Department of Computer Science and Engineering,

PES University, Bangalore, India

Lecture Notes
Problem Solving With C
UE24CS151B

Lecture #1
Prelude

By,
Prof. Sindhu R Pai,
Theory Anchor, Feb-May, 2025
Assistant Professor
Dept. of CSE, PESU

Many Thanks to
Dr. Shylaja S S (Director, CCBD and CDSAML Research Center, PES University)
Prof. Nitin V Poojari (Dean, Internal Quality Assurance Cell, PES University)
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Unit #: 1
Unit Name: Problem Solving Fundamentals
Topic: Prelude

Course objectives: The objective(s) of this course is to make students

 Acquire knowledge on how to solve relevant and logical problems using computing
Machine.
 Map algorithmic solutions to relevant features of C programming language constructs.
 Gain knowledge about C constructs and its associated ecosystem.
 Appreciate and gain knowledge about the issues with C Standards and it’s respective
behaviours.

Course outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
 Understand and Apply algorithmic solutions to counting problems using appropriate C
Constructs.
 Understand, Analyze and Apply sorting and Searching techniques.
 Understand, Analyze and Apply text processing and string manipulation methods
using Arrays, Pointers and functions.
 Understand user defined type creation and implement the same using C structures,
unions and other ways by reading and storing the data in secondary systems which
are portable.

Sindhu R Pai
Theory Anchor, Feb - May, 2025
Dept. of CSE,
PES University

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Prelude

Let us answer few questions before we start with C.

Q1. What is a Computer Programming Language (CPL)?

 Any set of rules that converts strings, or graphical program elements in the case
of visual programming languages, to various kinds of machine code output.

 A CPL is an artificial language that can be used to control the behaviour of a

machine, particularly a computer.

 CPLs, like human languages, are defined through the use of syntactic and
semantic rules, to determine structure and meaning respectively.

 CPLs are used to implement algorithms.

 CPLs allow us to give instructions to a computer in a language the computer

understands.

 Formal computer language or constructed language designed to communicate

instructionsto a machine, particularly a computer (wiki definition).

 Can be used to create programs to control the behaviour of a machine.

Q2. Why CPL?

 Advance our ability to develop real algorithms.

 Majority of CPLs come with a lot of features for the Computer Programmers
- CP.
 CPLs can be used in a proper way to get the best results.
 Improve Customization of our Current Coding.
 By using basic features of the existing CPL we can simplify things to program
a better option to write resourceful codes.
 There is no compulsion of writing code in a specific way, but rather is the
usage of features used and clarity of the concept.
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Q3. Why so many Programming Languages?

To choose the right language for a given problem. Example Domains are listed –
Web Browsers, Social Networks, Image Viewer, Facebook.com, Bing, Google.com,
Games, Various Operating Systems.

Q4. What are the different Levels of Programming Language?

 Low Level
o Binary codes which CPU executes
o Programmer’s responsibility is more
o Machine Language

 Middle Level
o Offers basic data structure and array definition, but the programmers
shouldtake care of the operations
o C and C++
 High Level
o Programmer concentrates on the algorithm and programming itself
o Java , Python, Pascal

Q5. What is the meaning of Paradigm?

A programming paradigm is a style, or “way,” of programming. Some
languages make it easy to write in some paradigms but not all of them.

Imperative: Programming with an explicit sequence of commands that update state –

Example: python
Declarative: Programming by specifying the result you want, not how to get it
Example: LISP, SQL
Structured: Programming with clean, goto-free, nested control structures
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Example: C Language
Procedural: Imperative programming with procedure calls
Example: C Language.
Functional (Applicative): Programming with function calls that avoid any global state
Examples: Scheme, Haskell, Miranda and JavaScript.
Function-Level (Combinator): Programming with no variables at all
Examples: Scheme, Haskell, Miranda and JavaScript.
Object-Oriented: Programming by defining objects that send messages to each other.
Objects have their own internal (encapsulated) state and public interfaces.
Class-based: Objects get state and behavior based on membership in a class.
Prototype-based: Objects get behavior from a prototype object.
Examples: Java, C++, Python
Event-Driven: Programming with emitters and listeners of asynchronous actions.
Flow-Driven: Programming processes communicating with each other over
predefined channels.
Logic (Rule-based): Programming by specifying a set of facts and rules. An engine
infers the answers to questions.
Constraint: Programming by specifying a set of constraints. An engine finds the values
that meet the constraints.
Aspect-Oriented: Programming cross-cutting concerns applied transparently.
Reflective: Programming by manipulating the program elements themselves.
Array: Programming with powerful array operators that usually make loops
unnecessary.

Q6: Which Languages are used while Developing Whatsapp? Think. !

Erlang, JqGrid, Libphonenum, LightOpenId, PHP5, Yaws and many more…

Q7. Why should one learn C? What are the advantages of ‘C’? Is not ‘C’ an
outdated language?

We have to fill our stomach every day 3 or 4 times so that our brain and
body get enough energy to function. How about eating Vidyarthi Bhavan Dosa

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every day? What about Fridays when the eatery is closed? Why not buy Dosa
batter from some nearby shop? Or do you prefer to make the batter yourself?
Would you have time to do that? Would that depend on how deep your pockets
are? Would you like to decrease your medical bills?

Every language has a philosophy. The language used by poets may not be
suitable for conversation. Poets use ambiguity in meaning to their advantage, and
some verses in Sanskrit have more than one meaning. But that will not be suitable
for writing a technical report. The goal of ‘C’ is efficiency. The safety is in the hands
of the programmer. ‘C’ does very little apart from what the programmer has asked
for.

Example: When we index outside the bounds of a list in Python, we get an

“index error” at runtime. To support this feature, Python runtime should know the
current size of a list and should also check whether the index is valid each time we
index on a list. You are all very good programmers, and I am sure you never get an
index error. You get what you deserve. If you are lucky, the program crashes.
Otherwise, something subtle may happen, which later may lead to catastrophic
failures.

 C gives importance to efficiency

 C is not very safe; you can make your program safe

 C is not very strongly typed; mixing of types may not result in errors

 C is the language of choice for all hardware related softwares

 C is the language of choice for software’s like operating system, compilers,

linkers, loaders, device drivers.

Q8. Is ‘C’ not an old language?

Yes and No.

It was designed by Dennis Ritchie –We use ‘C’ like languages and Unix
like operating systems both have his contribution – in 70s. But the language has
evolved over a period. The latest ‘C’ was revised in 2011.
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There is one more reason to learn ‘C’. ‘C’ is the second most popular
language as of now according to TIOBE index ratings.
https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/.

Q9. What is TIOBE Index?

● The Importance Of Being Earnest” - TIOBE.

● TIOBE is an indicator of the popularity of programming languages.
● The TIOBE index is updated once a month.
● The ratings are based on the number of skilled engineers world-wide,
courses and third party vendors.
● Popular search engines such as Google, Bing, Yahoo!, Wikipedia, Amazon,
YouTube and Bing are used
● It is not about the best programming language or the language in
which most lines of code have been written.

Q10: What is the history of PLs?

● 1820-1850 England, Charles Babbage invented two mechanical
Computational device i.e., Analytical Engine and Difference Engine

● In 1942, United States, ENIAC used electrical signals instead of physical

motion

● In 1945, Von Newman developed two concepts: Shared program technique

and Conditional control transfer

● In 1949, Short code appeared

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● In 1951, Grace Hopper wrote first compiler, A-0

● Fortran: 1957, John Backus designed.

● Lisp, Algol- 1958

● Cobol: 1959

● Pascal: 1968, Niklaus Wirth

● C: 1972, D Ritchie

● C++: 1983, Bjarne Stroustrup, Compile time type checking, templates are
used.

● Java: 1995, J. Gosling, Rich set of APIs and portable across platform through
the use of JVM

● Development of C
● Martin Richards, around 60’s developed BCPL [Basic Combined
Programming Language]
● Enhanced by Ken Thompson and Introduced B language.
● C is originally developed between 1969 and 1973 at Bell Labs by
Dennis Ritchie and Kernighan. Closely tied to the development of
the Unix operating system

● Standardized by the ANSI [American National Standards Institute]

since 1989 and subsequently by ISO [International Organization for
Standardization].

● ANSI C, C89, C99, C11, C17, or C23

Happy Coding!

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Introduction to C in the era of AI

C has been a foundational programming language for decades, known for its
efficiency, portability, and close-to-hardware capabilities. Despite the rise of high-
level languages like Python, C remains relevant in AI development, especially in
performance-critical areas.

Why C still matters?

 Performance & Efficiency – AI applications often require high-speed
computation. C provides faster execution than interpreted languages,
making it crucial for optimizing AI models.
 Embedded AI & Edge Computing – AI models are increasingly deployed
on IoT devices, robotics, and embedded systems where C is widely used due
to its lightweight nature.
 Interfacing with AI Frameworks – Many AI libraries (e.g., TensorFlow,
PyTorch) have C or C++ backends, allowing deep integration for
performance enhancements.
 Parallel Processing & GPU Acceleration – AI applications leverage
parallelism, and C interfaces with CUDA, OpenCL, and other GPU libraries
for efficient computations.

Use Cases of C in AI
 AI Accelerators & Hardware Optimization – Writing low-level code for AI chips and
FPGAs.
 Memory Optimization in Large Models – Managing memory more efficiently than
high-level languages.
 Embedded AI Applications – AI-powered sensors, real-time inference on
microcontrollers.
 Algorithm Development – Implementing AI algorithms with custom optimizations for
speed and memory use.

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While Python dominates AI research, learning C can be highly beneficial for

optimizing performance and efficiency. It enables AI enhancements through C
extensions in Python, such as NumPy and SciPy, allowing faster computations. C is
also valuable for developing AI applications in low-resource environments,
including embedded systems and IoT devices. Additionally, it provides a deeper
understanding of computation and memory management, essential for building
high-performance AI solutions. In conclusion, combining C with AI-centric
languages like Python enables developers to build efficient and scalable AI
solutions.

Features of C Language
Simple and Efficient:
The basic syntax style of implementing C language is very simple and easy to learn.
This makes the language easily comprehensible and enables a programmer to redesign or
create a new application. C is usually used as an introductory language to
introduce programming to school students because of this feature.

Fast:
It is a well-known fact that statically typed programming languages are faster than
dynamic ones. C is a statically typed programming language, which gives it an edge over other
dynamic language. Also, unlike Java and Python, which are interpreter-based, C is a compiler-
based program. This makes the compilation and execution of codes faster. Another factor that
makes C fast is the availability of only the essential and required features. Newer
programming languages come with
numerous features, which increase functionality but reduce efficiency and speed. Since C
offers limited but essential features, the headache of processing these features reduces,
increasing speed.

Portability:
Another feature of the C language is portability. To put it simply, C programs are
machine-independent which means that you can run the fraction of a code created in C on

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various machines with none or some machine-specific changes. Hence, it provides the
functionality of using a single code on multiple systems depending on the requirement.

Extensibility:
You can easily (and quickly) extend a C program. This means that if a code is already
written, you can add new features to it with a few alterations. Basically, it allows adding new
features, functionalities, and operations to an existing C program.

Function-Rich Libraries:
C comes with an extensive set of libraries with several built-in functions that make the
life of a programmer easy. Even a beginner can easily code using these built-in functions. You
can also create your user-defined functions and add them to C libraries. The availability of
such a vast scope of functions and operations allows a programmer to build a vast array of
programs and applications.

Dynamic Memory Management:

One of the most significant features of C language is its support for dynamic memory
management (DMA). It means that you can utilize and manage the size of the data structure in
C during runtime. C also provides several predefined functions to work with memory
allocation. For instance, you can use the free () function to free up the allocated memory at any
time. Similarly, there are other functions such as malloc (), calloc (), and realloc () to perform
operations on data structure and memory allocations.

Modularity with Structured Language:

C is a general-purpose structured language. This feature of C language allows you to
break a code into different parts using functions which can be stored in the form of libraries for
future use and reusability. Structuring the code using functions increases the visual appeal and
makes the program more organized and less prone to errors.

Mid-Level Programming Language:

Although C was initially developed to do only low-level programming, it now also
supports the features and functionalities of high-level programming, making it a mid-level
language. And as a mid-level programming language, it provides the best of both worlds. For

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instance, C allows direct manipulation of hardware, which high-level programming languages

do not offer.

Pointers:
With the use of pointers in C, you can directly interact with memory. As the name
suggests, pointers point to a specific location in the memory and interact directly with it. Using
the C pointers, you can operate with memory, arrays, functions, and structures.

Recursion:
C language provides the feature of recursion. Recursion means that you can create a
function that can call itself multiple times until a given condition is true, just like the loops.
Recursion in C programming provides the functionality of code reusability and backtracking.

C Programming Environment
The C programming environment consists of several essential components that enable
writing, compiling, debugging, and executing C programs efficiently. It includes a text editor,
a compiler, a linker, a debugger, and a runtime environment.

Text Editor – Used to write and edit C source code files (.c). Common editors include VS Code,
Sublime Text, and Notepad++.

Compiler – Translates C source code into machine code. Popular C compilers include GCC
(GNU Compiler Collection), Clang, and MSVC (Microsoft Visual C++).

Preprocessor – Handles directives like #include, #define, and #ifdef before compilation.

Assembler & Linker – The assembler converts assembly code to machine code, while the
linker combines multiple object files and links required libraries to create an executable.

Debugger – Tools like GDB (GNU Debugger) and LLDB help identify and fix errors in the code
by allowing step-by-step execution and inspecting variable states.

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Standard Libraries – C relies on standard libraries such as stdio.h, stdlib.h, and math.h for
essential functions like input/output operations and mathematical computations.

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) – IDEs like Code::Blocks, Dev-C++, Turbo C++,
and Eclipse provide an all-in-one environment for writing, compiling, debugging, and
executing C programs.

Execution Environment – The compiled C program runs in an operating system environment

such as Windows, Linux, or macOS, interacting with system resources through system calls.

We will start exploring C Constructs in the upcoming lecture notes by

solving some of the interesting Problems. Happy Coding!

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Introduction to GCC
The original author of the GNU C Compiler is Richard Stallman, the founder of the
GNU Project. GNU stands for GNU's not Unix. The GNU Project was started in 1984 to create
a complete Unix-like operating system as free software, in order to promote freedom and
cooperation among computer users and programmers. The first release of gcc was made in
1987, as the first portable ANSI C optimizing compiler released as free software. A major
revision of the compiler came with the 2.0 series in 1992, which added the ability to compile
C++. The acronym gcc is now used to refer to the “GNU Compiler Collection”
GCC has been extended to support many additional languages, including Fortran,
ADA, Java and Objective-C. Its development is guided by the gcc Steering Committee, a
group composed of representatives from gcc user communities in industry, research and
academia

Features of GCC:
● A portable compiler, it runs on most platforms available today, and can produce
output for many types of processors
● Supports microcontrollers, DSPs and 64-bit CPUs
● It is not only a native compiler, it can also cross-compile any program, producing
executable files for a different system from the one used by gcc itself.
● Allows software to be compiled for embedded systems
● Written in C with a strong focus on portability, and can compile itself, so it can be
adapted to new systems easily
● It has multiple language frontends, for parsing different languages
● It can compile or cross-compile programs in each language, for any architecture
Example: Can compile an ADA program for a microcontroller or a C program for a
supercomputer
● It has a modular design, allowing support for new languages and architectures to be
added.
● It is free software, distributed under the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL),
which means we have the freedom to use and to modify gcc, as with all GNU

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software.
● gcc users have the freedom to share any enhancements and also make use of
enhancements to gcc developed by others.

Installation of gcc on different Operating systems:

 Windows OS – Installation of gcc using Mingw.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXW2VLrQ3Bs
 Linux /MAC OS – gcc available by default

Program Development Life Cycle [PDLC]

Phases involved in PDLC are Editing, Pre-processing, Compilation, Linking, Loading
and execution.

The stages for a C program to become an executable are the following:

1. Editing:

We enter the program into the computer. This is called editing. We save the
sourceprogram. Let us create first.c

$ gedit first.c // press

enter key#include

<stdio.h>

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int main()

{ // This is a comment

//Helps to understand the code Used for readability

printf(“Hello Friends”);

return 0;
}// Save this code in first.c

2. Pre-Processing:
In this stage, the following tasks are done:

a. Macro substitution–To be discussed in detail in Unit-5

b. Comments are stripped off

c. Expansion of the included files

The output is called a translation unit or translation.

To understand Pre-processing better, compile the above ‘first.c’ program using flag -E, which
willprint the pre-processed output to stdout.

$ gcc -E first.c// No file is created. Output of pre–processing on the standard output-terminal

......

# 846 "/usr/include/stdio.h" 3 4

# 886 "/usr/include/stdio.h" 3 4

extern void flockfile (FILE * stream) attribute ((

nothrow )); extern int ftrylockfile (FILE * stream) attribute

((

nothrow )) ; extern void funlockfile (FILE * stream)

attribute ((

nothrow ));

......

# 916 "/usr/include/stdio.h" 3 4
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#2

"first.c"

int

main()

printf("HelloFriends");

return0;

In the above output, you can see that the source file is now filled with lots of information,
but still at the end of it we can see the lines of code written by us. Some of the observations
are as below.
 Comment that we wrote in our original code is not there. This proves that all the
comments are stripped off.
 The ‘#include’ is missing and instead of that we see whole lot of code in its place.
So it is safe to conclude that stdio.h has been expanded and literally included in
our source file.

3. Compiling

Compilation refers to the process of converting a program from the textual source
code into machine code, the sequence of 1’s and 0’s used to control the central processing
unit (CPU) of the computer. Machine code is then stored in a file known as an executable
file. C programs can be compiled from a single source file or from multiple source files, and
may use system libraries and header files. Compiler processes statements written in a
particular programming language and converts them into machine language or "code" that
a computer's processor uses. The translation is compiled. The output is called an object file.
There may be more than one translation. So, we may get multiple object files. When
compiling with ‘-c’, the compiler automatically creates an object file whose name is the
same as the source file, but with ‘.o’ instead of the original extension

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gcc -c first.c

This command does pre-processing and compiling. Output of this command is first.o ->
Object file.

4. Linking

It is a computer program that takes one or more object files generated by a compiler
and combine them into one, executable program. Computer programs are usually made up
of multiple modules that span separate object files, each being a compiled computer
program. This is the stage at which all the linking of function calls with their definitions are
done. Till stage, gcc doesn’t know about the definition of functions like printf(). Until the
compiler knows exactly where all of these functions are implemented, it simply uses a
place-holder for the function call. The definition of printf() is resolved and the actual
address of the function printf() is plugged in. We put together all these object files along
with the predefined library routines by linking. The output is called as image or a loadable
image with the name a.out [linux based] or a.exe[windows]
gcc first.o // Linking to itself
// If more than one object files are created after compilation, all must be mentioned
with gcc and linked here to get one executable.

If a file with the same name[a.out/a,exe] as the executable file already exists in the current
directory it will be overwritten. This can be avoided by using the gcc option -o. This is
usually given as the last argument on the command line.
gcc first.o -o PESU // loadable image - Output file name is PESU

5. Executing the loadable image

Loader loads the image into the memory of the computer. This creates a process
when command is issued to execute the code. We execute or run the process. We get some
results. In ‘C’, we get what we deserve!

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In windows,
a.exe and press enter
OR
PESU and press enter

In Linux based systems,

./aout and press enter
OR
./PESU and press enter

For interested students:

The following options of gcc are a good choice for finding problems in C and C++ programs.
gcc -ansi -pedantic -Wall -W -Wconversion -Wshadow -Wcast-qual -Wwrite-strings

Happy Coding!

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Characteristics of a C Program
- The language is case sensitive.
- The program is immune to indentation. ‘C’ follows the free format source code concept.
The way of presentation of the program to the compiler has no effect on the logic of the
program. However, we should properly indent the program so that the program becomes
readable for humans. When you prepare a new dish, I am sure you will also consider how
you present it.
- The program has a well-defined entry point. Every program has to have an entry point
called main, which is the starting point of execution.
int main() // execution begins here
{ printf(“Hello Friends”);
return 0;
}
Think: Why the main function has the return type int? Why not something else ?
Can we have something else? Is it a good practice?
- A program in ‘C’ normally has one or more pre-processor directives. These start with a
symbol #. One of the directives is “include”.
 #include <stdio.h>

The above line asks the translator to find the file whose name is stdio.h at some location in
our file system and read and expand it at that point in the ‘C’ code.

- A program in ‘C’ has to have a function called main. It is invoked(called) from some
external agency – like ourshell. It is the duty of this function to tell the caller whether it
succeeded or failed. So, by convention, main returns 0 on success and non-zero on failure.
Refer to coding example_1 for more details.

- A block contains a number of statements. Each statement ends in a semicolon. This symbol ;
plays the role of statement terminator

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Program structure

Consists of different sections of which few are optional and other few are mandatory
sections. Refer to the below diagram.

Documentation Section: Optional but always good to have. Usually contains the
information about the code in terms of comments

// Single line comment

/* multi line/ block Comments */

Link Section: Provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system library
such as using the #include directive. Basically Header files that are required to execute a C
program are included in the Link section.

Definition Section: This is the optional section

Contains the definitions of functions before calling the functions

Global Declaration Section: This is the optional section

Contains global variables declaration and function declaration(no body, only
prototype/signature)

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Main function Section: Every C program must have one main function section. Contains
two parts: the declaration part and the executable part. Declaration part declares all the
variables used in the executable part. Executable part: There is at least one statement in the
executable part. These two parts must appear between the opening and closing braces. The
program execution begins at the opening brace and ends at the closing brace. The closing
brace of the main function is the logical end of the program. All statements in the
declaration and executable part end with a semicolon.

Sub program section: Optional section and contains user defined functions. We will discuss in
Unit – 2.

Coding example_1: // Importance of return value in main

int main() // this code is saved as main.c
{ printf(“welcome to main function in C”); return 0; }
Execute the above code using below steps:
gcc -c main.c // press enter - main.o gets created if no error
gcc main.o // press enter - executable gets created if no error
a.exe // prints welcome to main function in C

If someone wants to know whether the recently executed process is executed successfully
or not, this return value is very helpful.
After you get the output, use below commands to know what the return value of recently
executed process.
echo %ERRORLEVEL% // in windows
echo $? // in linux based systems
Must return 0 to represent the success[by convention 0 is success]. Modify the code as
below.
int main() // this code is saved as main.c
{
printf(“welcome to main function in C”);
}
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Repeat the same steps as mentioned in the first case, there is no way to get the success or
failure info about the recently executed process. Results in some random value other than 0.

Coding example_2: // Compilation using different C Standards

__STDC_VERSION__: A macro defined in stdio.h
To understand better, use codes using –E option of GCC. gcc -E
// file saved as first.c
int main()
{ printf("C standard is %d\n",__STDC_VERSION__);
return 0;
}
Preprocessing and Compilation using C99: gcc –std=c99 -c first.c
Linking remains the same: gcc first.o
Execute: a.exe OR ./a.out
Output: C standard is 199901

Preprocessing and Compilation using C11: gcc –std=c11 -c first.c

Linking remains the same: gcc first.o
Execute: a.exe OR ./a.out
Output: C standard is 201112

Preprocessing and Compilation using C89: gcc –std=c89 -c first.c

Results in Compile time Error as this macro is not available in C89 standard

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Error(s) in C Code

Error is a mistake, the state or condition of being wrong in conduct or judgement, a

measure of the estimated difference between the observed or calculated value of a
quantity and its true value. Error is an illegal operation performed by the programmer
which results in abnormal working of the program. Error is also known as bugs in the world
of programming that may occur unwillingly which prevent the program to compile and run
correctly as per the expectation of the programmer. We deal with four kinds of errors as of
now.
Compile time Error
Link time Error
Run time Error
Logical Error

Compile time Error

Deviation from the rules of the Language or violating the rules of the language
results in compile time Error. Whenever there is Compile Time Error, object file(.o file) will
not be created. Hence linking is not possible. When the programmer does not follow the
syntax of any programming language, then the compiler will throw the Syntax Error which
are also compile time errors. Syntax Errors are easy to figure out because the compiler
highlights the line of code that caused the error.
Coding Exampe_3:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("hello friends); //" missing at the end
printf("%d",12/2) // ; missing at the end of statement
return 0;
}

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Link time Error

Errors encountered when the executable file of the code cannot be generated even
though the code gets compiled successfully. This usually happens due to the mismatch
between Function call and function definitions. When you compile the code, object file
gets created. Sometimes with a warning. During linking, definition of Printf is not
available in the included file. Hence Link time Error. No loadable object will be created due
to this error. This Error is generated when a different object file is unable to link with the
main object file.

Coding Exampe_4:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ Printf("hello friends"); // P is capital
printf("%d",12/2);
return 0;
}

Run time Error

Errors that occur during the execution (or running) of a program are called Runtime
Errors. These errors occur after the program has been compiled and linked successfully.
When the code is compiled, object file(.o file) will be created. Then during linking,
executable will be created. When you run a loadable image, code terminates throwing an
error. Generally occurs due to some illegal operation performed in the program. Examples
of some illegal operations that may produce runtime errors are: Dividing a number by zero,
trying to open a file which is not created and lack of free memory space.

Coding Exampe_5:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ printf("hello friends");
printf("%d",12/0); // Observe 12/0
printf("bye friends");
return 0; }

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Logical Error:
Even though the code seems error free, the output generated is different
from the expected one. Logical error occurs when the code runs completely but
the expected output is not same as the actual output.
Coding Example_6:
#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
printf("%d",12/21); //By Mistake entered 21 instead of 2
return 0;
}

Warning(s) in C:
Warnings are diagnostic messages that report constructions which are not
inherently erroneous but which are risky or suggest there may have been an error or crash
in future. The compiler distinguishes between error messages, which prevent successful
compilation, and warning messages which indicate possible problems but do not stop the
program from compiling. It is very dangerous to develop a program without checking for
compiler warnings. If there are any functions which are not used correctly they can cause the
program to crash or produce incorrect results. Turning on the compiler warning option ‘-Wall’
for safety will catch many of the commonest errors which occur in c programming.
Why the warning must be enabled?

C and C++ compilers are notoriously bad at reporting some common programmer
mistakes by default, such as:

 forgetting to initialise a variable

 forgetting to return a value from a function

 arguments in printf and scanf families not matching the format string

 a function is used without being declared beforehand (C only)

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Most compilers understand options like -Wall, -Wpedantic and -Wextra. -Wall is essential
and all the rest are recommended (note that, despite its name, -Wall only enables the
most important warnings, not all of them). These options can be used separately or all
together.

Error vs warning

Errors report problems that make it impossible to compile your program. GCC
reports errors with the source file name and line number where the problem is apparent.
Warnings report other unusual conditions in your code that may indicate a problem,
although compilation can proceed.

Coding Example_7:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
printf("enter the number\n");
scanf("%d",a);
printf("you entered %d\n",a);
return 0;
}
Without -wall option, there is no warning or error. But results in Runtime Error when the
code is run using the executable.

The above code compilation using –Wall is as below. This creates the object file. But at
runtime, it fails to execute.

Happy Error Finding!!

Department of CSE, PESU 1
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Input and Output functions in C

Input and output functions are available in the c language to perform the most
common tasks.
In every c program, three basic functions take place namely accepting of data as input, the
processing of data, and the generation of output.
When a programmer says input, it would mean that they are feeding some data in the
program. Programmer can give this input from the command line or in the form of any file.
The c programming language comes with a set of various built-in functions for reading the
input and then feeding it to the available program as per our requirements.
When a programmer says output, they mean displaying some data and information
on the printer, the screen, or any other file. The c programming language comes with various
built-in functions for generating the output of the data on any screen or printer, and also
redirecting the output in the form of binary files or text file.

Simple Output functions in C

Two Types: Formatted Output function and Unformatted output function

Formatted Output function - printf

The C library function printf() sends formatted output to stdout. A predefined
function in "stdio.h" header file. By using this function, we can print the data or user
defined message on console or monitor. On success, it returns the number of characters
successfully written on the output. On failure, a negative number is returned.

int printf(const char *format, ...)

 printf("hello Friends");
The first argument to printf is a string. The output depends on this string. String
literals in ‘C’ are enclosed in double quotes.

 printf("hello ", "friends"); // hello

Output depends on the first string. As there is no interpretation of the second
parameter, it would not appear in the output.

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 printf("hello %s\n", "friends\n"); // hello friends

The presence of %s in the first string makes the function printf look for the next
parameter and interpret it as a string.

 printf("%s %s %s %s\n", "one", "two", "three", "four");

The function printf takes variable number of arguments. All arguments are
interpreted as the number of %s matches the number of strings following the first
string.

 printf("%s %s%s %s\n", "one", "two", "three");

NO! we are in for trouble. There is no argument for the 4th%s in the format string.
So, printf tries to interpret as a string. If we are lucky, the program will crash. We
have an “undefined behaviour”. C does no checking at runtime!

 printf("%5d and %5d is %6d\n", 20, 30, 20 + 30); // Discussed in detail:Format

String Arguments to printf can be expressions – Then the expressions are
evaluated and theirvalues are passed as arguments.
%d : indicates to printf to interpret the next parameter as an integer.
%5d : tells printf to display the integer using 5 character width.

 int a = 20; int n = printf("%d\n",a);// printf executes and returns # of

characterssuccessfully printed on the terminal
printf(“n is %d”,n); //2

 printf("what : %d\n", 2.5);

GOD if any should help the programmer who writes such code!! undefined
behaviour. In ‘C’, type is a compile mechanism and value is a runtime mechanism. As
the goal of ‘C’ is efficiency, only values are stored at runtime. There is no way to
infer the type by lookingat the bit pattern. There is no translator at runtime in ‘C’

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Note: All the code that executes at runtime should be compiled and cannot be
added at runtime.

Let us look at our present example. printf("what : %d\n", 2.5);

The function printf takes varying number of arguments. In such cases, the compiler
cannot match arguments and parameters for type. So, the compiler might emit some
warning (if it knows what printf expects) –but cannot throw errors.
As the compiler does not know that 2.5 should be converted to an integer, it does not do
any conversion. So, the compiler puts the value of 2.5 the way it is expected to be stored –
as per the standard IEEE 754. This standard uses what is called mantissa exponent format to
store fractional (floating point) values.
At runtime, printf tries to interpret the bit pattern as an integer when it encounters the
format %d. At runtime, no conversion can occur –we do not even know that what is stored
as a bit pattern is a floating point value –Even if we know, there is no way to effect a
conversion as we do not have a compiler at that point. We end up getting some undefined
value. So, in ‘C’, you get what you deserve.

Format string
Used for the beautification of the output. The format string is of the form
% [flags] [field_width] [.precision] conversion_character
where components in brackets [ ] are optional. The minimum requirement is % and a
conversioncharacter (e.g. %d). Below conversion characters for each type of data.
%d : dec int
%x : hex int
%o : oct int
%f : float
%c : char
%p : address
%lf : double
%s : string–[Will be discussed in detail in Unit-2]
float c = 2.5;

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printf("%4.2f\n",c);// width.precission , f is type

printf("%2.1f\n",c);// data will not be lost

printf("%-5d %d\n",16,b);//-for left justification

Escape sequences
Represented by two key strokes and represents one character.
\n newline--move cursor to next line
\t tab space
\r carriage return --Move cursor to the beginning of that line
\a alarm or bell
\" double quote
\' single quote
\\ black slash
\b back space
printf("rama\nkrishna\bheema\n");//ramakrishnabheema
printf("rama\rkri\rbh"); // bhia \r works differently in different platforms.
//Wewill not discuss more about this
printf("rama\tbheema\n"); // ramabheema printf("\"mahabharatha\"");
//"mahabharatha"
printf("rama\b\bbheema"); // rabheema

Unformatted output functions

These functions are not capable of controlling the format that is involved in writing
the available data. Hence these functions constitute the most basic forms of output. The
display of output isn’t allowed in the user format, hence we call these functions as
unformatted functions. The unformatted output functions further have two categories:
Character functions and string functions
Character functions: putchar – This will be discussed in Lecture-15
String functions: puts – This will be discussed in Unit - 2

Happy Coding using Output functions!!

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Basic constructs in C
C program consists of various tokens and a token can be any identifier -> a
keyword, variable, constant or any symbol. For example, the following C statement
consists of five tokens.
printf("HelloFriend
s");The individual tokens
are − printf
(
"HelloFriends"
)
;

Identifiers
An identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-
defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z, a to z, or an underscore '_' followed by
zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0 to 9). C does not allow few punctuation
characters such as #, @ and % within identifiers. As C is a case-sensitive programming
language, Manpower and manpower are two different identifiers in C.
Here are some examples of acceptable identifiers
_sum stud_name a_123 myname50 temp j count123 printf

Keywords
The keywords are identifiers which have special meaning in C and hence cannot
be used as constants or variables. There are 32 keywords in C Language.

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Variables

This is the most important concept in all languages. Variable is a name given to a
storage area that our programs can manipulate. It has a name, a value, a location and a
type. It also has something called life, scope, qualifiers etc. Variables are used to store
information to be referenced and manipulated in a computer program. It provides a way
of labeling data with a descriptive name, so our programs can be understood more clearly
by the reader and ourselves. It is helpful to think of Variables as containers that hold data
or information. Purpose of Variables is to label and store data in memory, which then
can be used throughout the program.

Sometimes, the runtime makes variables with no names. These are called
temporary variables. We cannot access them by name as we have no name in our
vocabulary. A variable has a type. In ‘C’, type should be specified before a variable is
ever used. We define the variable with respect to type before using it. We cannot define
the variable more than once.

Examples: int a; double b;

Rules for naming a Variable aka User defined Identifier:

A Variable name cannot be same as the keyword in c Language. A Variable name
should not be same as the standard identifiers in c Language. A Variable name can only have
letters (both uppercase and lowercase letters), digits and underscore. The first letter of a
Variable should be either a letter or an underscore. There is no rule on how long a variable
name aka user defined identifier can be. Variable name may run into problems in some
compilers, if the variable name is longer than 31 characters. C is a strongly typed language,
which means that the variable type cannot be changed once it is declared.

The type of a variable can never change during the program execution. The type
decides what sort of values this variable can take and what operations we can perform.
Type is a compile time mechanism. The size of a value of a type is implementation
dependent and is fixed for a particular implementation.

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Variable is associated with three important terms: Declaration, Definition and Initialization.

 Declaration of a variable is for informing to the compiler about the name of the
variable and the type of value it holds. Declaration gives details about the
properties of a variable.

 Definition of a variable: The variable gets stored. i.e., memory for the variable is
allocated during the definition of the variable.

If we want to only declare variables and not to define it i.e. we do not want to
allocate memory, then the following declaration can be used.
extern int a; // We will discuss this in Unit – 2
 Initialization of a variable: We can initialize a variable at the point of definition. An
uninitialized variable within a block has some undefined value. ‘C’ does not
initialize any default value.
int c = 100;
int d; // undefined value !! variable can be assigned a value later in the code
int c = 200;
int c; // Declaration again throws an error
d = 300;
Note: Assignment is considered as an expression in ‘C’ .

Data Types

In programming, data type is a classification that specifies type of value and what
type of mathematical, relational or logical operations can be applied to it without
causing an error. It deals with the amount of storage to be reserved for the specified
variable. Significance of data types are given below:

1) Memory allocation
2) Range of values allowed
3) Operations that are bound to this type
4) Type of data to be stored
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Size of a type:
The size required to represent a value of that type. Can be found using an operator
called sizeof. The size of a type depends on the implementation. We should never
conclude that the size of an int is 4 bytes. Can you answer this question –How many pages a
book has? What is the radius of Dosa we get in different eateries?

The sizeof operator is the most common operator in C. It is a compile-time unary operator
and is used to compute the size of its operand. It returns the size of a variable/value/type. It
can be applied to any data type, float type, pointer type variables When sizeof() is used with
the data types, it simply gives the amount of memory allocated to that data type. The
output can be different on different machines like a 32-bit system can show different
output while a 64-bit system can show different of same data types.

The size of a type is decided on an implementation based on efficiency. C standards follow

the below Rules.
sizeof(short int)<=sizeof(int)<=sizeof(long int)<=sizeof(long long
int)<= sizeof(float)<=sizeof(double)<=sizeof(long double)

Classification of Data types

Data types are categorized into primary and non-primary (secondary) types.
Primary ---> int, float, double, char, void
Secondary---> Derived and User-defined types

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Data types can be extended using qualifiers:

Size and Sign Qualifiers. - This will be discussed in Lecture-6.

Literals
Literals are the constant values assigned to the constant variables. There are four
types of literals that exist in c programming:
1. Integer literal
2. Float literal
3. Character literal
4. String literal – Will be discussed in Unit – 2

Constant is basically a named memory location in a program that holds a single value
throughout the execution of that program

Integer Literal: It is a numeric literal that represents only integer type values. Represents
the value neither in fractional nor exponential part. Can be specified in the following three
way.s
Decimal number (base 10): It is defined by representing the digits between 0 to 9.
Example: 1,3,65 etc
Octal number (base 8): It is defined as a number in which 0 is followed by digits such
as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. Example: 032, 044, 065, etc
Hexadecimal number (base 16): It is defined as a number in which 0x or 0X is

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followed by the hexadecimal digits (i.e., digits from 0 to 9, alphabetical characters from (a-f)
or (A-F))
Example: 0XFE, oxfe etc..
Float Literal: It is a literal that contains only floating-point values or real numbers. These
real numbers contain the number of parts such as integer part, real part, exponential
part, and fractional part. The floating-point literal must be specified either in decimal or in
exponential form.
Decimal form: Must contain decimal point, real part, or both. If it does not contain
either of these, then the compiler will throw an error. The decimal notation can be prefixed
either by '+' or '-' symbol that specifies the positive and negative numbers. Example: +9.5, -
18.738
Exponential form: The exponential form is useful when we want to represent the
number, which is having a big magnitude. It contains two parts, i.e., mantissa and
exponent. Example: the number is 3450000000000, and it can be expressed as 3.45e12 in
an exponential form

Rules for creating an exponential notation: The mantissa can be specified either in
decimal or fractional form An exponent can be written in both uppercase and lowercase,
i.e., e and E.
We can use both the signs, i.e., positive and negative, before the mantissa and exponent.
Spaces are not allowed.

Character Literal: Contains a single character enclosed within single quotes. If we try to
store more than one character in a character literal, then the warning of a multi-character
character constant will be generated. A character literal can be represented in the following
ways:
It can be represented by specifying a single character within single quotes.
Example: 'x', 'y', etc.
We can specify the escape sequence character within single quotes to represent a character
literal.
Example, '\n', '\t', '\b'.

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We can also use the ASCII in integer to represent a character literal.

Example: the ascii value of 65 is 'A'.
The octal and hexadecimal notation can be used as an escape sequence to represent a
character literal.
Example, '\043', '\0x22'.

Think! What is the maximum and minimum integer value I can store in a variable?
The limits.h header file determines various properties of the various variable
types. The macros defined in this header, limits the values of various variable types like
char, int and long. These limits specify that a variable cannot store any value beyond these
limits The values indicated in the table are implementation-specific and defined with the
#define directive, but these values may not be any lower than what is given in the table.

The float.h header file of the c Standard Library contains a set of various platform-
dependent constants related to floating point values. These constants are proposed by
ANSI C. They allow making more portable programs.

Coding Example_1:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<limits.h>
#include<float.h>
int main()

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{
int a = 8;
char p = 'c';
double d = 89.7;
int e = 0113; // octal literal
/*printf("%d\n",e);
printf("%o\n",e);
printf("%X\n",e);
printf("%x\n",e);
*/
//int h = 0xRG; // error
int h = 0xA;
//printf("%d",h);
int i = 0b111;
//printf("%d",i);
//printf("%d %d %d %d\n",sizeof(int),sizeof(short int),sizeof(p),sizeof(long));
//int g = 787878787888888787;
int g = 2147483649;
/*printf("%d\n",INT_MAX);
printf("%d\n",INT_MIN);
printf("%d\n",INT_MIN);
printf("%d\n",INT_MIN);*/
printf("%d\n",CHAR_MAX); printf("%g\n",DBL_MAX);
printf("%g\n",FLT_MAX); printf("%d\n",g);
return 0;
}
Question for you to think!
 What is header file?
 What is Library file?
 Is there any difference between the above two?
Happy Coding using Identifiers in C!!
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Qualifiers in C
Introduction
Qualifiers are keywords which are applied to the data types resulting in Qualified type.
Applied to basic data types to alter or modify its sign or size.

Types of Qualifiers are as follows.

• Size Qualifiers
• Sign Qualifiers
• Type qualifiers

Size Qualifiers
Qualifiers are prefixed with data types to modify the size of a data type allocated to a
variable. Supports two size qualifiers, short and long. The Size qualifier is generally used
with an integer type. In addition, double type supports long qualifier.
Rules regarding size qualifier as per ANSI C standard:
short int <= int <=long int
float <= double <= long double
Note: short int may also be abbreviated as short and long int as long. But, there is no
abbreviation for long double.

Coding Example_1:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ short int i = 100000; // cannot be stored this info with 2 bytes. So warning
int j = 100000; // add more zeros and check when compiler results in warning
long int k = 100000;
printf("%d %d %ld\n",i,j,k);
printf("%d %d %d",sizeof(i),sizeof(j),sizeof(k));
return 0;
}

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Sign Qualifiers
Sign Qualifiers are used to specify the signed nature of integer types. It specifies
whether a variable can hold a negative value or not. It can be used with int and char types
There are two types of Sign Qualifiers in C: signed and unsigned
A signed qualifier specifies a variable which can hold both positive and negative integers
An unsigned qualifier specifies a variable with only positive integers.

Note: In a t-bit signed representation of n, the most significant (leftmost) bit is reserved for the
sign, “0” means positive, “1” means negative.

Coding Example_2:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
unsigned int a = 10;
unsigned int b = -10; // observe this
int c = 10; // change this to -10 and check
signed int d = -10;
printf("%u %u %d %d\n",a,b,c,d);
printf("%d %d %d %d",a,b,c,d);
return 0;
}

Type Qualifiers
A way of expressing additional information about a value through the type system and
ensuring correctness in the use of the data.
Type Qualifiers consists of two keywords i.e., const and volatile.
const
The const keyword is like a normal keyword but the only difference is that once they
are defined, their values can’t be changed. They are also called as literals and their values are
fixed.
Syntax: const data_type variable_name

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Coding Example_3:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ const int height = 100; /*int constant*/
const float number = 3.14; /*Real constant*/
const char letter = 'A'; /*char constant*/
const char letter_sequence[10] = "ABC"; /*string constant*/
const char backslash_char = '\?'; /*special char cnst*/
//height++; //error
printf("value of height :%d \n", height );
printf("value of number : %f \n", number );
printf("value of letter : %c \n", letter );
printf("value of letter_sequence : %s \n", letter_sequence);
printf("value of backslash_char : %c \n", backslash_char); return 0;
}
Output:
value of height : 100
value of number : 3.140000
value of letter : A
value of letter_sequence : ABC
value of backslash_char : ?

Note: In detail explanation of Pointers, constant Pointer and Pointer to constant will be discussed in Unit-2
wrt the Functions Topic.

volatile
It is intended to prevent the compiler from applying any optimizations. Their values
can be changed by the code outside the scope of current code at any time. A type declared as
volatile can’t be optimized because its value can be easily changed by the code. The
declaration of a variable as volatile tells the compiler that the variable can be modified at any
time by another entity that is external to the implementation, for example: by the operating
system or by hardware. Syntax: volatile data_type variable_name

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Applicability of Qualifiers to Basic Types

The below table helps us to understand which Qualifier can be applied to which basic
type of data.

No. Data Type Qualifier

1. char signed, unsigned

2. int short, long, signed, unsigned

3. float No qualifier

4. double long

5. void No qualifier

Happy Coding with Qualifiers!

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Input and Output functions in C

Input and output functions are available in the c language to perform the most
common tasks.
In every c program, three basic functions take place namely accepting of data as input, the
processing of data, and the generation of output.
When a programmer says input, it would mean that they are feeding some data in the
program. Programmer can give this input from the command line or in the form of any file.
The c programming language comes with a set of various built-in functions for reading the
input and then feeding it to the available program as per our requirements.
When a programmer says output, they mean displaying some data and information
on the printer, the screen, or any other file. The c programming language comes with various
built-in functions for generating the output of the data on any screen or printer, and also
redirecting the output in the form of binary files or text file.

Simple Input functions in C

Two Types: Formatted Input function and Unformatted Input function

Formatted input function – scanf

scanf takes a format string as the first argument. The input should match
this string.
int scanf( const char *format, ... );
where
int (integer) is the return type
format is a stringthatcontains the type specifier(s)
"..." (ellipsis) indicates that thefunction accepts a variable number of arguments;
each argument must be amemory address where the converted result is written to.
On success, the function writesthe result into the arguments passed.

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 scanf( "%d%d", &var1,&var2 );// & -address operator is compulsory in scanf for all
primary types
When the user types, 23 11, 23 is written to var1 and 11 is to var2.

 scanf("%d,%d", &a, &b);

scanf has a comma between two format specifiers, the input should have a
commabetween a pair of integers.
 scanf("%d%d\n", &a, &b);
It is not a good practice to have any kind of escape sequence in scanf. In the above
code, it expects two integers. Ex: 20 30. Then if you press enter key, scanf does not
terminate. You need to give some character other than the white space.
The function returns the following value:
>0 - The number of items converted and assigned successfully.
0 - No item was assigned.
<0 - Read error encountered or end-of-file (EOF) reached before any assignment was
made.
 n = scanf("%d",&a);// If user enters 20, a becomes 20 and 1 is returned by the
function.
 n = scanf(“%d,%d”,&a,&b); //If user enters 20 30, a becomes 20, value of b is
undefinedand 1 is returned by the function

Unformatted input functions

A character in programming refers to a single symbol. A character in ‘C’ is like a very
small integer having one of the 256 possible values. It occupies a single byte. We code
English alphabets A as 65, B as 66, Z as 90, a as 97 and so on in a coding scheme called ASCII.
To read a character from the keyboard, we could use
scanf(“%c”, x);We could also use x = getchar();
We prefer the second as it is developed only for handling a single char and therefore more
efficient even though it is not generic. The unformatted input functions further have two
categories: Character functions and string functions
Character functions: getchar(), getche(), getch()
String functions: gets() – This will be discussed in Unit - 2

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Coding Example_1: To read two characters and display them.

int main()
{
char ch = 'p'; // ch is a variable of type char and it can store only one character at a
time.
//Value for a character variable must be within single
quote. // printf("Ch is %c\n",ch);// p
//char ch1 = 'pqrs';// TERRIBLE
CODEprintf("Ch is %c\n",ch);// s
/*
char x; char y;

scanf("%c", &x); scanf("%c", &y);

printf("x:%c y:%c\n", x, y);
*/
x = getchar(); y = getchar(); putchar(x);
putchar(y); printf("%d", y);
return 0;
}
// If I enter P<newline>, x becomes P and y becomes newline
// scanf and printf : generic; not simple
// getchar and putchar : not generic; read /write a char; simple
// If I enter p<space>q, q will not be stored in y. Only space is stored. This can be avoided
using fflush(stdin) function between two getchar function calls. This function clears the key
board buffer.
// fflush(stdin) –windows
// fpurge(stdin) – Linux based. Include <stdio_ext.h> in Linux based
Note: While using scanf for reading character input, care should be taken to handle White
Spaces and Special Characters handling buffering problem.

Happy Coding using Input functions in C!!

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Operators in C
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or
logicalfunctions. Operator is a symbol used for calculations or evaluations

Classification of Operators:
Based on the number of operands.
1) Unary +, -, ++, --, sizeof
,&, *, 2) Binary+, -, *, /, %
3) Ternary ?:

Based on the operation on operands.

1) Arithmetic Operators
+, -, *, /,%
2) Increment and Decrement Operators
++, --
3) Relational
==, !=, >=, >, <=, <
4) Logical
&&, ||, !
5) Bitwise
&, |, ^, >>, <<
6) Address Operator and Dereferencing
Operator
&, *
7) Assignment =
8) Short-hand
+=, -=, *=, /=, %=
9) Misc operators
sizeof

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Arithmetic Operators:
These operators are used to perform arithmetic/mathematical operation and give us
results accordingly.
+ (Plus) – Give sum as a result. Example: 1+2=3

– (Minus) – Give the difference as a result. Example: -1-2=-3

* (Asterisk) – Used for multiplication and given the product as a result. Example: 2*2=4

/ (Forward slash) – Used for division and give quotient as a result. Example: 10/2 = 5

% (modulus) – Gives the remainder as a result. Example: 10 % 11 = 10; 17 %3 = 2

Note: + and –can also be used as unary operators –in such case, the operator is prefixed –
appears to the left of the operand.

If the operands are int for /, the result is int quotient obtained truncation of the result. The
operator

% is defined on integral types only.

If the operands are mixed types(int and double) in operations + -* /, the result is of type
double.

There is no exponentiation operator in C.

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Coding Example_1: Arithmetic operators in an expression

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ printf("%d%d%d%d",2+3,4-2,4*2,5/2); // 5,2,8,2
printf("%d %f %f %f\n", 25 / 4, 25.0 / 4.0, 25.0 / 4, 25 / 4.0);
// 6 6.25 6.25 6.25
// mixed mode
// 25.0 / 4 => 25.0 / (double)4.0
return 0;
}

Increment and Decrement Operators

There are two types of Increment (++) and Decrement (--) Operators.
1. Pre -increment and Pre-decrement operators: First increment or decrement the value
and then use it in the expression.
2. Post -increment and post-decrement operators: First use the value in the expression
and then increment or decrement.

When ++ and --are used in stand-alone expression, pre and post increment and
decrement doesn't make difference.
Coding Example_1: Demonstration of pre and post increment/decrement in stand-alone
expressions
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int i=5; int j=5;
print("Beginning i value is %d\n",i); //5
print("Beginning j value is %d\n",i);
++i;// i++;
printf("Later i value is %d\n",i);
j--;// --j;
printf("Later j value is %d\n",j); return 0;
}
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Coding Example_2: Code which demonstrates the usage of ++ and -- in an expression.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int a=34; int b;
printf("Beginning a value is %d\n",a);// 34
b=a++; // b is 34 and a is incremented to 35
//b=++a;// First increment and then use the value in the expression
// b is 35 and a is 35
printf("b is %d and a is %d\n",b,a);
// same works for pre and post decrement operators
return 0;
}

Relational Operators

Used to check the relationship between the two operands. If the relation is true, it
returns 1. If the relation is false, it returns the value 0. Relational operators are used in
decision-making and loops constructs. Programming language like C which doesn’t support
Boolean data type return result as 1 or 0.

Greater than (>) – Returns true (1) when the left operand value is greater than the
right operand value. Example: 15 >13 is evaluated to 1.

Less than (<): Returns true(1) when the left operand value is less than the right
operand value else false(0). Example: 15 <13 is evaluated to 0.

Greater than or equal to (>=): Return true(1) when the left operand value is greater
than or equal to the right operand value. Example: 15 >=13 is evaluated to 1.

Less than or equal to (<=): Return true(1) when the left operand value is less than or
equal to the right operand. Example: 15 <= 13 is evaluated to 0.

Equal to (==): Returns true when left operand value is equal to right operand value.
Example: 5 == 5 is evaluated to 1.
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Not Equal to (!=): Return true when left operand value is not equal to right operand.
Example: 2 != 3 is evaluated to 0

The result of relational operation is 1 or 0. 1 stands for true and 0 for false. The
relational operators should not be cascaded – not logically supported in C.

Coding Example_3: Demo of cascading of operators in C

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=23; int b=45;
//printf("%d",5==5 && 5==5); //True results in 1
printf(“%d”, 5 == 5 == 5); // results in 0
return 0;
}

Bit-wise Operators
Used for performing bitwise operations on bit patterns or binary numerals that
involve the manipulation of individual bits. Bitwise operators always evaluate both
operands. Bitwise operators work on bits and perform bit-by-bit operations.

& (AND): Example: a & b

|(OR): Example: a | b

^(Exclusive OR (XOR)): Example: a ^ b

~(One’s Complement (NOT)): Example: ~a

>> (Shift Right): Example: a >> 1

<< (Shift Left): Example: a << 1

Few inputs about carrying out arithmetic opertion using bit wise operators
* multiply variable n by 2
n << 1

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* check whether n is odd

n&1
* swap two variables a and b
a=a^b
b=a^b
a=a^b
* check whether ith bit in variable n is 1
n & (1 << i) : 0 implies not set and non 0 implies set
* set the ith bit in n
n = n | 1 << i
* clear the ith bit in n
n = n & ~(1 << i)

Coding Example_4: // Demo of bitwise operators

int main()
{
int a=10;
int b=8;
printf(“%d”,a&b); //8
printf(“%d”,a|b); //10
printf(“%d”,a<<2); //40
printf(“%d”,a>>2); //2
printf("%d",~(10)); //-11
return 0;
}

Assignment Operators
Used to assign a new value to a variable Assignment operators can also be used for
logical operations, bitwise logical operations or operations on integral operands and
Boolean operands.

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= Simple assignment operator: Assigns values from right side operands to left side
operands. Example: C = A + B will assign the value of A + B to C
+= Add AND assignment operator: It adds the right operand to the left operand and
assigns the result to the left operand.
Example: C += A is equivalent to C = C + A
-= Subtract AND assignment operator: It subtracts the right operand from the left
operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
Example: C -= A is equivalent to C = C – A
*= Multiply AND assignment operator: It multiplies the right operand with the left
operand and assigns the result to the left operand.
Example: C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A
/= Divide AND assignment operator: It divides the left operand with the right operand and
assigns the result to the left operand.
Example: C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A

%=: Modulus AND assignment operator: It takes modulus using two operands and assigns
the result to the left operand.
Example: C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A

Ternary/Conditional operator
?: Conditional Operator and it requires three operands. E1 ? E2 : E3 where E1, E2 and
E3 are expressions. The expression E1 is first evaluated. If it is true, then the value of the
expression is E2 else it is E3.
Coding Example_5: Demo of ?:
int main()
{
int a= 10; int b = 20;
printf("%d\n",(a>b)?a:b); //20
(a>b)? printf("%d",a):printf("%d",b); //20
printf("%d",(a>b)?a:b); //20
return 0; }

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Logical Operators
Logical Operators are operators that determine the relation between 2 or more
operands and return a specific output as a result of that relation.
NOT (!) – Used to negate a Logical statement.
AND (&&) and OR (||) – Used to combine simple relational statements into more complex
Expressions. In ‘C’, 0 is false and any non-zero value is true. C follows short circuit evaluation.
Evaluation takes place left to right and evaluation stops as soon as the truth or falsehood of
the expression is determined.
Note: Some of the operators support Sequence Point Operation.

Sequence Point Operation

How do we write safe and proper code in ‘C’ if operators have side effects and the
variable values are not defined in such cases? The language ‘C’ also specifies points in the
code beyond which all these effects will definitely be complete. These are called sequence
points.
It defines any point in the execution of a program which guarantees or ensures that
all the side effects the previous evaluation of the program’s code are done or successfully
performed. It ensures that none of the alterations or side effects of the subsequent
evaluations is yet to be performed at all. The term “side effects” is nothing but the
changes done by any sort of function or expression where the state of something gets
changed.

There are some of the basic sequence points available in C Language.

 Logical AND - &&
 Logical OR - | |
 Conditional Operator - ?:
 Comma Operator - ,
 Expression of while loop


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// int a = 10;
// to support short ckt evaluation, && becomes a sequence point
// expression before &&, || will be completely evaluated.
//a++ == 10 && a == 11 // ok; will be true 1
a + a++ is undefined as the value of left a is not defined.
a++ == 10 && a == 11 will be true.
The value a++ is 10 and a becomes 11 before the evaluation moves across the sequence point
&&.

Coding Example_6:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 11;
printf("%d",a++==12 | | a==12); // 1
printf("\n%d",a); // 12
return 0;
}

Expression in C
An expression in C is a combination of operands and operators. Expressions compute
a single value stored in a variable. The operator denotes the action or operation to be
performed. The operands are the items to which we apply the operation.

An expression can be defined depending on the position and number of its operator and
operands.

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Infix Expression: Operator is used between the operands

a=x+y
Postfix Expression: Operator is used after the operands
xy+
Prefix Expression: Operator is used before the operands
+xy
Unary Expression: One operator and one operand
++x
Binary Expression: One operator and two operands
x+y
Arithmetic Expression: It consists of arithmetic operators ( + , - , * , and / ) and computes
values of int, float, or double type.

Relational Expression: It consists of comparison operators (> , < , >= , <= , === , and !== ) and
computes the answer in true (1) or false (0)
Logical Expression: It consists of logical operators (&&, ||, and !) and combines relational
expressions to compute answers in true (1) or false (0)

Conditional Expression: It consists of conditional statements that return true(1) if the

condition is met and else false(0)

Pointer Expression: It consists of an ampersand (&) operator and returns address values.

Bitwise Expression: It consists of bitwise operators ( >>, <<, ~, &, |, and ^ ) and performs
operations at the bit level.

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Evaluation of an expression involves two parts:

1. Evaluation of operands:
This is fetching the operands from the memory of the computer to the registers of
the CPU.All the evaluations happen within the CPU. This order is not defined. The idea is to
allow the compiler to optimize fetching of the operands. The compiler may generate code
such a way that if an operand is used more than once, it may get fetched only once .

2. Evaluation of operators:
This follows the rules of precedence and if more than one operator has the same
level ofprecedence, follows the rules of association.
Table of operator Precedence and Associativity is shown below and Link for reference:
http://web.cse.ohio-state.edu/~babic.1/COperatorPrecedenceTable.pdf

Does the first rule have any effect on our programs? Yes. If affects our programs if the
expressions we use are not pure and have side effects.
All assignments have side effects.
Let us consider an example.
a = 10;
b = a * a++;
The value of a++ is the old value of a and therefore 10. What is the value of the leftmost a? Is
the value evaluated before incrementing or after incrementing? It depends on the compiler
andthe compiler options. So value of leftmost a is undefined. So, value of b is undefined.
// 10 * 10 => 100
// 11 * 10 => 110
//undefined; depends on the order of evaluation of operands
// bad code

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Happy Coding using Expressions using Operators!!

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Solve the below programs using C.

Link for Solution is here:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qqWwFs63ictEpQBveko8Aph31Akw1moh/view?usp=dri
ve_link

Level- 1: Banana
1. An astronaut wants to display the distance to the Moon from Earth in kilometers. Write a C
program that prompts the user to enter the distance between the Earth and the Moon, stores it
in an appropriate data type, and then displays the entered value with proper formatting.

2. A farmer wants to count the total number of apples in his orchard. Write a C program that
prompts the user to enter the number of apple trees and the average number of apples per tree.
The program should then calculate and display the total number of apples in the orchard.

3. King Arthur wants to announce the Royal Banquet, but he speaks only one letter at a time.
Write a C program where each letter of "Royal Banquet" is printed individually in a separate
line.

4. A sorcerer wants to encode a magical spell using different number formats. Write a C
program that takes a integer as input and displays it in decimal, hexadecimal, and octal
formats, showcasing the spell’s encoded power.

5. A futuristic robot has a unique identification number that is too long. Write a C program that
allows the robot to input and display its ID, ensuring it can handle large numbers accurately.

6. An astronaut records the details of planets using numerical data only. Write a C program
that stores and displays diameter (in km), mass (in kg), and number of moons for multiple
planets in a structured tabular format as shown below.

7. Write a C program that takes a character input from the user and prints its ASCII value.

8. Write a C program that takes a negative floating-point number and typecasts it into an
integer. Print both floating pointer and integer value in a separate line.

9. Given an integer N and a position K, set the K-th bit of integer N to 1. Display N and the
new number for which Kth bit is set.

10. Check whether the integer entered by the user is Even or Odd using Bitwise operators and
Ternary Operators.

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Level- 2: Orange
11. Captain Zog is preparing for a space mission to Mars! As part of his mission briefing, he
needs to input and record the following crucial details:

1. Spaceship Speed (in km/s) – The speed at which the spaceship is traveling.
2. Distance to Mars (in million km) – The estimated distance to Mars from the current
location.
3. Mission Code (a unique integer identifier) – A secret mission identification number.

Write a C program that prompts Captain Zog to enter these values, stores them in appropriate
variables, and then neatly displays the recorded information in a formatted manner as shown
below.

12. Write a program using C to swap two integer constants only using the XOR operator.

13. Given an integer N and a bit position K, toggle the K-th bit and print the new number.

14. Two brave knights—Sir Andor and Sir Bixor—are preparing for battle. Before they
begin, the kingdom's wizard has a magical rule:
"Two knights can only duel if they have opposite energies!"

Each knight carries a unique energy level, represented as an integer. The wizard uses a special
bitwise spell to determine if their energies are oppositely charged (one positive, one
negative). Write a C program that takes two integer energy levels as input and determines if
they have opposite signs using bitwise operations.

Expected IOs.
Input 1:
Enter energy level of Sir Andor: 10
Enter energy level of Sir Bixor: -25
Output 1:
The knights have opposite energies! Let the duel begin!

Input 2:
Enter energy level of Sir Andor: 15
Enter energy level of Sir Bixor: 8
Output 2:
The knights have similar energies. No duel today!
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15. In the kingdom of Numland, the king has declared a fixed tax rate for all merchants. The
tax rate never changes and is set by law.
Every merchant must:
1. Enter their total earnings (in gold coins).
2. Pay taxes based on the fixed tax rate.
3. Get their net income after tax deduction.
Write a C program that takes merchant earnings as input and calculates and displays tax
amount and net earnings with proper formatting.

Level- 2: Jackfruit
16. Captain Pointers, a legendary pirate, has discovered an ancient map leading to a single
treasure buried deep in memory. However, he must use only one pointer to find the treasure,
retrieve its value, and print its location. Write a C program to do the following.
 Declares a single treasure variable (gold coins).
 Uses only one pointer to access its value and memory address.
 Displays the treasure amount and its memory location.

17: Given a number, check if the number is a Power of two or not using bitwise operator in C .

18. The wizard wants to fuse two knights' energies into a single powerful spell. The fusion
follows these rules:
1. If both knights have even energy levels, the final power is their bitwise OR (|).
2. If both knights have odd energy levels, the final power is their bitwise AND (&).
3. If one is even and the other is odd, the final power is their bitwise XOR (^).
4. If the result is a multiple of 4, the wizard gets extra power and doubles the value.
Write a C program that takes two knights' energy levels as integer inputs and calculates the
final fused energy based on these rules.

19. A brilliant scientist has built a time machine that can send objects into the future or past
based on three factors:

1. Object mass (floating-point number) – needs to be rounded down to an integer for

calculations.
2. Time warp factor (integer) – must be converted into a float for precision in
calculations.
3. Final destination year – calculated using modulus on mass by 26 and encoded into an
ASCII character for a secret passcode to activate time travel.

Simulate the experiment using typecasting in C.

Expected output:
Enter the object's mass (kg): 78.6
Enter the time warp factor: 125
Rounded mass (int): 78
Warp factor as float: 125.000000
Time travel passcode (char): A

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20. In a mystical land, wizards use runes (characters) to cast spells. However, before a spell
is activated, the rune must be transformed using bitwise operations based on the following
magical rules:
1. If the rune is an uppercase letter (A-Z), toggle its case using the XOR (^) operation
with 32 (0x20).
o Example: 'A' ^ 32 → 'a', 'Z' ^ 32 → 'z'
2. If the rune is a lowercase letter (a-z), transform it into the next uppercase letter using
bitwise AND (&) with ~32 (0xDF).
o Example: 'b' & ~32 → 'B', 'y' & ~32 → 'Y'
3. If the rune is a digit (0-9), shift its ASCII value forward by one position using
bitwise OR (|) with 1.
o Example: '4' | 1 → '5', '8' | 1 → '9'
4. If the rune is any other character, leave it unchanged.
Write a C program that takes a single character as input and applies the bitwise
transformations.

Master Programming with Variables, Pointers, Constants,

Typecasting, IO and Neatly Formatted Data!

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Introduction
A program is nothing but the execution of sequence of one or more instructions. It is
most of the time desirable to alter the sequence of the statements in the program
depending upon certain circumstances or as per the logic. Involves decision making to see
whether a particular condition has been met or otherwise and direct the computer to
execute certain statements accordingly. Based on logic, it is becomes necessary to alter the
flow of a program, test the logical conditions and control the flow of execution as per the
selection of these conditions that can be placed in the program using decision-making
statements.

Control Structures
C programming language supports a few looping and a few selection structures. It
may alsosupport some unconventional control structures.
1) Looping structures:
-while statement
-for statement
-do … while statement
2) Selection structures/ Decission Making/ Conditional structures:
- Simple if Statement
- if – else Statement
- Nested if-else statement
- else if Ladder
- switch statement
3) Unconditional structures:
- goto statement
- break Statement
- continue Statement
- return Statement

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Looping
Let us start the discussion with the while statement. The while statement starts with
the keyword while and is followed by an expression in parentheses and is followed by a
statement or a block.

while(Expression)

Statement(s); // block

}
The expression of the while is evaluated. It could be non-zero or zero. If it is non-zero, the
body of the while is executed and again the control comes back to the expression of the
while. If the expression of the while is false, the loop is exited.

The loop evaluates the Test Expression inside the parentheses(). If Test Expression is TRUE,
statements inside the body of while loop are executed. For looping to continue Test
Expression has to be evaluated again as TRUE; terminated if the evaluation results in FALSE.
It is a good programming practice to always use a block even if only one statement is in the
body of the loop. The body of the while loop is executed 0 or more times as the condition
to be checked is at the top.

Coding Example_1: Display all the numbers from n to 0.

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Version 1: Results in infinite loop as n remains to be 5 –>is always true

int n = 5;
while(n)
printf("%d ", n);
n= n -1;//control will never execute this statement

Version 2: Displays 5 4 3 2 1. But the program layout does not indicate the logic structure
of the program. Always indent the code to indicate the logic structure
int n = 5; while(n){
printf("%d ", n);
n = n –1;}

Version 3: Indent the code. Always use the block.

int n =
5;
while(
n)
{
printf("%d ", n); // output : 5 4 3 2 1. This is nice.
n = n -1;
}

Version 4: Observe the value of n-- is the old value of n. When n is 1, the value of n
becomes 0but thedecrement operator returns 1.
int n = 5;
while(n)
{
printf("%d ", n--); // 5 4 3 2 1
}

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Version 5: Pre-decrement operator returns the changed value.

int n = 5;
while(n)
{ printf("%d ", --n); // 4 3 2 1 0
}

Version 6: The expression of while acts like a sequence point.

int n = 5;
while(n--)
{
printf("%d ", n); // 4 3 2 1 0
}
Observe that the old value of n is used to check whether the condition is true or false and
by the time, the body of the loop is entered, n would have the decremented value.

Version 7:
int n = 5;
while(--n)
{
printf("%d ", n); // 4 3 2 1
}
Compare the last two versions. In the first case, the loop is executed n times and in the
second the loop is executed n –1 times. In the first case, the value of n is -1 and in the
second case, it is 0.

Coding Example_2: Find the sum of numbers from 1 to n.

int n; // read n from the user
int i = 1; //
initialization
int sum = 0;

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while(i <= n) // condition

{

sum += i++; //equivalent to sum = sum + i

// modification

There is clearly some initialization, some processing and some modification at the end of
the loop. In such cases, we may want to use the for statement.
// <for stmt>:: for(e1; e2; e3) <block>|<stmt>
// e1, e2, e3 : expressions

// e1 : initialization
// e2 : condition

// e3 : modification

For loop in Detail:

e1 is executed once. e2 is checked for condition. If it is non-zero, execute the body
of the loop and then execute e3. Again, check for e2and thus the process continues till e2
results in Zero Value. Once e2 is Zero, come out of the loop and execute the statement
outside the body of the loop. for loop is also called as a pre-tested loop. The general
structure of for loop syntax in C is
for (initial value; condition; modification )
{ statements; // loop body }

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Note: The semantics of for statement is same as the while statement.

Few questions to Answer:

• Can you have initialization outside the for loop and modification inside the body of the
loop?

• Can you skip condition in for loop?

• Can you have only ;; in for loop?

Coding Example_3: What this code does? Why it is wrong?
int sum = 0;
// wrong code
for(int i = 1; i <= n; sum += i)
{
++i;
}
Observe closely. You will find that the summation starts from 2 and not from 1. We
will also end up adding n + 1. Check the way a for statement executes.
int sum =
0;
for(int i = 1; i <= n; ++i)

{
sum += i;

}
‘C’ for statement is same as the ‘C’ while statement –we say they are isomorphic. It
is a question of choice and style while writing programs in ‘C’.

Coding Example_4: Find what the digital root of a given number

The idea is to add the digits of a given number. If that sum exceeds a single digit,
repeat the operation until the sum becomes a single digit. This is useful in parity checking.
for(s = 0; n; n /= 10)
{
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s += n % 10;
}
This loop finds the sum of digits of n. The result is in s and n would have become 0. If
s exceeds 9, we would like to copy s to n, repeat this operation.
Can we put this code under a while(s > 9) { <this code> }?
The answer is a NO as the value of s is not initialized until we enter the inner loop? Shall
we initialize to 0? Then the loop itself is not entered. How about making s 10? Looks very
unnatural. Can you realize here that the sum becomes available only after doing the
summation once? We require in this case, a bottom tested looping structure which
executes the code at least once
Here is the solution using do – while.
do
{ for(s=0; n; n/2)
{
s+=n%10
}
n=s;
}while(s>9);

do –while loop:
The body of do...while loop is executed at least once. For loop to continue, the test
expression is evaluated for TRUE; terminated if the evaluation results in FALSE.

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Selection statements
If the expression of if is true we execute the block following if, otherwise execute
the else part if any. It is always preferred to use a block even if there is a single statement in
the if and else portions.

//<if stat> ::= if (<expr>) <stat>|<block>

//<if stat>::= if (<expr>) <stat>|<block> else <stat>|<block>

Coding Example_5: Classify triangles given the3 sides as equilateral, isosceles or scalene. This
is one possible solution.
int count = 0;
scanf("%d%d %d", &a, &b, &c);
if(a == b) ++count;
if(b == c)
+count;if(c
== a)
+count;
if(count == 0) printf("scalene\n");
if(count == 3)

Department of CSE, PESU 1

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printf("equi\n"); if(count
== 1) printf("iso\n");
Compare every pair of sides and increment the count each time –initialized to 0 on start.
Can the count be 2?

Observe a few points here.

● We are comparing integers (integral values)
● We are comparing a variable(an expression) with constants
● We are comparing for equality (no > or < )
● In all comparisons, the same variable is used.

In such cases, we may use switch statement.

switch(count)
{ case 0: printf("scalene\n"); break;
case 3: printf("equi\n"); break;
case 1: printf("iso\n"); break;
}
The value of count is compared with case clauses. This comparison decides the entry into
the switch and not exit from there. To avoid the code fall through, we use break statement.
The rule of ‘C’ is “break if switch”.
If we do not use the break statement, all statements after the matching label are
also executed. These switch statements are more efficient compared to normal if
statements. But can you include else part of if in switch case? -- Yes using default. But the
default clause inside the switch statement is optional.

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Coding Example_6: Inclusion of default in switch case to have the else facility

printf("enter three sides of a triangle\n");

int a,b,c;

scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);

int count = 0;

if(a == b) count++;

if(b == c) count++;

if(c == a) count++;

switch(count)

case 1:printf("iso");break;

case 3:printf("equi");break;

case 0:printf("scalene");break;

default:printf("not a valid count");break;

printf("switch ended");

Few points to think!!

 Is it compulsory to have break for default?

 Can we have default at the beginning of the switch case?

Coding Example_7: The count value cannot be anything other than 0,1 or 2. So change in
the default case as below.
switch(count)
{

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case 1: printf("iso");break;
case 3: printf("equi");break;
default: printf("scalene");break;
}
printf("switch ended");

Coding Example_7: Find whether the entered character is a vowel or not.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("enter the character\n");
char ch;
ch = getchar();
//scanf("%c",&ch);
// solution using if
/*if(ch == 'a' || ch == 'e' || ch == 'i' || ch == 'o' || ch == 'u')
{
printf("you entered an vowel\n");
}
else{
printf("you did not enter the vowel\n");
}*/
// Solution using switch case
switch(ch)
{
//case 'a' || 'A': printf("hello 1"); break; // output of expression will be the
case label
case 'a':
case 'A':
case 'e':
case 'E':

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case 'i':
case 'o':
case 'u': printf("you entered an vowel\n");break;
default: printf("you did not enter the vowel\n");
}
// if(ch == 'a' || 'e'|| ) // Logical error
return 0;
}

Nested control structures

We may have loops and selections nested.

Coding Example_8: Generate all Armstrong numbers between 0 and 999.

The number obtained by raising each of the digits to the power of its length and
adding together the sum of the terms obtained. If this sum is same as the given number, the
number is same to be Armstrong.
Example: The three digit Armstrong number is 153. The sum of cubes of digits is same as the
number. The program shows how not to write programs. We have a loop on hundredth
digit, a loop on tenth digit and a loop on unit digit. We cube the digits, find the sum, form
the number using these digits and compare the sum with thenumber formed.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int h,t,u,hc,tc,uc;
int number;
for(h = 0; h<10;h++)
{
for(t = 0; t< 10;t++)
{
for(u = 0;u< 10;u++)
{
hc = h*h*h;

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tc = t*t*t;
uc = u*u*u;
int sum = hc+tc+uc;
number = h*100 + t*10 + u*1;
if(number == sum)
printf("%d\n",number);

}
}
}
return 0;
}
The above code is generating only few Armstrong numbers. Not printing all. Change the
implementation to print all Armstrong numbers between 0 and 999. Think about adding ifs
to check and count the number the digits

Also, think how many multiplications do we do for cubing? Should we repeatedly evaluate
cube of t in the inner loop when it is not changing. Rearrange the code. Put the statements
in the right blocks. You will be able to reduce the number of multiplications for cubing to
approximately 1/3rd of what it is now.

Happy Coding using Control Structures

Department of CSE, PESU 1

5
 Feb – May,2025

Solve the below programs using C.

Link for Solution: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CSOBOlB2xvFzjGZ1hW_fk1d8CU-

wFs8S/view?usp=drive_link

Level- 1: Banana
1. Write a program that takes the current temperature as input and displays a message such as
"It's hot," "It's warm," "It's cool," or "It's cold" based on temperature ranges. Define the
temperature range of your choice.

2. Write a program that asks the user for the current hour (in 24-hour format) and then displays
an appropriate greeting, such as "Good morning," "Good afternoon," "Good evening," or
"Good night."

3. Divisibility Checker : Build and run an application that accepts an integer and checks
whether it is divisible by 2, by 3, or by both. Display a corresponding appropriate message
based on the condition met.

4. Write a program that reads a vehicle's speed and outputs one of three messages: "Within
limit" for speeds at or below 60 km/h, "Slightly over limit" for speeds between 61 and 80
km/h, and "Over speed limit" for speeds above 80 km/h.

5. Age Group Classifier : Develop an application that reads a person's age as a positive whole
number and categorizes them into groups such as "Child" (0–12), "Teenager" (13–19), "Adult"
(20–64), or "Senior" (65 and above).

6. Grade determinator: Build an application that accepts a student's score as a natural

number(from 1 to 100) and assigns a grade. For example, use ranges like 90 and above for an
'A', 80–89 for a 'B', 70–79 for a 'C', 60–69 for a 'D', and below 60 for an 'F'.

7. Develop an application using C to find the eligibility of admission for a professional course
based on the following Eligibility criteria:
A. Marks in Maths >=65 and Marks in Physics >=50 and Marks in Chemistry>=55
B. Total in all three subjects >=190 or Total in Maths and Physics >=140

8. Construct a menu-based calculator to perform all arithmetic binary operations on two whole
numbers entered by the user.

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Level- 2: Orange
9. Imagine that each day of the week unfolds a tiny chapter of an adventure. Write a C
program that asks the user to enter a number between 1 and 7 (with each number representing
a day from Sunday to Saturday). Based on the input, display a brief story snippet that
represents a part of your adventure. For example, when the user enters 1, the program might
print a short narrative about discovering a mysterious letter on a quiet Sunday morning; for 2,
a tale of encountering a secretive stranger on Monday; and so on. If the input is not between 1
and 7, the program should display an error message indicating an invalid day.

10. Create an application that calculates the Body Mass Index (BMI) from user-provided
weight in kilograms and height in meters, then categorizes the result as "Underweight,"
"Normal weight," "Overweight," or "Obese" based on standard BMI ranges mentioned below.
Underweight: BMI < 18.5
Normal weight: 18.5 ≤ BMI < 25.0
Overweight: 25.0 ≤ BMI < 30.0
Obese: BMI ≥ 30.0

11. Write a C program that uses selection statements to check if a given year is a leap or not.

12. You are transporting some boxes through a tunnel whose height is only 41 feet. Any box,
whose whose any one dimension is above 41 feet, it can’t pass through the tunnel. Given the
length, width, and height of the box, display the volume of those boxes and check if they pass
through the tunnel. Display appropriate message.
Ex: Input = 5, 5, 5 Output = 125
Input = 1, 2, 40 Output = 80
Input = 10, 5, 41 Output = Can’t Pass!

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Level- 3: Jackfruit
13. Imagine you find yourself trapped in a mysterious haunted house. Develop a program
which prompts the user to choose different rooms by entering numbers. Determine
whether the chosen room hides a ghost, a secret key, or an exit route. Each decision leads
to a different twist in the story.

14. A brave knight embarks on a quest to rescue a princess. Based on obstacles like
encountering a dragon, crossing a river, or navigating through a dark forest, the knight’s
fate is decided. Incorporate a switch statement to handle menu-driven challenges (e.g.,
choosing which path to take or which weapon to use).

15. At a mysterious carnival, the user is invited to play different games, each hiding its own
secret. Using a switch statement, allow the user to select a game from a menu. Then, with if-
else conditions, determine whether the game results in winning a prize, encountering a
challenge, or triggering an unforeseen event that changes the carnival’s atmosphere.

Elevate C programming skills by mastering selection statements!!

Department of CSE, PESU 5

 Feb – May,2025

Solve the below programs using C.

Link for Solution: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uyQJ7H3hl_sRFkw2bVLQ-

bDeZcmzeAoj/view?usp=drive_link

Level- 1: Banana
1. Implement a program that generates and prints the first n numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence, where n is provided by the user. The number n is the positive integer entered by the
user. If user enters invalid input, display appropriate message.

2. Develop a program that prints all prime numbers up to a specified limit which is a non-
negative integer. Display appropriate message if negative number is entered by the user.

3. Imagine you are drawing a block on a digital canvas. Write a program that prints a solid
rectangle of stars based on user-specified dimensions.

4. Design a C program that asks the user for the number of rows and then print a pyramid
where each row contains increasing numbers of stars. For example, if the user inputs 5, your
program should output the following pyramid:

5. Create a program that calculâtes the value of a number raised to a given exponent using a
loop. Both inputs from the user. Handle edge cases.

6. Harshad Number Checker: A Harshad number is divisible by the sum of its digits. Write a
program that checks if a given number meets this criterion for a positive integer entered by the
user.

7. Alternating Sum Series: Write a program that calculates the sum of the series 1 - 2 + 3 - 4
+ … up to n terms. n is an integer entered by the user. Handle the negative value of n.

8. Digit Occurrence Counter: Create a program that counts and displays how many times a
specific digit (0-9) appears in a given number entered by the user.

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Level- 2: Orange

9. Write a program that calculates the multiplicative persistence of a number entered by the
user as an integer—the number of steps required to reduce it to a single digit by multiplying its
digits.

10. Develop a program that continuously reads numbers from the user, computes their average,
and stops when a sentinel value (like 0) is entered and then display the average.

11. Develop a program that converts a binary number (entered as an integer) into its decimal
equivalent.

12. Visualize a pyramid that starts wide at the top and narrows down as it descends. Write a
program that prints an inverted pyramid of stars for an integer n, that is entered by the user.
n=5

13. Harmonic Series Sum:

Build a program to compute the harmonic sum 1+1/2+1/3+⋯+1/n for a given n, that is entered
by the user.

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Level- 3: Jackfruit
14. Create a beautiful diamond shape using stars for an integer value n entered by the user.
Sample Output for n = 9 is as below:

Sample output for n = any even number is as below:

Invalid input. Please enter an odd positive integer greater than zero.

15. Maximum and Minimum Digits Finder:

Build an application which finds and prints the largest and smallest digit present in the number
entered by the user.

16. Kaprekar's Routine Challenge:

Develop a C program that implements Kaprekar's routine for 4-digit numbers. The program
should prompt the user to enter a 4-digit number that contains at least two different digits. If
the input is invalid, display an appropriate message.
Repeatedly perform the following steps until the number becomes 6174:
1. Rearrange the digits in descending order to form the largest possible number.
2. Rearrange the digits in ascending order to form the smallest possible number (note:
leading zeros are allowed).
3. Subtract the smaller number from the larger number.
4. Display the current iteration and the result of the subtraction.

Enjoy crafting code with loops!!

Department of CSE, PESU 5

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Introduction
A Character refers to a single input. It occupies a single byte. We code English
alphabets A as 65, B as 66, Z as 90, a as 97 and so on in a coding scheme called ASCII.
Single Character Input-Output Functions:
1) Character oriented Formatted IO Functions – Described in Standard Input function.
scanf("%c", &x);
printf("%c", x);
2) Character oriented Unformatted IO Functions:
char c=getchar();
putchar(c);
3) Character oriented macro implementations: getc & putc
4) Character oriented Non-Standard functions: getch , getche & putch

Let us discuss the Character Oriented Unformatted IO functions in detail.

These functions deal with individual characters in C programming. Also, these are part
of the stdio.h library and perform direct input and output operations on characters without any
formatting.

getchar() : Reads a single character from the standard input (keyboard). Returns the character
read as an integer (ASCII value). Returns EOF (-1) if an error occurs or the end of file (EOF)
is reached.
Syntax: int getchar(void);

Coding Example_1: To read a character

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch;
printf("Enter a character : ");
ch = getchar();
printf("You entered: %c\n", ch);
return 0;
}

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putchar() :Outputs a single character to the standard output (console). Returns the character
printed as an integer (ASCII value). Returns EOF (-1) if an error occurs.
Syntax: int putchar(int ch);

Coding Example_2: To display a character

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch;
printf("Enter a character: ");
ch = getchar();
putchar(ch) ;
return 0;
}

Think about this -> Can we use getchar and putchar in a loop and read and
display a line?

Coding Example_3: Read and display a line of string from the user.
Version 1:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch;
printf("Enter your name and press enter: ");
ch = getchar();
while (ch != ‘\n’)
{ putchar(ch) ;
ch = getchar() ;
}
return 0;
}

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Version 2: Initialization and modification has the same statement. Can we

combine and make it as a part of condition/ while expression?
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch;
printf("Enter your name and press enter: ");
while ((ch = getchar()) != '\n')
{ putchar(ch) ; }
return 0;
}

Character oriented macro implementations:

getc() and putc(): Reads and writes a single character from the specified file or to a specified
file. In detail, we will discuss about this Unit-4.
Syntax:
int getc(FILE *stream);
int putc(int ch, FILE *stream);

Now let us try understanding these functions wrt standard input and output devices. C
programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in the
same way as files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program
executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.

Standard File File Pointer Device

Standard input stdin Keyboard

Standard output stdout Screen

Standard error stderr Screen

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Coding Example_4: Demo of getc and putc

#include<stdio.h>
int main ()
{
char c;
printf("Enter character: ");
c = getc(stdin);
printf("Character entered: ");
putc(c, stdout);
return 0;
}

Coding Example_5: Demo of getc and putc to read a line from the user and display.
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
char ch;
while((ch = getc(stdin)) != EOF)
{
putc(ch, stdout);
}
}

Key differences between Character Oriented functions

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Non-Standard functions:
getch():Reads a single character from the keyboard without echoing it on the screen. Returns
the character read as an integer. Does not wait for Enter key; captures input immediately
and does not display the character on the screen. Available in conio.h
Syntax: int getch(void);
Coding Example_6: Demo of getch() function
#include <conio.h>
int main() {
char ch; printf("Press any key: ");
ch = getch();
printf("\nYou pressed: %c\n", ch); // Does not wait for Enter; captures input immediately.
return 0;
}

getche(): Reads a single character from the keyboard and displays it. Displays the character
as it is typed. Captures only one character without requiring Enter.
Coding Example_7: Demo of getche() function
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main() {
char ch; printf("Press any key: ");
ch = getche(); // Does not wait for Enter; captures input immediately.
printf("\nYou pressed: %c\n", ch);
return 0;
}

Note: putch() and putche() functions are again non-standard functions that are used to
output a character to the console. These functions are specific to certain compilers (such
as Turbo C) and are not part of the standard C library and hence not portable across all
platforms.

Happy Coding using char IO functions !!

Department of CSE, PESU 7

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Solve the below programs using Unformatted character oriented IO functions.

Link for Solution is here:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cXKomTDKyATzGQKS6j5ngPqgiNToGGCU/view?usp
=drive_link

Level- 1: Banana
1. Develop an application to input a character from the user and print the character n times.

2. Implement a C program to read the name of the user and print each character line by line.

3. Bring out an application which displays all Upper case letters and All lower case letters
based on the user’s choice.

4. Develop an application in C to replace the space with * in a set of words entered by the user
in one line.

5. Develop an application to print only the alphabets from the line of input characters entered
by the user.

Level- 2: Orange
6. Develop an application to do the following:
A) Print the number of characters entered by the user in the input.
B) Display the count of alphabets in the user input.
C) Display the count of digits in the user input.
Note: DO NOT use punctuations in any count.

7. Create a magic converter that transforms typed letters into their opposite case and
instantly displays them in the new case. This magic converter works only for alphabets.
Other characters remain the same.

8. Build an application using C to convert the Lowercase letters entered by the user to
Uppercase letters. Display the old and the new string in this format: old_char -> new_char.
Avoid spaces and tabs in the output.

9. Write a C program that takes a string input from the user and converts it into an alternating
uppercase and lowercase format. The transformation should start with an uppercase letter at
index 0, followed by a lowercase letter at index 1, and so on. The program should then display
the modified string.

Department of CSE, PESU 3

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10. Implement Zigzag Case Converter that reads a character and converts it into a zigzag
case format:
 The first letter should be uppercase.
 The second letter should be lowercase.
 The third letter should be uppercase again, and so on.
 Non-alphabetic characters (spaces, numbers, punctuation) should remain
unchanged.

11. Archaeologists have discovered an ancient manuscript where every letter, number, and
symbol corresponds to a unique numeric code. However, the script is unreadable in its
original form. Your challenge is to convert the given text into a sequence of numeric values,
preserving the true essence of the lost language. Each number must be clearly separated,
ensuring that future scholars can reconstruct the ancient text without confusion.

Level- 3: Jackfruit
12. You are a secret agent decoding a hidden message left by an unknown sender. However,
the message is encoded using a strange cipher: uppercase letters are flipped to lowercase,
lowercase letters are flipped to uppercase, digits are shifted forward (9 wraps to 0), and spaces
are replaced with underscores. Your mission is to write a program that deciphers the message
as you type, revealing its true meaning. The transmission continues until new line is
encountered, ensuring no secrets remain hidden!

13. You are a codebreaker decoding a secret message hidden within ordinary text. Each letter,
number, and symbol in the message has a unique numeric identity(ascii code is unique), and
your mission is to reveal these hidden codes. For every character in the input, display its
corresponding numerical value, ensuring that each number is separated by a space for clarity.
The message continues to unfold until the transmission ends, revealing the true sequence of
hidden numbers behind the text.

14. In a distant future, secret agents communicate using a special code where each character in
their message is shifted by 3 positions forward in the ASCII table. Your task is to decode
their message by converting each character into its corresponding number and shifting it
backward by 3 to reveal the original text. The mission continues until the message ends,
uncovering the true words hidden within the numbers.

15. Advanced Magic Converter to be developed in C on a line of text to do the following.

✔Converts lowercase to uppercase and uppercase to lowercase
✔Counts the number of uppercase and lowercase letters in the input.
✔Counts the number of non-alphabet characters (digits, spaces, symbols, etc.) in the input.
✔Displays a final report of the counts with proper formatting.

Explore the power of Character I/O functions and Control Structures!!!

Department of CSE, PESU 4

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Introduction to Arrays in C
Data structures are used to store data in an organized and efficient manner so that
the retrieval is efficient. Classification of data structures in C is as below.

When solving problems, it is important to visualize the data related to the problem.
Sometimes the data consist of just a single number (as we discussed in unit-1, primitive
types). At other times, the data may be a coordinate in a plane that can be represented as a
pair of numbers, with one number representing the x-coordinate and the other number
representing the y-coordinate. There are also times when we want to work with a set of
similar data values, but we do not want to give each value a separate name. For example, we
want to read marks of 1000 students and perform several computations. To store marks of
thousand students, we do not want to use 1000 locations with 1000 names. To store group of
values using a single identifier, we use a data structure called an Array.
An array is a linear data structure, which is a finite collection of similar data items
stored in successive or consecutive memory locations. Arrays are used to store multiple
values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate variables for each value. It can
store a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same type. An array is used to
store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an array as a collection of
variables of the same type.

To create an array, define the data type and specify the name of the array followed by
square brackets [] with size mentioned in it. Example: int s[100];

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Characteristics/Properties of Arrays:
 Non-primary data or secondary data type
 Memory allocation is contiguous in nature
 Elements need not be unique.
 Demands same /homogenous types of elements
 Random access of elements in array is possible
 Elements are accessed using index/subscript
 Index or subscript starts from 0
 Memory is allocated at compile time.
 Size of the array is fixed at compile time. Returns the number of bytes occupied by the
array.
 Cannot change the size at runtime.
 Arrays are assignment incompatible.
 Accessing elements of the array outside the bound will have undefined behaviour at
runtime.

Types of Array
Broadly classified into two categories as

Category 1:
1. Fixed Length Array: Size of the array is fixed at compile time
2. Variable Length Array - Not supported by older few C standards. Better to use
dynamic memory allocation functions than variable length array.

Category 2:
1. One Dimensional Array
2. Multi-Dimensional Array

Department of CSE, PESU 4