Unit-III

Actuators

Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the output of
a microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on a machine or device. There are different type
of actuators are in use
1. Hydraulic actuators
2. Pneumatic actuators
3. Mechanical actuators
4. Electric actuators

1. Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to do useful work.
Figure shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

Functions of the components in a hydraulic system are

1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do
useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type to give to provide linear motion(e.g.
hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type to give rotary motion (e.g., hydraulic motor).
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit
by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Three types of control valves s are used in a hydraulic system. Directional control valves (D C V),
Pressure control valves (P C V) and Flow control valves (F C V) to control the direction, pressure
and flow rate of a fluid flowing through the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir (oil tank) is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.

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 6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient,
as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure relief valve regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic
fluid.

2. Components of a Pneumatic System

 Pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work
 Compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
 Storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
 Valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
 External power supply (Motor) is used to drive the compressor.
 Piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor.
The compressor is driven by a motor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises and hence air cooler is
provided to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. Then the treated
pressurized air needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is
fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reached the required level, respectively.
The cylinder movement is controlled by pneumatic direction control valve. One side of the pneumatic valve
is connected to the compressed air. Silencers are fitted to reduce the noise of the exhaust air. The other side
of the valve is connected to port A and Port B of the actuating cylinder.

3. Control Valves
There are three types of control valves in a hydraulic / pneumatic system.

1. Directional Control Valve, (DCV)

2. Pressure Control Valves (PCV)
3. Flow Control Valves (FCV)

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3.1.1 Directional Control Valves (DCV)
Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control valves to direct the flow of fluid through a system.
They are not intended to vary the rate of flow of fluid but are either completely open or completely closed,
i.e. on/off devices. Such on/off valves are widely used to develop sequenced control systems. They might be
activated to switch the fluid flow direction by means of mechanical, electrical or fluid pressure signals.

3.1.2 Spool type directional control valve

A common type of directional control valve is the spool valve. A Spool moves horizontally within the valve
body to control the flow. Figure shows a particular
form of spool valve. In (a) the air supply is connected
to port P and and it is closed by the spool. The port A
is connected to port T which is the exhaust. When the
spool is moved to the left, the air supply flows from
port P to port A and port T is closed.

Thus the movement of the spool has allowed the air to

flow out of the system and then be reversed to flow
into the system.

Rotary spool valves have a rotating spool which, when

it rotates, opens and closes ports in a similar way.

3.1.3 Poppet valve

Another common form of directional control valve is the poppet valve.
Figure shows one form. This valve is normally in the closed condition,
there being no connection between port 1 to which the pressure supply is
connected and port 2 to which the system is connected. In poppet valves,
balls, discs or cones are used in conjunction with valve seats to control the
flow. In the figure a ball is shown. When the push-button is depressed, the
ball is pushed out of its seat and flow occurs as a result of port 1 being
connected to port 2. When the button is released, the spring forces the
ball back up against its seat and so closes off the now.

3.1.4 Valve symbols

The symbol used for control valves consists of a square for each of its switching positions. Thus for the
poppet valve shown in above Figure , there are two positions: one with the button not pressed and one with
it pressed. Thus a two-position valve will have two squares, a three-position valve three squares. Arrow-
headed lines are used to indicate the directions of flow in each of the positions, with blocked-off lines closed
flow lines .The initial position of the valve has the connections to the ports . The valve has four ports. Ports
are labelled by a number or a letter according to their function. The ports are labeled 1 (or P) for pressure
supply, 3 (or T) for hydraulic return port, 3 or 5 (or R or S) for pneumatic exhaust ports, and 2 or 5 (or B or A)
for output ports.

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Two way spool valves with two positions,
(2/2 valve)

Two way valves have only two ports as shown in Figure.

These valves are also known as on-off valves because
they allow the fluid flow only in direction. Normally, the
valve is closed. These valves are available as normally
open and normally closed function. These are the
simplest type of spool valves

Symbol of 2/2 DCV, push button operated, spring return, normally closed

Symbol of 2/2 DCV, push button operated, spring return, normally open

a) Three way valves with two

positions, (3/2 valve)
When a valve has one pressure port, one tank
port and one actuating port as shown in Figure, it
is known as three way valve. In this valve, the
pressure port pressurizes one port and exhausts
another one. As shown in figures, only one
actuator port is opened at a time. In some cases a
neutral position is also available when both the
ports are blocked. Generally, these valves are
used to operate single acting cylinders.

b) Four way valves with three positions (4/3 valve)

Fig shows three position four

way (4/3) valve with closed
center position. It is used in
double-acting cylinders to
perform advance, hold and
return operation to the piston.
These types of valves have three switching positions. The center position is closed one. In this position both
working ports A and B are closed. Thus cylinder becomes in hold condition.

3.1.5 Actuation of valves

Direction control valves may be actuated by a variety of methods. Actuation is the method of moving the
valve element from one position to another. There are four basic methods of actuation: Manual, mechanical,

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solenoid-operated and pilot-operated. Several combinations of actuation are possible using these four basic
methods.

 Manually operated: In manually operated DCVs, the spool is shifted manually by moving a
handle pushing a button or stepping on a foot pedal. When the handle is not operated, the spool
returns to its original position by means of a spring.
 Mechanically operated: The spool is shifted by mechanical linkages such as cam and rollers.

 Solenoid operated: When an

electric coil or a solenoid is
energized, it creates a magnetic
force that pulls the armature into
the coil. This causes the armature
to push the spool of the valve.

 Pilot operated: A DCV can also be shifted by applying a

pilot signal (either hydraulic or pneumatic) against a
piston at either end of the valve spool. When pilot
pressure is introduced, it pushes the piston to shift the
spool.

3.1.6 Symbols for actuation

3.2 Pressure control valves

There are three main types of pressure control valves:

3.2.1 Pressure regulating valves.

These are used to control the operating pressure in a circuit and maintain it at a constant value.

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3.2.2 Pressure relief valves
These are used as safety devices
to limit the pressure in a circuit to
below some safe value. The valve
opens and vents to the
atmosphere, or back to the sump,
if the pressure rises above the set
safe value.

3.2.3 Pressure sequence valves

These valves are used to sense the pressure

of an external line and give a signal when it
reaches some preset value. The primary
function of this type of valve is to divert flow
in a predetermined sequence. It is used to
operate the cycle of a machine automatically.
It consists of the two ports; one main port
connecting the main pressure line and another
port (secondary port) is connected to the
secondary circuit. The secondary port is usually closed by the spool. The pressure on the spool works against
the spring force. When the pressure exceeds the preset value of the spring; the spool lifts and the fluid flows
from the primary port to the secondary port.

3.3 Process control valves

Process control valves are used to control the rate of fluid
flow and are used where, perhaps, the rate of flow of a liquid
into a tank has to be controlled. The basis of such valves is an
actuator being used to move a plug into the flow pipe and so
alter the cross-section of the pipe through which the fluid can
flow.

A common form of pneumatic actuator used with process

control valves is the diaphragm actuator. Essentially it
consists of a diaphragm with the input pressure signal from
the controller on one side and atmospheric pressure on the
other, this difference in pressure being termed the gauge
pressure. The diaphragm is made of rubber which is
sandwiched in its centre between two circular steel discs. The
effect of changes in the input pressure is thus to move the
central part of the diaphragm, as illustrated in Figure. This
movement is communicated to the final control element by a shaft which is attached to the diaphragm

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 4. Hydraulic / Pneumatic actuators
Hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into mechanical
energy. It is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power. The amount of
output power developed depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop across the actuator and its
overall efficiency. Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:

I) Linear actuator: For linear actuation (cylinders).

II) Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (motor).
III) Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (semi-rotary actuator).

4.1 Hydraulic/ Pneumatic cylinders

The function of hydraulic cylinder is to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical force or
motion. Hydraulic cylinders extend and retract a piston rod to provide a push or pull force to drive
the external load along a straight-line path.

Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:

a) Single-acting cylinders.
b) Double-acting cylinders.
c) Telescopic cylinders.
d) Tandem cylinders.

a) Single-Acting Cylinders
The term single acting is used when the control
pressure is applied to just one side of the piston, a
spring often being used to provide the opposition
to the movement of the piston. A single-acting
cylinder is simplest in design and is shown schematically in Fig. It consists of a piston inside a
cylindrical housing called barrel. On one end of the piston there is a rod, which can reciprocate. At
the opposite end, there is a port for the
entrance and exit of oil. Single-acting
cylinders produce force in one direction by
hydraulic pressure acting on the piston.
(Single-acting cylinders can exert a force in
the extending direction only.) The return of
the piston is not done hydraulically. In
single-acting cylinders, retraction is done
either by gravity or by a spring.

b) Double-Acting Cylinder
The term double acting is used when the control
pressures are applied to each side of the piston.

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A difference in pressure between the two sides then results in motion of the piston, the piston being able to
move in either direction along the cylinder as a result of high pressure signals. Figure shows the operation
of a double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side. To extend the cylinder, the pump flow is
sent to the blank-end port as in Fig. The fluid from the rod-end port returns to the reservoir. To
retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod-end port and the fluid from the blank-end port
returns to the tank as in Fig.

c) Telescopic Cylinder

A telescopic cylinder is used when a long stroke length and a

short retracted length are required. The telescopic cylinder
extends in stages, each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits
inside the previous stage. One application for this type of
cylinder is raising a dump truck bed. Telescopic cylinders are
available in both single-acting and double-acting models. They
are more expensive than standard cylinders due to their more
complex construction. They generally consist of a nest of tubes
and operate on the displacement principle. When the cylinder extends, all the sections move
together until the outer section is prevented from further extension by its stop ring. The remaining
sections continue out-stroking until the second outermost section reaches the limit of its stroke;
this process continues until all sections are extended, the innermost one being the last of all.

e) Tandem cylinder

A tandem cylinder, shown in Fig., is used in

applications where a large amount of force is
required from a small-diameter cylinder.
Pressure is applied to both pistons, resulting
in increased force because of the larger area.
The drawback is that these cylinders must be longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an equal
speed because flow must go to both pistons

4.2 Control of a single acting cylinder

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4.3 Control of a double acting cylinder

4.4 Operation of a lift system using two DCVs

Fig shows a lift system operated by two push button
operated DCVs. The cylinder is a single acting
cylinder which retracts down due to its self weight.
When the push button of UP DCV is pressed, the
pressurized fluid supply flows to cylinder which push
the piston outwards. When the down dcv is pressed
fluid in the cylinder is escaped through the vent in
the DCV which retracts the cylinder.

4.5Cylinder sequencing using pressure sequence valve

Many control systems employ pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders as the actuating elements and
require a sequence of extensions
and retractions of the cylinders to
occur. For example, we might have
two cylinders 1 and 2 and require
that when the upper solenoid
valves button is pressed, the piston
of cylinder 1 extends and then,
when it is fully extended, the piston
of cylinder 2 extends. When this
has happened and both are
extended we might need the piston
of cylinder 1 to retract, and when it
is fully retracted we might then

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have the piston of 2 to retract. For this a pressure sequence valve is used. When the cylinder1 is
fully extended pressure in the system increases and which opens the sequence valve and allow fluid
to flow to cylinder 2.

5 Rotary Actuators

5.1 Gear Motor

A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic
pressure acting against the area of one tooth.
There are two teeth trying to move the rotor in
the proper direction, while one net tooth at the
center mesh tries to move it in the opposite
direction. In the design of a gear motor, one of
the gears is keyed to an output shaft, while the
other is simply an idler gear.

Pressurized oil is sent to the inlet port of the motor. Pressure is then applied to the gear teeth,
causing the gears and output shaft to rotate. The pressure builds until enough torque is generated
to rotate the output shaft against the load. Most of the gear motors are bidirectional. Reversing the
direction of flow can reverse the direction of rotation.

5.2 Vane Motor

Figure shows a vane motor consisting of
a circular chamber in which there is an
eccentric rotor carrying several spring or
pressure-loaded vanes. Because the
fluid flowing through the inlet port finds
more area of vanes exposed in the
upper half of the motor, it exerts more
force on the upper vanes, and the rotor
turns. Close tolerances are maintained
between the vanes and ring to provide high efficiencies. The displacement of a vane hydraulic
motor is a function of eccentricity. The radial load on the shaft bearing of an unbalanced vane
motor is also large because all its inlet pressure is on one side of the rotor

5.3 Semi rotary actuator

A single-vane rotary actuator is shown in Fig. A semi-rotary
actuator allows only a partial revolution. A vane-type semi-rotary
actuator consists of a vane connected to an output shaft. When
hydraulic pressure is applied to one side of the vane, it rotates. A
stop prevents the vane from rotating continuously. The rotation
angle in the case of a single-vane semi-rotary actuator is 315°

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6. Electrical Actuation systems

The electrical actuation devices are

1. Switching devices such as mechanical switches, e.g. relays, key boards

2. solid-state switches, e.g. diodes, thyristors, and transistors, where the control signal switches on
or off some electrical device, perhaps a heater or a motor.
3. Solenoid type devices where a current through a solenoid is used to actuate a soft iron core, as,
for example, the solenoid operated hydraulic/pneumatic valve where a control current through a
solenoid is used to actuate a hydraulic/pneumatic how.
4. Drive systems, such as d.c. and a.c. motors, where a current through a motor is used to produce
rotation.

6.1 Relays
Relays are electrically operated switches in
which changing a current in one electrical
circuit switches a current on or off in another
circuit. For the relay shown in Figure , when
there is a current through the solenoid of the
relay, a magnetic field is produced which
attracts the iron armature, moves the push
rod, and so closes the normally open (NO)
switch contacts and opens the normally
closed (NC) switch contacts.

Relays are often used in control systems; the

output from the controller is a relatively small
current and a much larger current is needed to switch on or off the final correction element, e.g. the current
required by an electric heater in a temperature control system or a motor. In such a situation they are likely
to be used in conjunction with transistors. and Figure (b) shows the type of circuit that might be used.
Because relays are inductances, they can generate a back voltage when the energising current is switched
off or when their input switches from a high to low signal. As a result damage can occur in the connecting
circuit. To overcome this problem, a diode is connected across the relay. When the back e.m.f. occurs, the
diode conducts and shorts it out.

6.2 Solid state switches

There are a number of solid-state devices which can be used electronically switch circuits. These include:

1. Diodes.
2. Thyristors and triacs.
3. Bipolar transistors.
4. Power MOSFETs.

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6.2.1 Diodes
The diode has the characteristic shown in Figure and so allows a
significant current in one direction only. A diode can thus be regarded
as a ‘directional element’, only passing a current when forward biased,
i.e. with the anode being positive with respect to the cathode. If the
diode is sufficiently reverse biased, i.e. a very high voltage, it will break
down. If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode, it can be
regarded as only switching on when the direction of the voltage is such
as to forward bias it and being off in the reverse biased direction The
result is that the current through the diode is half-rectified to become just the current due to the positive
halves of the input voltage .

6.2.2 Thyristors
The thyristor, or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). can be
regarded as a diode which has a gate controlling the
conditions under which the diode can be Switched on. Figure
shows the thyristor characteristic. With the gate current
zero, the thyristor passes negligible current when reverse
biased (unless sufficiently reverse biased, hundreds of volts,
when it breaks down). When forward biased the current is
also negligible until the forward breakdown voltage is
exceeded. When this occurs the voltage across the diode
falls to a low level, about 1 to 2 V, and the current is then
only limited by the external resistance in a circuit.

Once switched on the thyristor remains ON until the forward

current is reduced to below a level of a few milliamps. The voltage at which forward breakdown occurs is
determined by the current entering the gate, the higher the current the lower the breakdown voltage. The
power-handling capability of a thyristor is high and thus it is widely used for switching high power
applications.

6.2.3 Triacs
The triac is similar to the thyristor and is equivalent to a pair of thyristors connected in reverse parallel on
the same chip. The triac can be turned on in either the forward or reverse direction. Figure shows the
characteristic. Triacs are simple, relatively inexpensive method
of controlling a.c. power.

Figure shows the type of effect that occurs when a sinusoidal

alternating voltage is applied across (a) a thyristor and (b) a
triac. Forward breakdown occurs when the voltage reaches
the breakdown value and then the voltage across the device
remains low.

A thyristor could be used to control a steady dc. voltage V. In

this the thyristor is operated as a switch by using the gate to
switch the device on or off. By using an alternating signal to

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the gate, the supply voltage can be chopped and an intermittent voltage is produced. The average value of
the output dc. voltage is thus varied and hence controlled by the alternating signal to the gate.

6.2.4 Bipolar transistors

Bipolar transistors come in two forms. the npn and the pnp. Figure
shows the symbol for each. For the npn transistor, the main current
flows in at the collector and out at the emitter, a controlling signal
being applied to the base. The pnp transistor, has the main current
flowing in at the emitter and out at the collector, a controlling
signal being applied to the base.

For a npn transistor connected as shown in Figure (a), the so

termed common-emitter circuit, the relationship between the
collector current Ic and the potential difference between the collector and emitter Vce is described by the
series of graphs shown in Figure (b). When the base current In is zero the transistor is cut off; in this state
both the base-emitter and the base-oollector junctions are reverse biased. When the base current is
increased, the collector current increases and Vcs decreases as a result of more of the voltage being dropped

across Rc. When Vce reaches a value Vce(saturation), the base-coliector junction becomes forward biased
and the collector current can increase no further, even if the base current is further increased. This is termed
saturation. By switching the base current between 0 and a value that drives the transistor into saturation,
bipolar transistors can be used as switches. When there is no input voltage Vin then virtually the entire Vcc
voltage appears at the output. When the input voltage is made sufficiently high the transistor switches so
that very little of the Vcc voltage appears at the output (F ig. (c)).

If the base current needed to drive a bipolar power transistor is fairly large, a second transistor is often
needed to enable switching to be obtained with relatively small currents. e.g. that supplied by a
microprocessor.

7 Electric motors
Electric motors are frequently used as the final control element in positional or speed-control systems.
Motors can be classified into two main categories: d.c. motors and a.c. motors, most motors used in modem
control systems being d.c. motors. The basic principles involved in the action of a motor are:

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 1. A force is exened on a conductor in a magnetic field when a current passes through it . For a
conductor of length L, carrying a current I in a magnetic field of flux density 8 at right angles to
the conductor, the force F equals BIL .

2. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field then an e.m.f. is induced across it . The induced
e.m.f. e is equal to the rate at which the magnetic flux ϕ swept through by the conductor
changes (Faraday‘s law), i.e. e = -d ϕ /dt. The minus sign is because the e.m.f. is in such a
direction as to oppose the change producing it. (Lenz’s law)

7.1 DC motor
Figure shows the basic principle of the d.c. motor, a loop of wire which is free to rotate in the field of a
permanent magnet. When a current is passed through the coil, the resulting forces acting on its sides at right
angles to the field cause forces to act on those sides to give rotation. However, for the rotation to continue,
when the coil passes through the vertical position the current direction through the coil has to be reversed.
In the conventional d.c. motor, coils of wire are mounted in slots on a cylinder of magnetic material called
the armature. The armature is mounted on bearings and is free to rotate. It is mounted in the magnetic field
produced by field poles. These may be, for small motors, permanent magnets or electromagnets with their
magnetism produced by a current through the held coils. Figure shows the basic principle of a four-pole d.c.
motor with the magnetic field produced by current carrying coils. The ends of each armature coil are
connected to adjacent segments of a segmented ring called the commutator with electrical contacts made to
the segments through carbon contacts called brushes. As the armature rotates. the commutator reverses
the current in each coil as it moves between the field poles. This is necessary if the forces acting on the coil
are to remain acting in the same direction and so the rotation continue. The direction of rotation of the d.c.
motor can be reversed by reversing either the armature current or the field current

D.C. motors with field coils are classified as series, shunt. compound and separately excited according to how
the field windings and armature windings are connected

7.1.1 Series wound motor

With the series wound motor the armature and fields coils are in series Such a
motor exerts the highest starting torque and has the greatest no-load Speed.
With light loads there is a danger that a series wound motor might run at too
high a speed. Reversing the polarity of the supply to the coils has no effect on
the direction of rotation of the motor; it will continue rotating in the same
direction since both the field and armature currents have been reversed.
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7.1.2 Shunt wound motor
With the shunt wound motor the armature and held coils are in parallel. It
provides the lowest starting torque, a much lower no-load speed and’ has
good speed regulation. Because of this almost constant Speed regardless of
load, shunt wound motors are very widely used. To reverse the direction of
rotation, either the armature or field supplied must be reversed. For this
reason, the separately excited windings are preferable for such a situation.

7.1.3Compound motor
The compound motor has two field windings, one in series With the field and
one in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to get the best features of the
series and shunt wound motors, namely a high starting torque and good
speed regulation.

7.1.4 Separately excited motor

The separately excited motor has separate control of armature and
field currents and can be considered to be a special case of the shunt
wound motor.

7.2 A. C. Motors
Alternating current motors can be classified into two groups, single phase and three phase with each group
being further subdivided into induction and synchronous motors. Single-phase motors tend to be used for
low power requirements while three phase motors are used for higher powers. Induction motors tend to be
cheaper than synchronous motors and are thus very widely used.

7.2.1 Single-phase squirrel-cage induction motor

The single-phase squirrel-cage induction motor consists of a
squirreI-cage rotor, this being copper or aluminium bars that fit
into slots in end rings to form complete electrical circuits. There
are no external electrical connections to the rotor. The basic
motor consists of this rotor with a stator having a set of windings.
When an alternating current passes through the stator windings
an alternating magnetic field is produced. As a result of
electromagnetic induction, e.m.fs are induced in the conductors
of the rotor and currents flow in the rotor.

Initially, when the rotor is stationary, the forces on the current carrying conductors of the rotor in the
magnetic field of the stator are such as to result in no net torque. The motor is not self-starting. A number of
methods are used to make the motor self-starting and give this initial impetus to start it; one is to use an
auxiliary starting winding to give the rotor an initial push. The rotor rotates at a speed determined by the

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frequency of the alternating current applied to the stator. For a constant frequency supply to a two pole
single-phase motor the magnetic field will alternate at this frequency. This speed of rotation of the magnetic
field is termed the synchronous speed.

7.2.2 Three phase induction motor

The three-phase induction motor is similar to the single-phase induction motor but has a stator with three
windings located 120° apart, each winding being connected to one of the three lines of the supply. Because
the three phases reach their maximum currents at different times, the magnetic field can be considered to
rotate round the stator poles, completing one rotation in one full cycle of the current. The rotation of the
field is much smoother than with the single-phase motor. The three-phase motor has a great advantage over
the single-phase motor of being self-starting. The direction of rotation is reversed by interchanging any two
of the line connections, this changing the direction of rotation of the magnetic field.

7.2.3 Synchronous motors

Synchronous motors have stators similar to those described above for induction motors but a rotor which is
a permanent magnet. The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and so the magnet rotates with it.
With one pair of poles per phase of the supply, the magnetic field rotates through 360° in one cycle of the
supply and so the frequency of rotation with this arrangement 'is the same as the frequency of the supply.
Synchronous motors are used when a precise speed is required. They are not self-starting and some system
has to be employed to Stan them.

AC. motors have the great advantage over dc motors of being cheaper, more rugged, reliable and
maintenance free. However speed control is generally more complex than with d.c. motors. Speed control of
ac. motors is based around the provision of a variable frequency supply, since the speed of such motors is
determined by the frequency of the supply.

8. Stepper Motors
The stepper motor is a device that produces rotation through equal angles, the so-called steps, for each
digital pulse supplied to its input. Thus, for example, if with such a motor 1 pulse produces a rotation of 6°
then 60 pulses will produce a rotation through 360°. There are a number of forms of stepper motor:

8.1Variable reluctance stepper

Figure shows the basic form of the variable reluctance stepper
motor. With this form the rotor is made of soft steel and is
cylindrical with four poles, i.e. fewer poles than on the stator.
When an opposite pair of windings has current switched to
them, a magnetic field is produced with lines of force which
pass from the stator poles through the nearest set of poles on
the rotor. Since lines of force can be considered to be rather
like elastic thread and always trying to shorten themselves, the
rotor will move until the rotor and stator poles line up. This is termed the position of minimum reluctance.
This form of stepper generally gives step angles of 7.5° or 15°.

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8.2 Permanent magnet stepper
Figure shows the basic form of the permanent magnet
motor. The motor shown has a stator with four poles. Each
pole is wound with a field winding, the coils on opposite pairs
of poles being in series. Current is supplied from a dc source
to the windings through switches. The rotor is a permanent
magnet and thus when a pair of stator poles has a current
switched to it, the rotor will move to line up with it. Thus for
the currents giving the situation shown in the figure the rotor moves to the 45° position. If the current is
then switched so that the polarities are reversed, the rotor will move a further 45° in order to line up again.
Thus by switching the currents through the coils the rotor rotates in 45° steps. With this type of motor, step
angles are commonly l.8°, 7.5°, 15°, 30°, 45° or 90°.

8.3 Hybrid stepper

Hybrid stepper motors combine the features of both the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors,
having a permanent magnet encased in iron caps which are cut to have
teeth (Fig. 7.42). The rotor sets itself in the minimum reluctance
position in response to a pair of stator coils being energised. Typical step
angles are 0.9° and l.8°. Such stepper motors are extensively used in high-
accuracy positioning applications, e.g. in computer hard disc drives.

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