is the peak value of no-load current.

 This voltage is impressed on a power frequency voltage and
can damage insulation of the transformer itself or of some
other equipment.
56
Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 The principle to calculate the voltage appearing across the
contact of CB during current chopping is the energy
conversion that takes place before and after arc interruption.

 While interrupting small inductive currents such as unloaded

currents of transformers and currents of shunt reactors, there
is a possibility of generation of O/V. depending on the value
of the chopping current.

57
 Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 This voltage can impair the
transformer insulation.

 However, the CB is usually able

to relieve the insulation by re-
striking at some point on the
rising chop voltage.

 How far the voltage my rise

before restrike depends on
various factors.
58
 Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 For example: Lower is the rate
of rise of voltage, more time is
available for deionization of
breaker gap and hence, high
O/V. may reach.

 Effectiveness of de-ionization
means will effect the re-striking
voltage.

59
 Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 During re-striking, energy is
taken from capacitance and
voltage collapses.
 In 2nd chop, current and RRRV
are lower than the 1st chop.

 After successive chops, the

current may come very near to
natural zero, and further re-
striking may not occur.

60
 Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 Self Blast CBs (with arc control device):

 They take more time to interrupt such a low inductive current as gas
pressure is directionally proportional to the intensity of arc.

 Forced Blast CBs (ABCB and SF6):

 The phenomenon of current chopping is quite predominant as the
gap pressure is independent of current to be interrupted (intensity
of arc).

61
 Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current)
 The interruption of the small inductive current is made possible by
providing enough thermal clearance across the contact gap at the
time of rising voltage.

 Vacuum CBs are preferred for the interruption of the small inductive
current as the number of chops is low.

62
 Interruption of Capacitive Current
 When the capacitive current reaches its
zero value, the line voltage is at its peak
value.
 Hence, when interruption occurs at
current zero, the line remains in charged
condition at this peak voltage of utilities.
 Restrike-free or forced blast CBs are
generally designed with high power
frequency voltage withstanding capacity
to interrupt the capacitive load.
63
 Resistance Switching
 A deliberate insertion of resistor in parallel with the contacts of
CB (or an arc) is called resistance switching.

 By employing resistance switching, the frequency of TRV is

reduced.
 RRRV is also reduced.

 It also diverts the part of the arc current and hence, arc intensity
is also reduced.

64
 Resistance Switching
 Resistance switching assists the CB in interrupting low magnetizing
currents and capacitive currents.
 It is a method to overcome the effect of O/V. due to current
chopping.
 In SF6 CB, the pressure of gas is independent of current to be
interrupted. Hence, for low current interruption, the pressure is
high and the current is chopped up before natural current zero.

 In VCB, the current is cut-off almost at the instant of contact

separation.

65
 Resistance Switching
 Therefore severe voltages are developed across the contacts of
CB.

 These voltages my damage the insulation. Hence, some provision

is required to discharge these voltages.

 Resistance switching provides this provision.

66
 Resistance Switching
 If R is considered in transient solution, the natural frequency of
voltage appearing across the contact of CB is given by,

1 1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = −
2𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 4𝐿𝐿2

67
 Rating of CB
• The performance of a CB depends on the circuit
condition and the circuit parameters.

• The main function of a CB is to continuously carry the

full load current, and at the same time, interrupt the
fault current without any damage.

68
 Rating of CB
• Thus, it is necessary to define the characteristic values
of different parameters of a CB at the time of design.

• These values refer to the rating of a CB, and it is also

useful while selecting any CB for a particular
application.

69
 Rating of CB
• (i) Rated Current:
• A CB is capable of carrying continuous full load current
without any excessive rise in temperature.
• The temperature rise inside the CB should not exceed
the limit prescribed by international standards.
• Thus, the rated current is defined as the highest root
mean square (RMS) current-carrying capability of a CB
without exceeding the limit of temperature rise.
70
 Rating of CB
• (ii) Rated Voltage:
• Owing to continuous fluctuation of load, the system voltage
never remains constant.
• Therefore, satisfactory operation is achieved by designing
the CB with a voltage rating higher than the nominal system
voltage.
• The maximum RMS voltage of a CB above the nominal
system voltage for which the CB is designed is known as the
rated voltage of the CB.
71
 Rating of CB
• (iii) Rated Breaking Capacity:
• During heavy short circuit, the total fault current involves the AC
and DC components of current.
• As the DC component dies out rapidly, the value of fault current
also decreases with time.
• Moreover, the protective device also takes some time to issue
the trip signal to the CB. Thus, the CB starts to open its switching
contacts after some time (t), starting from the inception of the
fault.

72
 Rating of CB
• (iii) Rated Breaking Capacity:
 The real value of fault current to be
interrupted by a CB is quite less
than the initial value at the time of
fault inception.
 Therefore, the highest value of
fault current that flows through the
switching contacts at the instant of
contact separation is known as the
breaking current of the CB.

73
 Types of Breaking Current
(iii) Rated Breaking Capacity:
 1. Symmetrical breaking current:
 It is the RMS value of the AC
component of current flowing
through the CB at the instant of
contact separation.
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
2

74
 Types of Breaking Current
(iii) Rated Breaking Capacity:
 2. Asymmetrical breaking current:
 It is the RMS value of current
(including both AC and DC
components of the current)
flowing through the CB at the
instant of contact separation

75
 Types of Breaking Current
(iii) Rated Breaking Capacity:
• The breaking capacity of a CB is based on the symmetrical and
asymmetrical breaking capacities.
• Breaking capacity is expressed in MVA by taking into account the
rated breaking current and the rated system voltage.
• Thus, if I is the rated breaking current in kA and V is the rated
system voltage in kV, then, for a three-phase circuit,
Breaking Capacity of CB = 3 × 𝑉𝑉 × 𝐼𝐼 (MVA).

76
 Types of Breaking Current
(iv) Rated Making Capacity:
• The rated making capacity of a CB is related to its ability to
withstand maximum current, when it is closed under the fault
condition.
• The electromagnetic forces produced during this time are
proportional to the square of peak instantaneous current.
• Thus, the peak RMS value of short circuit current measured for the
first cycle of the current wave after the closure of the CB under
fault condition is known as the making capacity.

77
 Types of Breaking Current
(iv) Rated Making Capacity:
• Imk represents the making
current.
• The peak of making capacity is
given by
2 × 𝜌𝜌 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

• where, 𝜌𝜌 is the maximum

asymmetry and its value is 1.8.
Thus, Imk equals 2.55 times the symmetrical breaking current.
78
 Types of Breaking Current
(v) Short time rating of CB:
• It is the duration for which the CB can carry maximum fault current
under its fully closed condition without any damage.
• The CB should not trip during temporary faults.
• Therefore, the CBs must be capable of holding a high value of
current for some specified period of time during closed condition.
• They should have short time rating, which depends on the
electromagnetic force withstanding capacity of the CBs and thermal
limitations.

79
 Types of Breaking Current
(vi) Rated standard duty cycle:
• The standard operating duty of a CB is as follows:
• O – t – CO – t’ – CO
• where, O = Open, CO = Close–Open, t′ = 3 min
• t = 15 s for CBs not rated for rapid reclosing
• t = 0.3 s for CBs rated for rapid reclosing
• The standard operating duty of a breaker meant for auto-reclosing is
as follows:
• O – tD – O, where tD is the dead time of the CB in cycles.
80
Thank You

81