STQM1013 CALCULUS I

Lecture 1b
Various types of functions

2
Functions
• Used to understand real-world phenomena and predict future
behaviour.

Real-world
problem

Formulate

Mathematical
model
Test
Solve
Mathematical
conclusions

Interpret

Real-world Figure 1: τ-δ curve for mix ratio with 7% cement content.
predictions 3
Linear model
Let say 𝑦 is a linear function of 𝑥, meaning that the graph is a straight line and the function is
written as
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,
where 𝑚 is the slope of the line and 𝑏 is the 𝑦-intercept. A characteristic feature of linear functions
is that they grow at a constant rate. Notice that whenever 𝑥 increases by 0.1, the value of 𝑓(𝑥)
increases by 0.3. Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) increases 3 times as fast as 𝑥. Thus, the slope of the graph 𝑦 = 3𝑥 −
2, namely 3, can be interpreted as the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥.

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Linear model

5
Polynomial
A function 𝑃 is called polynomial if
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
where 𝑛 is a nonnegative integer and the numbers 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑖 = 0,1, … , 𝑛 are
constants (real) called the coefficients of the polynomial.
The domain of any polynomial is ℝ. If the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then
the degree of the polynomial is n.
For example:
5 3
1 2
𝑃 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 −
3
Is a polynomial of degree 5.
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Polynomial
A polynomial of degree 1 is 𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, so it is a linear function. A
polynomial of degree 2 is of the form 𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and is called a
quadratic function (parabola). Next, we have cubic, quartic, quintic, etc.

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Polynomial

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Power functions
A function, 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎 where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.
There are several types:
a. The number 𝑎 is a positive integer.
b. The number 𝑎 = 1/𝑛 where n is a positive integer, root function.
c. The number 𝑎 = −1, −2, reciprocal function.

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Rational functions
𝑃(𝑥)
A rational function, f is a ration of two polynomials: 𝑓 𝑥 = where
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑃 and 𝑄 are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of x such
that 𝑄(𝑥)≠0.

Examples:
2𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +1
a. 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 −4
𝑥 2 +1
b. g 𝑥 =
𝑥

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Algebraic functions
A function 𝑓 is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using
algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
taking roots) starting with polynomials. Any rational function is automatically
an algebraic function. The graphs of algebraic functions can assume a
variety of shapes.

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Trigonometric functions
The graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions are shown below.

The remaining three trigonometric functions (cosecant, secant, and cotangent)

are the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions.
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Exponential functions
• Exponential functions are useful for modelling many natural
phenomena,
• such as population growth (if 𝑎>1) and radioactive decay (if 𝑎<1).

Exponential functions are useful for modelling many natural phenomena,

such as population growth (if 𝑎>1) and radioactive decay (if 𝑎<1). 13
Logarithmic functions
The logarithmic functions 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥, where the base a is a positive
constant, are the inverse functions of the exponential functions. The
function increases slowly when 𝑥 > 1.

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Composite function
Definition 2.1 : Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be functions. The composite function (denoted as
𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) is defined by
𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 ,

where the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is defined as

𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 , 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝐷𝑓 .
Method 1: Need to find all values of 𝑥 that fulfils 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 and 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝐷𝑓 .

Method 2: 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = 𝐷𝑔 only if the condition, 𝑅𝑔 ⊆ 𝐷𝑓 is met.

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Example 2.1
Given 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 , then

𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 2 − 1 = 𝑥 2 − 1.

Method 1: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 = ℝ → (−∞, ∞)
𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 ∈ 𝐷𝑓 = ሾ0, ∞)
𝑥2 − 1 ≥ 0 → 𝑥2 ≥ 1 → −∞, −1 ∪ ሾ1, ∞)

Hence, 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = −∞, −1 ∪ ሾ1, ∞)

Method 2: Cannot be used because 𝑅𝑔 ⊈ 𝐷𝑓 ; 𝑅𝑔 = ሾ−1, ∞) and 𝐷𝑓 = ሾ0, ∞)

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Example 2.2:
• How about 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑥 2 ? Find the domain
of
i. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔
ii. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
iii. 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓
iv. 𝑔 ∘ 𝑔

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Example 2.3
1 1
Get the domain of the function (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) if 𝑓 𝑥 = + 8 and 𝑔 𝑥 = .
𝑥 𝑥−8

𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑥

Method 1:

𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 → (−∞, 8) ∪ (8, ∞)
1 1 1
𝑔 𝑥 = ∈ 𝐷𝑓 = −∞, 0 ∪ 0, ∞ → > 0 or < 0 → (−∞, 8) ∪ (8, ∞)
𝑥−8 𝑥−8 𝑥−8

Domain (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) : (−∞, 8) ∪ (8, ∞)

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Example 2.4
1
Get the domain of the function (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) if 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 = .
5−𝑥

Method 1:
𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 → (−∞, 5) ∪ (5, ∞)
1 1 3
𝑔 𝑥 = ∈ 𝐷𝑓 = 3/2, ∞ → ≥
5−𝑥 5−𝑥 2
2≥3 5−𝑥
13
2 ≥ 15 − 3𝑥 → 𝑥 ≥ 13/3 → ,∞
3
13
Domain (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) : ,5 ∪ (5, ∞)
3
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Example 2.5
Get the domain of the function (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) if 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔 𝑥 =
1
.
5−𝑥

3
Answer: Domain (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓) : , 14 ∪ (14, ∞)
2

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Example 2.6
• Get the domain of the function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 if 𝑓 𝑥 =
1 − 5𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + 1) .

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One-to-one function
• Note: A function is called one-to-one if no two values of 𝑥 produce the same 𝑦.
Mathematically this is the same as saying as follows:
• A function f is called one-to-one if 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .
• A function f is called one-to-one if 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 implies 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ).

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Example 2.7
Prove that 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2 is one-to-one.
Answer:

Version 1:
Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 be two elements of 𝐷𝑓 and 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 . Note that 3𝑥1 ≠ 3𝑥2
and thus, 3𝑥1 − 2 ≠ 3𝑥2 − 2. We obtain 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ). Hence, 𝑓 is
one-to-one function.

How about version 2 ??

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Example 2.8
2𝑥−5
Show that 𝑔 𝑥 = is one-to-one function.
3−𝑥

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One-to-one function
• How to verify the function is one-to-one?
• Horizontal line test: A function is one-to-one if no horizontal line intersects the
graph more than once.

• If the horizontal line intersects the graph of a function in all places at exactly one
point, then the given function has an inverse that is also a function.
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Inverse functions
Definition 2.2: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a 1-1 function, then 𝑓 has an inverse, denoted as
𝑓 −1 , is defined by 𝑓 −1 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Note that,
𝐷 𝑓 −1 = 𝑅 𝑓 ,
𝑅 𝑓 −1 = 𝐷 𝑓 ,
𝑓 −1 𝑦 = 𝑥 equivalent to 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Thus, 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 satisfy the cancellation equations as below:

𝑓 −1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
1
Caution: 𝑓 −1 𝑥 does not mean .
𝑓(𝑥) 26
Alternative method to find inverse function

Steps to find 𝑓 −1 :

1. Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
2. Solve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥
3. We get 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦)
4. Switch the symbol and we get 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
5. Confirm that 𝑓 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is true.

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Example 2.9
Determine the inverse function for 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 2 and get the domain of 𝑓 −1 .

1. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 2
1
2. 𝑥 = 3 𝑦 2 + 2
1
3. 𝑓 −1 𝑦 = 3 𝑦 2 + 2
1
4. 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 2
3

Since domain 𝑓 −1 = range of 𝑓 = ሾ0, ∞). Hence we get

1
𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.
3

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Example 2.10
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = 3 𝑥 − 2. Find 𝑓 −1 and 𝐷(𝑓 −1 ).

Answer: 𝐷 𝑓 −1 = ሾ−2, ∞)

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 −1
Graph 𝑓 and 𝑓

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Restriction of a function
Definition 2.3: Given 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐴. Then the restriction of a
function is denoted as

𝑓|𝐸 : 𝐸 → 𝐵,

𝑓|𝐸 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) for ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸.

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Example 2.11
Consider two functions,

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ (Original domain)

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0 (Restricted domain)

Hence function 𝑔 is restriction of 𝑓. The concept of restriction is crucial for creating

inverse function from non inverse function.

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ (this function has no inverse)

𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0 (this function has inverse)

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Inverse exponential functions
• Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , what are the domain and range?
• Then, log 𝑟 𝑦 = log 𝑟 𝑎 𝑥 with base 𝑟 > 1.
log𝑟 𝑦
• Next, 𝑥 = = log 𝑎 𝑦.
log𝑟 𝑎
• We obtain 𝑓 −1𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑦
• Therefore, 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥. So, what is the domain and range of
𝑓 −1 ?
• Find the inverse of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 using the same procedure. What is 𝑒, the
exponential constant?

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Increasing and decreasing function
Definition 2.4: Given 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵. Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴

• 𝑓 is increasing if 𝑥 < 𝑦 implies that 𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑓(𝑦)

• 𝑓 is decreasing if 𝑥 < 𝑦 implies that 𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑓(𝑦)

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Example 2.12
Determine whether the function is increasing or decreasing:
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 ; let 𝑎 < 𝑏 then 𝑓 𝑎 < 𝑓(𝑏) is true whereby 𝑎3 < 𝑏 3 is true for
every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Thus 𝑓 is increasing.
• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ; let 𝑎 < 𝑏 then there exist 𝑎2 < 𝑏 2 or 𝑎2 > 𝑏 2 yang 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. We
take 𝑎 = 1 < 𝑏 = 2 or 𝑎 = −3 < 𝑏 = 1. Hence, 𝑓 is neither increasing nor
decreasing.
• 𝑓 𝑥 = − 𝑥; let 𝑎 < 𝑏 then 𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓(𝑏) is true for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ≥0 .

Since 𝑎 < 𝑏 then 𝑎 < 𝑏. Thus, − 𝑏 < − 𝑎 implies that 𝑓(𝑏) < 𝑓(𝑎) or
𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑓(𝑏).
Thus, 𝑓 is decreasing. 35
Trigonometric function
• Ratio of two sides of right triangle.
• Trigonometric function: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
cosecant

If corner A selected, then 𝛼 is opposite,

b is adjacent dan c is hypotenuse.

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 Function Abbreviation Keterangan
Sine sin Opposite/Hypotenuse
Cosine cos Adjacent/Hypotenuse
Tangent tan Opposite/Adjacent
Cotangent cot Adjacent/Opposite
Secant sec Hypotenuse/Adjacent
Cosecant cosec Hypotenuse/Opposite

Sum and difference formulas

Identity of Pythagoras

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𝜃 (angle) 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270°
𝜃 (rad) 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
6 4 3 2 2
sin 𝜃 0 1 2 3 1 0 -1
2 2 2
cos 𝜃 1 3 2 1 0 -1 0
2 2 2
tan 𝜃 0 3 1 3 Not 0 Not
3 defined defined

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Example 2.13
2
1. cos 𝜃 = , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
2

2. tan 𝜃 = 1, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

3. cot 𝜃 = − 3, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

4. sec 𝜃 = −2, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

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Inverse trigonometric functions

*The inverse cosine and tangent functions are handled similarly.

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Example 2.14
Evaluate
1
a) sin−1 2
1
b) tan arcsin 2

Solutions:
1 1
a) Let 𝑦 = sin−1 . We get sin 𝑦 = and we get 𝑦 = 𝜋/6.
2 2
−1 1
Hence, sin = 𝜋/6.
2
1
b) Let 𝑦 = tan(𝑡) where 𝑡 = arcsin . From part (a), we obtain
2
1
𝑦 = tan arcsin = tan 𝜋/6 = 1/ 3.
2

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Example 2.15
1
a) Compute tan arccos .
2
b) Can we find sin−1 1.01 ? Explain.

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