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Chapter 09 Advanced Data Structures

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Chapter 09 Advanced Data Structures

Uploaded by

abhimanyu thakur
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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ADVANCED DATA

STRUCTURES
DATA STRUCTURES IN JAVA

Sercan Külcü | Data Structures In Java | 10.05.2023


Contents

Interval Trees ..............................................................................................2


Trie ...............................................................................................................3
Suffix Trees ................................................................................................. 4
Bloom Filters .............................................................................................. 4
Skip Lists .................................................................................................... 6
Treaps ..........................................................................................................7
Link-Cut Trees ............................................................................................7

PAGE 1
Interval Trees

An interval tree is a data structure that can be used to represent a set of


intervals on a line. Each interval is represented by a pair of numbers, its
start and end points. Interval trees can be used to solve a variety of
problems, such as finding the intervals that overlap a given point or
finding the intervals that are completely contained within another
interval.

Interval trees are typically implemented as binary search trees, where


each node in the tree represents an interval. The intervals are sorted by
their start points, and the children of each node represent the intervals
that are completely contained within the interval represented by the
node.

Interval trees can be used to solve a variety of problems, such as:

• Finding the intervals that overlap a given point


• Finding the intervals that are completely contained within
another interval
• Finding the intervals that are adjacent to each other
• Finding the intervals that are in a given range
• Finding the intervals that are sorted by their start points

Interval trees are a powerful data structure that can be used to solve a
variety of problems. They are relatively easy to implement and can be
used to solve problems that would be difficult to solve with other data
structures.

Example: Let's consider an example of how an interval tree can be used


to solve a problem. Suppose we have a set of intervals that represent the
times that a group of people are available to meet. We want to find the
intervals that overlap so that we can schedule a meeting that will work
for everyone.

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We can represent the set of intervals as an interval tree. The start points
of the intervals are sorted, and the children of each node represent the
intervals that are completely contained within the interval represented
by the node.

To find the intervals that overlap, we can start at the root of the tree and
recursively check each node. If the start point of the current node is less
than or equal to the end point of the current node, then the current
node represents an interval that overlaps with the current interval. We
can then add the current node to the list of overlapping intervals.

We continue recursively checking each node until we reach a leaf node.


At this point, we have found all of the intervals that overlap with the
current interval.

Trie

A trie, also known as a prefix tree, is a tree data structure that is used to
store a set of strings. Each string is stored as a path from the root of the
tree to a leaf node. The nodes in the trie store the characters of the
strings, and the edges in the trie store the relationships between the
characters.

Tries are a very efficient data structure for storing and searching strings.
They can be used to solve a variety of problems, such as:

• String matching: Tries can be used to find all of the strings in a set
that match a given pattern.
• Spell checking: Tries can be used to check if a given word is spelled
correctly.
• Autocomplete: Tries can be used to suggest words that are likely
to be typed next.

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Tries are typically implemented as binary trees, where each node in the
tree stores a character and the children of each node store the characters
that follow the character stored in the node.

Tries are a powerful data structure that can be used to solve a variety of
problems. They are relatively easy to implement and can be used to solve
problems that would be difficult to solve with other data structures.

Suffix Trees

A suffix tree is a data structure that can be used to represent a string. It


is a compressed trie of all the suffixes of the string. Suffix trees are used
to solve a variety of string-related problems, such as pattern matching,
finding distinct substrings in a given string, and finding longest
palindromes.

Suffix trees can be constructed using a variety of algorithms. The most


common algorithm is Ukkonen's algorithm. Ukkonen's algorithm is a
dynamic programming algorithm that constructs the suffix tree one
suffix at a time.

Bloom Filters

A Bloom filter is a probabilistic data structure that allows for fast and
memory-efficient membership testing. It provides a way to answer the
question "Is element X in the set?" without storing the entire set of
elements. Bloom filters can offer significant space savings compared to
traditional data structures like arrays or hash tables.

A Bloom filter consists of a bit array of m bits, where m is a power of two.


Initially, all bits are set to 0. To add an element to the Bloom filter, we
hash the element k times, where k is the number of hash functions. The
hash functions should be chosen so that they are evenly distributed over

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the range of 0 to m - 1. For each hash function, we set the bit at the
corresponding index in the bit array to 1.

To test whether an element is in the Bloom filter, we hash the element


k times and check if the corresponding bits in the bit array are set to 1.
If all bits are set to 1, then the element is probably in the Bloom filter.
However, it is possible for an element to not be in the Bloom filter and
still return a positive result. This is called a false positive. The probability
of a false positive can be controlled by the number of hash functions
used.

Advantages of Bloom Filters

Bloom filters offer several advantages over traditional data structures for
membership testing. They are:

• Space-efficient: Bloom filters can offer significant space savings


compared to traditional data structures. The space required for a
Bloom filter is proportional to the number of bits in the bit array,
which is typically much smaller than the number of elements in
the set.
• Fast: Membership testing in a Bloom filter is very fast. It takes only
O(k) time, where k is the number of hash functions.
• Probabilistic: Bloom filters are probabilistic data structures. This
means that there is a small probability that an element will return
a positive result even if it is not in the set. This probability can be
controlled by the number of hash functions used.

Disadvantages of Bloom Filters

Bloom filters also have some disadvantages. They are:

• False positives: The main disadvantage of Bloom filters is the


possibility of false positives. This means that an element may
return a positive result even if it is not in the set. This can be a
problem if the false positive rate is too high.

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• Cannot be used for deletion: Bloom filters cannot be used to delete
elements from the set. Once an element is added to the Bloom
filter, it cannot be removed.

Applications of Bloom Filters

Bloom filters are used in a variety of applications, including:

• Web filtering: Bloom filters can be used to filter out unwanted


content from web pages. For example, they can be used to block
pornographic or malicious content.
• Spam filtering: Bloom filters can be used to filter out spam emails.
For example, they can be used to block emails that contain certain
keywords or phrases.
• Duplicate detection: Bloom filters can be used to detect duplicate
files. For example, they can be used to find duplicate images or
documents.
• Load balancing: Bloom filters can be used to load balance web
servers. For example, they can be used to distribute requests to
servers based on their load.

Skip Lists

A skip list is a probabilistic data structure that can be used to store a


sorted list of elements. It is similar to a linked list, but it has additional
levels that allow for faster searching.

The bottom level of a skip list is a regular linked list. The next level up
has half as many nodes as the bottom level, and so on. The top level has
only one node.

Each node in a skip list has two pointers: a forward pointer and a down
pointer. The forward pointer points to the next node in the same level.
The down pointer points to the corresponding node in the next level.

PAGE 6
To search for an element in a skip list, we start at the top level and follow
the forward pointers until we reach a node that contains the element we
are looking for. If we don't find the element, we then follow the down
pointer to the next level and repeat the process.

Insertion and deletion in a skip list are similar to search. To insert an


element, we first find the node where the element should be inserted.
We then create a new node with the element and insert it into the list.
To delete an element, we find the node that contains the element and
then remove it from the list.

Skip lists have several advantages over other data structures, such as
linked lists and binary search trees. They are typically faster for
searching, insertion, and deletion, and they are also more scalable.

Treaps

A treap is a probabilistic data structure that can be used to store a sorted


list of elements. It is like a binary search tree, but it has a random
priority associated with each node. The priority of a node is used to
determine the order of the nodes in the tree.

Treaps have several advantages over other data structures, such as


binary search trees. They are typically faster for searching, insertion, and
deletion, and they are also more scalable.

Link-Cut Trees

A link-cut tree is a data structure that can be used to represent a forest,


a set of rooted trees. It supports the following operations:

• Link : Attach a tree consisting of a single node to the forest.


• Cut : Disconnect a node (and its subtree) from the tree of which
it is part.

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• Find-root : Given a node, find the root of the tree to which it
belongs.

Link-cut trees are a powerful data structure that can be used to solve a
variety of problems, such as dynamic connectivity, minimum spanning
trees, and range minimum queries.

Here are some of the advantages of link-cut trees:

• They are very efficient for dynamic connectivity problems.


• They can be used to solve a variety of other problems, such as
minimum spanning trees and range minimum queries.
• They are relatively easy to implement.

Here are some of the disadvantages of link-cut trees:

• They can be more complex than other data structures, such as


binary search trees.
• They can be more difficult to understand and debug.

Overall, link-cut trees are a powerful and versatile data structure that
can be used to solve a variety of problems.

PAGE 8

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