Phase Space Optics Fundamentals and Applications

Fundamentals and Applications - 1st Edition

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About the Authors
Markus Testorf received his doctorate in physics from
the University of Erlangen in Germany. He is currently
an assistant professor at the Thayer School of Engineer-
ing at Dartmouth College. Dr. Testorf has written nu-
merous articles on the use of phase-space optics. He
has taught optics courses throughout his professional
career, and phase-space concepts have also become part
of his standard repertoire in the classroom.

Bryan Hennelly received his doctorate in optical

physics from the University College Dublin in Ireland
in 2005. He is currently a research fellow at the
National University of Ireland, Maynooth. Dr. Hennelly
has written or coauthored numerous articles based
on Wigner or phase-space optics relating to optical
metrology systems and the sampling and numerical
simulation of optical systems.

Jorge Ojeda-Castañeda earned his doctorate in applied

optics, at University of Reading, UK. As an Alexander
von Humboldt fellow, he worked at the University of
Erlangen, in Germany. Dr. Ojeda-Castañeda has been a
visiting professor at the Institute of Optics in Madrid,
the University of Valencia, the Autonomous University
of Barcelona, and the University James I in Spain. He
is currently professor of applied optics, in the Univer-
sity of Guanajuato, México. Dr. Ojeda-Castañeda has
written more than 200 papers in academic journals and
conference proceedings. In many of his oral and writ-
ten contributions, he has pioneered the use of phase-
space representations of optical systems. Dr. Ojeda-
Castañeda is a fellow of the SPIE and the OSA.
 Phase-Space
Optics
Fundamentals and Applications

Markus E. Testorf
Bryan M. Hennelly
Jorge Ojeda-Castañeda

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 Contents
Preface ....................................................... xiii

1 Wigner Distribution in Optics ........................ 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Elementary Description of Optical Signals
and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Impulse Response and Coherent
Point-Spread Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Mutual Coherence Function
and Cross-Spectral Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Some Basic Examples of Optical Signals . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Wigner Distribution and Ambiguity Function . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Some Basic Examples Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Gaussian Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Local Frequency Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Some Properties of the Wigner Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 Inversion Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 Shift Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Radiometric Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.4 Instantaneous Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.5 Moyal’s Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 One-Dimensional Case and the Fractional
Fourier Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1 Fractional Fourier Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.2 Rotation in Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5.3 Generalized Marginals—Radon Transform . . . . . . 16
1.6 Propagation of the Wigner Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.1 First-Order Optical Systems—Ray
Transformation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6.2 Phase-Space Rotators—More Rotations
in Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

v
vi Contents

1.6.3 More General Systems—Ray-Spread Function . . . 21

1.6.4 Geometric-Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.5 Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Wigner Distribution Moments in First-Order
Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.7.1 Moment Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.7.2 Moment Invariants for Phase-Space Rotators . . . . 26
1.7.3 Symplectic Moment Matrix—The Bilinear
ABCD Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7.4 Measurement of Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8 Coherent Signals and the Cohen Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8.1 Multicomponent Signals—Auto-Terms
and Cross-Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.8.2 One-Dimensional Case and Some Basic
Cohen Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.8.3 Rotation of the Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.8.4 Rotated Version of the Smoothed
Interferogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2 Ambiguity Function in Optical Imaging ............ 45

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2 Intensity Spectrum of a Fresnel Diffraction
Pattern Under Coherent Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.1 General Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.2 Application to Simple Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.3 Contrast Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3 Propagation through a Paraxial Optical System
in Terms of AF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.1 Propagation in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.2 Transmission through a Thin Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.3 Propagation in a Paraxial Optical System . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 The AF in Isoplanatic (Space-Invariant) Imaging . . . . . . . 52
2.5 The AF of the Image of an Incoherent Source . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.1 Derivation of the Zernike-Van Cittert
Theorem from the Propagation of the AF . . . . . . . 53
2.5.2 Partial Coherence Properties in the Image
of an Incoherent Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.3 The Pupil-AF as a Generalization of the OTF . . . . 54
2.6 Phase-Space Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.7 Another Possible Approach to AF Reconstruction . . . . . . 56
 Contents vii

2.8 Propagation-Based Holographic Phase Retrieval

from Several Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.8.1 Fresnel Diffraction Images
as In-Line Holograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.8.2 Application to Phase Retrieval
and X-Ray Holotomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3 Rotations in Phase Space ............................ 63

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2 First-Order Optical Systems and Canonical
Integral Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.1 Canonical Integral Transforms and Ray
Transformation Matrix Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.2 Modified Iwasawa Decomposition of Ray
Transformation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3 Canonical Transformations Producing
Phase-Space Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.1 Matrix and Operator Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.2 Signal Rotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.3 Fractional Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.4 Gyrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.5 Other Phase-Space Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.4 Properties of the Phase-Space Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.4.1 Some Useful Relations for Phase-Space
Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4.2 Similarity to the Fractional Fourier Transform . . . 76
3.4.3 Shift Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4.4 Convolution Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4.5 Scaling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4.6 Phase-Space Rotations of Selected Functions . . . . 78
3.5 Eigenfunctions for Phase-Space Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.5.1 Some Relations for the Eigenfunctions . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.5.2 Mode Presentation on Orbital Poincaré Sphere . . 82
3.6 Optical Setups for Basic Phase-Space Rotators . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6.1 Flexible Optical Setups for Fractional FT
and Gyrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.6.2 Flexible Optical Setup for Image Rotator . . . . . . . . 87
3.7 Applications of Phase-Space Rotators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.7.1 Generalized Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.7.2 Pattern Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
viii Contents

3.7.3 Chirp Signal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

3.7.4 Signal Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.7.5 Mode Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.7.6 Beam Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.7.7 Gouy Phase Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

4 The Radon-Wigner Transform in Analysis, Design,

and Processing of Optical Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2 Projections of the Wigner Distribution Function
in Phase Space: The Radon-Wigner
Transform (RWT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2.1 Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2.2 Optical Implementation of the RWT:
The Radon-Wigner Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3 Analysis of Optical Signals and Systems
by Means of the RWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3.1 Analysis of Diffraction Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3.1.1 Computation of Irradiance
Distribution along Different Paths
in Image Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.3.1.2 Parallel Optical Display
of Diffraction Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.2 Inverting RWT: Phase-Space Tomographic
Reconstruction of Optical Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.3 Merit Functions of Imaging Systems
in Terms of the RWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.3.1 Axial Point-Spread Function (PSF)
and Optical Transfer Function (OTF) . . . 138
4.3.3.2 Polychromatic OTF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.3.3 Polychromatic Axial PSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4 Design of Imaging Systems and Optical
Signal Processing by Means of RWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.4.1 Optimization of Optical Systems:
Achromatic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.4.2 Controlling the Axial Response: Synthesis
of Pupil Masks by RWT Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.4.3 Signal Processing through RWT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
 Contents ix

5 Imaging Systems: Phase-Space Representations ... 165

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2 The Product-Space Representation and Product
Spectrum Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3 Optical Imaging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 Bilinear Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5 Noncoherent Imaging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.6 Tolerance to Focus Errors and
to Spherical Aberration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.7 Phase Conjugate Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

6 Super Resolved Imaging in Wigner-Based

Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.2 General Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.3 Description of SR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.3.1 Code Division Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.3.2 Time Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.3.3 Polarization Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.3.4 Wavelength Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.3.5 Gray-Level Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.3.6 Description in the Phase-Space Domain . . . . . . . . 205
6.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

7 Radiometry, Wave Optics, and Spatial

Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.2 Conventional Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.3 Lambertian Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.4 Mutual Coherence Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.5 Stationary Phase Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.6 Radiometry and Wave Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.7.1 Blackbody Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.7.2 Noncoherent Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7.7.3 Coherent Wave Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.7.4 Quasi-Homogeneous Wave Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
x Contents

8 Rays and Waves .................................... 237

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2 Small-Wavelength Limit in the Position
Representation I: Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.2.1 The Eikonal and Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8.2.2 Choosing z as the Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.2.3 Ray-Optical Phase Space
and the Lagrange Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.3 Small-Wavelength Limit in the Position
Representation II: The Transport Equation
and the Field Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3.1 The Debye Series Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3.2 The Transport Equation and Its Solution . . . . . . . 245
8.3.3 The Field Estimate and Its Problems
at Caustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.4 Flux Lines versus Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.5 Analogy with Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.5.1 Semiclassical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.5.2 Bohmian Mechanics and the Hydrodynamic
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.6 Small-Wavelength Limit in the Momentum
Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.6.1 The Helmholtz Equation in the Momentum
Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.6.2 Asymptotic Treatment and Ray Equations . . . . . . 256
8.6.3 Transport Equation in the Momentum
Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.6.4 Field Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.7 Maslov’s Canonical Operator Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.8 Gaussian Beams and Their Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.8.1 Parabasal Gaussian Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.8.2 Sums of Gaussian Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.9 Stable Aggregates of Flexible Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.9.1 Derivation of the Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.9.2 Insensitivity to ␥ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.9.3 Phase-Space Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.10 A Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.11 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

9 Self-Imaging in Phase Space ....................... 279

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.2 Phase-Space Optics Minimum Tool Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
9.3 Self-Imaging of Paraxial Wavefronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
 Contents xi

9.4 The Talbot Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

9.5 The “Walk-off” Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.6 The Fractional Talbot Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.7 Matrix Formulation of the Fractional Talbot Effect . . 295
9.8 Point Source Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.9 Another Path to Self-Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9.10 Self-Imaging and Incoherent Illumination . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

10 Sampling and Phase Space ........................ 309

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
10.2 Notation and Some Initial Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.2.1 The Wigner Distribution Function
and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
10.2.2 The Linear Canonical Transform
and the WDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
10.2.3 The Phase-Space Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
10.2.4 Harmonics and Chirps
and Convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
10.2.5 The Comb Function and Rect Function . . . . . 318
10.2.5.1 Comb Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
10.2.5.2 Rect Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
10.3 Finite Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
10.3.1 Band-limitedness in Fourier Domain . . . . . . . 321
10.3.2 Band-limitedness and the LCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.3.3 Finite Space-Bandwidth
Product—Compact Support in x and k . . . . . . 324
10.4 Sampling a Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.4.1 Nyquist-Shannon Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.4.2 Generalized Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
10.5 Simulating an Optical System: Sampling
at the Input and Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
10.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

11 Phase Space in Ultrafast Optics ................... 337

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
11.2 Phase-Space Representations for Short
Optical Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.2.1 Representation of Pulsed Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11.2.2 Pulse Ensembles and Correlation
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
xii Contents

11.2.3 The Time-Frequency Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . 343

11.2.4 Phase-Space Representation of Paraxial
Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
11.2.5 Temporal Paraxiality and the Chronocyclic
Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
11.3 Metrology of Short Optical Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.3.1 Measurement Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
11.3.2 Pulse Characterization Apparatuses
as Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
11.3.3 Phase-Space Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
11.3.3.1 Spectrographic Techniques . . . . . . . 362
11.3.3.2 Tomographic Techniques . . . . . . . . . 366
11.3.4 Interferometric or Direct Techniques . . . . . . . . 369
11.3.4.1 Two-Pulse Double-Slit
Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
11.3.4.2 Shearing Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . 374
11.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

Index ................................................... 385

 Preface

I
t is no simple task to characterize the importance of phase-space
methods in the optical sciences. Geometrical optics, formally re-
lated to classical mechanics, has benefited implicitly and explicitly
from phase-space concepts since Hamiltonian and Lagrangian optics
were first formulated. In comparison, phase-space optics of coherent
wavefronts, namely, the use of the Wigner distribution functions and
of the ambiguity function, constitutes a more recent development,
and the Wigner distribution remains far from being integrated into
the canon of standard tools used by the optics community.
Optical engineers and researchers are polarized on the use of phase-
space optics. Many remain intrigued, but skeptical toward a math-
ematical formalism that appears theoretically demanding, without
providing obvious complementary information for describing optical
phenomena. On the other end of the spectrum one can find a small,
but fast-growing community that is enchanted by the beauty and sim-
plicity of phase-space optics, revealing itself even with only a scant
familiarity with the theoretical framework.
To understand this devotion, it is important to recognize the unique
position that optics holds in science and engineering. Optics is both
a subject of basic research and an enabling technology. Fundamental
questions about the quantum nature of light, and its interaction with
matter, are at the core of modern physics. At the same time, there is a
rich history of optical instruments pivotal to ground-breaking discov-
eries in astronomy, biology, communications, and many other disci-
plines. In the past half century, the optical sciences have developed at
an astounding pace. Perhaps with the exception of microelectronics,
optics has become the most vibrant technology resting at the intersec-
tion of different brands of research.
As a consequence, different optical sciences have developed unique
and effective models to describe light propagation and the interac-
tion of light with matter. Notwithstanding the universal validity of
Maxwell’s equations, or quantum electrodynamics, it is often more
effective to describe light propagation based on specific models (rays,
scalar waves, or Gaussian beams) than to consider the full complex-
ity of the electrodynamic wave field. All models of light propagation

xiii
xiv Preface

are well explored, as are their relationships with one another. How-
ever, it is, without question, desirable to have a simple, common plat-
form with which to unify these models, while preserving their unique
features.
From our viewpoint, such a platform can provide a powerful tool for
understanding and applying the physics of light propagation through
optical systems. Ideally, this common platform should be a superior
model, with all other models reducing to different facets of a common
framework. The contributions collected in this book emphasize the
fact that this model may be best implemented by what we term phase-
space optics.
Phase-space optics refers to a representation of optical signals in
an artificial configuration space simultaneously providing informa-
tion about spatial properties of the signal and its angular spectrum,
or equivalently in terms of its temporal and time-frequency charac-
teristics. In coherent optics, this concept has also been popularized
as “Wigner optics” since the properties of the Wigner distribution
function are often used to motivate the use of a joint signal represen-
tation. In the signal processing community, the Wigner-Ville distri-
bution is recognized as a relevant member of a larger class of joint
time-frequency transforms. Closely connected with the Wigner dis-
tribution function through a double Fourier transform, the ambiguity
function is used by the radar community for representing signals si-
multaneously carrying information about the down range of the target
and its velocity.
In contrast, the term phase space, while being based on the same con-
ceptual and formal mathematical tools, rather emphasizes the dynam-
ics of the physical system. Phase space, and in particular the Wigner
distribution, can be recognized as one common platform for under-
standing and applying the physics of more traditional models for de-
scribing electromagnetic signals as they evolve and propagate through
an optical system.
By compiling this book, it was our desire to create a mosaic of phase-
space optics. Each contribution constitutes a self-consistent perspec-
tive on one particular aspect of optical signals in phase space, while
revealing its full beauty and importance only as part of this entire
collection. We owe it to the authors who contributed to this effort that
the result has far exceeded our expectations.
Each of the chapters illustrates original ways to gain physical in-
sight and to develop novel engineering applications. All chapters are
written by authors who are pioneers in using phase-space optics in
their fields of expertise. As a consequence, the topics are discussed
with unique depth, without losing sight of the necessity to embed
phase-space optics in a broader context.
 Preface xv

We believe that the book will be helpful for researchers and graduate
students alike, who wish to familiarize themselves with phase-space
concepts in optics, but also want to move beyond a mere introduc-
tory level of discussion. We are sure that the number of applications
derived from phase-space optics will grow, and we hope that this
collection will help to facilitate this development.
This book would not have been possible without the guidance and
encouragement of McGraw-Hill senior editor Taisuke Soda. We are
indebted to him and the helpful staff at McGraw-Hill.

MARKUS E. TESTORF
Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States
BRYAN M. HENNELLY
National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Ireland
JORGE OJEDA-CASTAÑEDA
Universidad de Guanajuato, México
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Phase-Space
Optics