Unit 1 Ip
Unit 1 Ip
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Definition
A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling
operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms.
Applications
The applications domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination
it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries, government medicine, scientific
research, low and even music and arts.
•• Millions of complex calculations can be done in a mere fraction of time
•• Difficult decisions can be made with unerring accuracy for comparatively little cost
Accuracy
Besides efficiency, computer are accurate as well. The level of accuracy depends an the
instructions and the type of machine being used.
Diligence
Computer being a machine does not suffer form the human trailts of tiredness and lack of
concentration
Reliability
Reliability is the measurement of performance of a computer, which is measured against
some predetermined standard for operation without any failure.
1.2 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
Storage capability
The main memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain amount
of information, therefore, the data is stored on secondary storage devices such as magnetic tape or
disks.
Versatility
It can perform multiple taks simultaneously with great ease. For example, at
one moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it can be used to play
music an in between, one can print a document as well.
All this work is possible by changing the program.
Resource sharing
It made the sharing of costly resources like printer possible.
Apart from device sharing data and information can also be shared among group of
computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.
•• Mark I, which was built as a partnership between Harvard Aiken and IBM in 1944.
This electronic calculating machine used relays and electromagnetic components to
replace mechanical components
•• In 1946, John Eclcert and John Mauchy of developed ENIAC (electronic numerical
integrator and calculator)
Thus computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make internal parts of the computer
•• Eckert and mauchy also proposed the development of EDVAC ( electronic discrete
variable automatic computer.
It was the first electronic computer to use the stored program concept introduced by
John von Neumann.
•• In 1949, at the Cambridge university, Maurice wilkes developed EDSAC (electronic
delay storage automatic calculator)
This machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic.
•• The Eckert – mauchy corporation manufactured UNIVAC ( universal automatic
computer) in 1951 and its implementation marked the real beginning of the computer
era.
A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which
data and programs can be stored.
Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and output was in the form of printouts.
Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced.
1.4 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than their
predecssors.
Magnetic cores- were used as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. However, they still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Integrated circuit replaced several individually wired transistor. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with operating system.
The fourth generation computers led to an era of large scale integration (LSI) and very
large scale integration (vlsi) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be
constructed on one small slice of silicon material whereas vlsi squeezed hundreds of thousands of
components on to a single ewp
ULTRA – large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into millions the fourth
generation computer became more powerful compact, reliable and affordable.
Mega chips
Fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will
result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single chip
Parallel processing
A computer using parallel processing accesses several instructions at once and works on
them at the same time through use of multiple central processing units.
Micro computers
A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of a
microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one
chip inserted into are or several pc boards.
IBM – pc,Pentium 100, ibm-pc Pentium 200 and Apple Macintosh are some of the example
of micro computers
1.6 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
Micro computers include desktop, laptop and hand – held models such as PDAS (personal)
digital assistants.
Desktop computer
Desktop computer also known as personal computer (pc) is principally intended per stand
alone use by an individual micro computer typically consist of a system unit a display monitor, a
keyboard internal hard disk storage and other peripheral devices.
Some of the major personal computer manufactures are Apple, IBM, Dell and Hewlett
Packard.
Laptop
A laptop is a portable computer that is a user can carry it around. Laptops are small computer
enclosing all the basic features of a normal desktop computer.
The biggest advantage of this computer is that one can use this computer anywhere and at
anytime, especially when are is travelling
PDAs are essentially small portable computers and are slightly bigger than the common
calculators.
Some example of PDAs are Apple Newton, Casio Cassiopeia and Franklin ebook man
Mini computers
The mini computer is a small digital computer whose process and storage capacity is lesser
than that of a mainframe, but more than that of micro computer.
Its speed of processing data is in between that of a mainframe and a micro computes,
generally, it is used as desktop device that is often connected to a mainframe in order to perform the
auxiliaxy operations.
Mini computers are usually multi-user systems, so these are used in interactive applications
in industries, research organisations colleges and universities.
High – performance workstations with graphics I/o capability use mini computers
Some of the widely used mini computers are PDP II, IBM (8000 series) and VAX 7500.
Mainframe computer
A mainframe is an ultra – high performance computer made for high – volume, processor –
intensive computing. It consists of a high end computer processor, with related peripheral devices,
capable of supporting large volumes of data processing systems and extensive data storage and
retrieval.
Introduction to Computers 1.7
Mainframes are the second largest of the computer family, the largest being super computers.
Mainframe allows its user to maintain large information storage at a conrralised location
and be able to access and process this data from different computers located at different locations
It is typically used by large businesses and for scientific purpose.
Examples of mainframe computers are IBM’s E5000, VAX8000 and CDC6600.
Super computers
Super computers are the special purpose machine, which are specially designed to maximise
the numbers of FLOPS (floating point operation per second). Any computer below one gigaflop/sec
is not considered a super computer. A super computer has the highest processing speed at a given
time for solving scientific and engineering problems.
Essentially, it contains a number of cpu, that operate in parallel to make it faster. Its
processing speed lies in the range of 400 – 10,000 MF LOP’s (millions of floating point operation
per second).
Super computers are used to solve multivariant mathematical problems of existent physical
processes, such as aerodynamics, metrologis, and plasms physics.
The largest commercial use of super computers is in the entertainment advertising industry,
CRAY – 3, Cyber 205 and PARAM are some well known super computers.
The block diagram of the computer system have the following three units, each functional
unit corresponds to their basic operations performed as described in details.
(a) Input unit
(b) Central processing unit
(c) Output unit
1.8 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
The input unit does not know when to receive data and where to put the data in the
storage unit after receiving it similarly, the control unit instruces the input unit where to
store the data after receiving it from the user.
In the same way, it controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage unit to
Introduction to Computers 1.9
ALU during program execution the control unit fetches instructions from the primary
memory, decodes them to determine the operations required, and then sets up instructions
execution.
Eg. To add two numbers or to read a character from a keyboard. A number registers are
associated with the control unit.
All calculations are performed in the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) of the computer
ALU also does comparisons and take decision .
Example: it can check if the number A is less than equal to or greater than the number
B. once the calculations or the logical operation is performed by ALU, then the result is
transferred to the storage unit.
A device that stores program instructions or data used by the cpu when performing a
given function.
The program that we want to run on the computer is first transferred to the primary
memory before it can run. Similarly, after running the program if need to save the result,
we will transfer them to the secondary storage.
The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the
commonly used secondary memory devices are Floppy diskette, Zip diskette, Hard disk
and Magnetic disks and Tapes etc.
The decimal number system which has ten digits (0, 1, 2,……9), the octal system has eight
digits (0,1,2,….7) the hexadecimal system has sixteen digits (0,1,2,…..9,a,b,c,d,e,f), the binary
number system has only two (0,1)
The number of digits in a system is called radix or base. Thus the decimal system may be
called as radix-10 system, the binary system as radix – 2, system.
In non-positioning number system each symbol represents the same values regardless of its
position in the number. The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number.
Example:
The decimal number 3977.39(10)
A number in a radix system would be written as (an an-1 an-2 ……… a0 a-1 a-2 ……… a-m)
In this representation an is called the ‘Most-Significant Digit’ (MSD) of the number and a-m
is called the ‘Least Significant Digit’ (LSD).
Example:
In decimal number system 3967(10) or 3967 Consists the digits
7 in the unit position (7×100)
6 in the unit position (6×101)
9 in the unit position (9×102)
3 in the unit position (3×103)
It values can be written as
3×103+9×102+6×101+7×100
3×1000+9×100+6×10+7×1
3000+900+60+7
3967
3967(10) = 3967
1.12 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
User
•• The circuits in computer have to handled by two binary digits or bits rather than decimal
number
•• The computer only identifies signals in the form of digital pulses, which represent either
high or low voltage.
•• Everything that can be alone with decimal numbers can also be done using binary
numbers.
Example:
Convert the binary number 100111(2) to decimal numbers.
Solution: 100111(2) =? (10)
6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st Position
1 0 0 1 1 1 Given Binary Number
×25 ×24 ×23 ×22 ×21 ×20 Weights
1×32 +0×16 + 0×8 + 1×4 + 1×2 + 1×1
32 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 39(10)
100111(2) = 39(10)
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
The first 10 digits are digits of decimal system (0 to 9) and the remaining 6 digits are
denoted by (A to F) representing decimal value (10 to 15) where a = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13,
E=14 and F = 16. The largest single digit is F or 15 ( one less that the base).
Since number (0 to 9) and alphabets (A to F) are used to represent the digit in hexadecimal
numbers system, it is also called the alphanumeric number systems.
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary Equivalent
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
1.14 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111
Example:
Convert the hexadecimal number 39a (16) To decimal number
Solution
39A(16) = ?(10)
= 3×162+9×161+A×160
= 3×256 +9×16 +A×1
= 3×256 +9×16 +10×1
=768+144+10
=922(10)
39A(16)= 922(10)
⇒ Decimal to octal
⇒ Decimal to hexadecimal
2 37
2 18 –1
2 9 –0
Introduction to Computers 1.15
2 4 –1
2 2 –0
1 –0
0.8125(10) = 0.1101
Exercise:
Convert (68)10 to binary
Answer = (1000100)2
Therefore, 35(10)=43(8)
Exercise:
Convert decimal number 214 to its octal equivalent
Answer = 326
16 22
1 –6
Exercise:
Convert decimal number 3509 to its hexadecimal equivalent
Answer = 13115
=DB5(16)
= 1×2³+1×2²+0×2¹+1×2+1+1×2-1×0×2-2+1×2-3
= 8+4+0+1+0.5+0+0.125
= 13.625(10)
Introduction to Computers 1.17
Exercise:
Convert (1000100)2 to its decimal equivalent
Answer = (68)10
Exercise:
Convert 111 01 111 0 (2) to its equivalent octal number
Answer = 735(8)
Exercise:
Convert 11111101 . 0001 0011(2) to its equivalent hexadecimal number.
Answer = FD13(16)
Exercise:
516(8) = 324
101001.110011(2)
51.63(8)=101001.110011(2)
Therefore, the binary number is 101001.110011(2)
Exercise:
convert 5613 to its binary equivalent
Answer = 1010011110011(2)
Exercise
34530(8)
Answer = E560(16)
011 1 00 101 011 0000
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
E 5 6 0
Exercise
5B2(16)
Answer = 1458
8B2F.9A(16)=1000101100111111.10011010(2)
Therefore, the binary number is 1000101100111111.10011010(2)
Exercise
8B2F
Answer = 1000101100101111(2)
1.20 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
⇒ B D A F • A C 9
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ • ↓ ↓ ↓
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ • ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 3 6 6 5 7 • 5 3 1 1
UNIT - 1.2
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
System software makes the computer functional they provide basic functionality like file
management visual display and keyboard input and are used by application software to accomplish
these functions.
Some example of system software are operating systems, device drivers language translators
and system utilities.
Operating system
Device Drivers
Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper functioning of devices
every device, whether it is a printer, monitor, mouse or keyboard, has a driver associated with it per
its proper functioning
In modern operating systems, most hardware drivers, such as the keyboard drivers, come
with the operating system.
Language Translators
Computer only understand a language consisting of os and ls called machine language.
Depending on the programming language used language translators are divided into three
major categories. Computer interpreser and assembles
Language Translators Description
System Utility
System utility programs perform day to day tasks related to the maintenance of the computer
system they are used to support enhance, and secure existing programs and data in the computer
system.
Application software ranges from games, calculators and word processors document creating
programs to programs that “paint” images on screen (image editors) some of the most commonly
used application software are discussed below.
Word processors
A word processor is a software used to compose, format, edit and print electronic documents.
It involves not only typing, but also checking the spelling and grammar of the text and arranging it
correctly on a page.
1.24 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
Example of some well known word processors are Microsoft word and word perfect.
Spread sheets
One of the first commercial uses of computers was in processing payroll and other financial
records. A spreadsheet application is a rectangular grid, which allows text, number and complex
functions to be entered into a matrix of thousand of individual cells.
The spreadsheet provides sheets containing calls each of which may contain text and/ or
number
Cells may also contain equations that calculate results from data placed in other cells or
series of cells.
Image Editors
These graphics programs provide a variety of special features per creating and altering
images.
In addition to offering a host of filters and image transformation algarithms, some editors
also enable the user to credit and superimpose layers.
With image editing software, one can darken or lighten an image, rotate it, adjust its contrast,
crop out extraneous detail and much more.
Examples of these programs are adobe photoshop, adobe illustrator and corel draw.
1.26 Fundamentals of Computing an Programming
Presentation applications