# Data Communication and Networking Examination Solutions

## Question 1: Attempt any FIVE of the following

### a) Standard Organizations for Data Communication

Two standard organizations for data communication are:
1. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
2. ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standardization Sector)

### b) Bit rate and Baud rate

- **Bit rate**: The number of bits transmitted per second (bps).
- **Baud rate**: The number of signal units transmitted per second.

### c) Application Layer Protocols

Four application layer protocols are:
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
4. DNS (Domain Name System)

### d) Address levels in TCP/IP layers

i) Network layer: IP address
ii) Transport layer: Port number

### e) Fiber Optic Cable Construction

*Refer to page 8 of the second PDF for the labeled construction diagram of fiber optic cable.*

### f) Function of Router and Switch

- **Router**: Connects different networks and routes packets between them based on IP
addresses.
- **Switch**: Connects devices within the same network and forwards frames based on MAC
addresses.

### g) Role of Firewall

A firewall acts as a security barrier between networks, controlling incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules to prevent unauthorized access.

## Question 2: Attempt any THREE of the following

### a) Data Communication System Block Diagram

*Refer to page 7 of the second PDF for the block diagram.*
Functions of each block:
1. **Input Source**: Originates the data to be transmitted
2. **Transmitter**: Converts data into transmittable signals
3. **Transmission Medium**: Carries the signals
4. **Receiver**: Converts received signals back to data
5. **Destination**: Receives the data

### b) Hybrid Topology

The topology that combines two or more topologies is called **Hybrid Topology**.

Disadvantages:
1. Complex design and implementation
2. Costly infrastructure
3. Difficult to manage and troubleshoot


*Refer to page 4 of the second PDF for an example diagram.*

### c) Functions of OSI Layers

i) **Presentation Layer**:
- Data translation (character encoding, compression, encryption)
- Protocol conversion
- Data formatting

ii) **Physical Layer**:

- Transmission of raw bits over physical medium
- Defines electrical, mechanical, and functional specifications
- Handles bit synchronization

### d) CRC Calculation

Given data frame: 100100
Generator polynomial: x³ + x² + 1 (which is 1101 in binary)

1. Append 3 zeros to data: 100100000

2. Perform binary division:
```
1101 ) 100100000
```
3. Remainder is 001
4. Code word: Original data + remainder = 100100001

## Question 3: Attempt any THREE of the following

### a) OSI vs TCP/IP Comparison

| Feature | OSI Model | TCP/IP Model |
|------------------|----------------------------|----------------------------|
| Layers | 7 layers | 4 layers |
| Development | Developed by ISO | Developed by DARPA |
| Approach | Theoretical | Practical implementation |
| Protocols | Protocol independent | Protocol dependent |
| Layer Boundaries | Strict boundaries | Flexible boundaries |
| Adoption | Less adopted | Widely adopted |

### b) Stop and Wait Protocol

**Description**: The sender transmits one frame and waits for an acknowledgment before
sending the next frame.

**Limitations**:
1. Low efficiency as the channel remains idle while waiting for ACK
2. Poor performance over long-distance links due to propagation delay

### c) Network Devices and OSI Layers

i) Switch - Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
ii) Router - Network Layer (Layer 3)
iii) Gateway - Application Layer (Layer 7)
iv) Hub - Physical Layer (Layer 1)

### d) Classless Addressing

**Disadvantages of classful addressing**:
1. Inflexible address allocation
2. Wastage of IP addresses
3. Doesn't support variable-length subnet masking

**Rules for classless addressing**:

1. Use CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation
2. Address space can be divided into any size
3. Subnet mask is specified with the address (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24)

## Question 4: Attempt any THREE of the following

### a) Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

*Refer to page 5 of the second PDF for the WDM diagram.*

**Justification**: WDM combines multiple optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by
using different wavelengths (colors) of laser light. This allows for simultaneous transmission of
multiple data streams over the same fiber, significantly increasing bandwidth capacity.
### b) PPP Protocol Transition Phases
1. **Dead**: No physical layer connection
2. **Establish**: LCP packets negotiate connection parameters
3. **Authenticate**: Optional authentication phase
4. **Network**: NCP packets configure network layer protocols
5. **Open**: Data transfer state
6. **Terminate**: Connection termination

### c) FDM vs TDM Comparison

| Basis | FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) | TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) |

|----------------|---------------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| Definition | Divides bandwidth into frequency channels | Divides time into slots |
| Analog/Digital | Works with analog signals | Works with digital signals |
| Synchronization| Doesn't require synchronization | Requires precise synchronization |
| Cross-talk | More susceptible to cross-talk | Less susceptible to cross-talk |

### d) Class and Subnet Addresses

| IP Address | Class | Subnet Address |

|----------------|-------|-----------------------|
| 191.168.0.1 | B | 191.168.0.0/16 |
| 221.45.14.68 | C | 221.45.14.0/24 |
| 245.32.14.24 | E | Not applicable |
| 10.145.14.68 | A | 10.0.0.0/8 |

### e) Circuit Switching

*Refer to the first PDF for circuit switching diagram.*

**Explanation**: In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path is established between

two stations through nodes of the network. The path remains fixed for the duration of the
connection, with resources reserved exclusively for this connection.

## Question 5: Attempt any TWO of the following

### a) Network Topologies

**i) Star Topology**
*Refer to page 6 of the second PDF for star topology diagram.*

**Disadvantages**:
1. Central node failure causes entire network failure
2. Requires more cable than bus topology
3. Performance depends on central device capacity

**ii) Mesh Topology**

*Refer to page 4 of the second PDF for mesh topology diagram.*

**Disadvantages**:
1. High cabling cost
2. Complex installation and maintenance
3. Difficult to scale

### b) OSI Model Architecture

*Refer to page 3 of the second PDF for the seven-layered architecture.*

**Functions of each layer**:

1. **Physical**: Transmits raw bits over physical medium
2. **Data Link**: Provides error-free transfer between nodes
3. **Network**: Routes packets across network
4. **Transport**: Ensures end-to-end reliable communication
5. **Session**: Manages dialog control and synchronization
6. **Presentation**: Handles data translation and encryption
7. **Application**: Provides network services to applications

### c) Transmission Media

**Guided Media**:
1. Twisted pair cable
2. Coaxial cable
3. Fiber optic cable

**Unguided Media**:
1. Radio waves
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared

**Coaxial Cable Construction**:

*Refer to page 1 of the second PDF for labeled construction.*

**Advantages of Coaxial Cable**:

1. Better shielding than twisted pair
2. Higher bandwidth
3. Less susceptible to interference
**Applications**:
1. Cable television networks
2. Ethernet networks
3. Radio frequency transmission

## Question 6: Attempt any TWO of the following

### a) Network Architecture Selection

**i) For less than 10 users with no administrator**:
**Preferred**: Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network

Justification : -
*Refer to page 4 of the second PDF for P2P diagram.*

1. No dedicated server required

2. Easy to set up and maintain
3. Cost-effective for small groups
4. Each computer can act as both client and server

b) Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol

Working :-
1. Sender can transmit multiple frames without waiting for ACK (window size N)
2. Receiver only accepts frames in order, discarding out-of-order frames
3. If any frame is lost or corrupted, sender must retransmit that frame and all subsequent frames
4. Uses cumulative acknowledgments
5. Timer set for oldest unacknowledged frame