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The document discusses the Maclaurin series, a specific case of Taylor series, which provides polynomial approximations of functions that can be differentiated infinitely many times. It covers topics such as convergence, polynomial approximations, and historical contributions to the development of infinite series by mathematicians like Archimedes, Liu Hui, Madhava, and Gregory. Additionally, it includes exercises and investigations related to the application and derivation of Maclaurin series for various functions.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
23 views20 pages24 - Maclaurin Series
The document discusses the Maclaurin series, a specific case of Taylor series, which provides polynomial approximations of functions that can be differentiated infinitely many times. It covers topics such as convergence, polynomial approximations, and historical contributions to the development of infinite series by mathematicians like Archimedes, Liu Hui, Madhava, and Gregory. Additionally, it includes exercises and investigations related to the application and derivation of Maclaurin series for various functions.
Uploaded by
donghakim803Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 20
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Chapter
Maclaurin series
Contents:
a™monop
‘Maclaurin series
Convergence
Composite functions
Addition and subtraction
Differentiation and integration
Multiplication
Division 654 MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapier 29
CLINE
Earlier in the course, we defined the fangent to a curve as the best straight line approximation to the
curve at that point.
For a curve which is differentiable at 2 =a, the gradient of the tangent is f“(a), and the tangent
has equation y = f(a) + {’(a)(x — a)
Consider the curve f(x) =e.
Things to think about:
a What is the tangent to the curve at x = 0?
1B What is the best quadratic approximation to the curve at = 0, having the same gradient and
curvature (second derivative)?
€ What is the best cubic approximation to the curve at x = 0?
4 Could you continue this process to form an nth order polynomial approximation to the curve?
4 Can we write an exact expression for e* in the form e* = 5 cya* where oy € R?
f What uses could there be in having a polynomial approximation to a curve?
GIST eis
Prior to Archimedes, philosophers like Zeno of Elea and Plato had struggled with the mathematical
idea that an infinite series could sum to a finite result. We have already seen several examples
where Archimedes used an essentially infinite number of pieces to form a whole. Another is his
approximation. of x using the method of exhaustion to compute the areas of regular polygons with
more and more sides.
In the 3rd century AD in China, Liu Hui independently developed
similar methods. He made important commentary on the Jiuzhang
suanshu or “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art” including
carly ideas about limits and infinitesimals, and calculations of
volume formulae. Considering proof most important and modestly
recognising when his own results were imperfect, he wrote “Let
us leave the problem to whoever can tell the truth’
In the 14th century, the Indian mathematician Madhava of
Sangamagriima discovered infinite series expansions for a
number of trigonometric functions, as well as infinite series for
calculating x such as =
The Scottish mathematician James Gregory (1638 - 1675) was probably unaware of Midhava’s
work. He discovered infinite series representations for several trigonometric functions himself, and
is regarded as the discoverer of the Taylor series representation for functions. He also published the
first proof for the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
‘The Taylor series representation is named after Brook Taylor (1685 - 1731) who formalised the il
in 1715,
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MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapier 24) __ 655
INVESTIGATION 1. Pues TAYLOR SERIES
Consider a continuous function f which can be differentiated infinitely many times.
The Taylor series representation for J has the form
IG
¥ onl —a)*
2
=@ +a (0-4) +0(r-a)? +...
‘This is a power series which generates an infinite polynomial representation for f
What ta d
1 Explain why ¢9 = f(a).
2 Find f"(z). Hence write cy in terms of /"(a). What do you notice about the first two terms of
the Taylor series expansion?
2. Find /"(x). Hence write cp in terms of {”(a).
(m42yt
SM gale — a) + om
4 a Prove that f(z) = anlen + (n+ Ilensale — a) +
F ent
&
1 Hence write ey in terms of f(a),
€ Write the Taylor series formula for f in terms of its function value and derivatives at
2
nse (a — a)*
5 In the Taylor series we claim that a function can be represented everywhere using only
information about the curve generated at x= a.
2 Explain how information about the rest of the curve is established in the formula,
Is it reasonable to expect that the sum of polynomial terms can exactly produce:
1a horizontal asymptote Wa vertical asymptote?
Do you therefore expect that a Taylor series expansion will converge for every value of
in the domain of every function?
From the Investigation you should have established that
‘The Taylor series expansion of f(z) about + =a is
La) £0) La) SM
Sle) = Hla) + FP (ea) ++ SP (e ~ 0)? + P(e — a. doe
Functions defined in this way may look awkward. However, for values of x where they converge, power
series can be added, differentiated, and integrated just like ordinary polynomials. This makes them
extremely useful.
In this course we consider the special ease of the Taylor series where a = 0. This case is called the
Maclaurin serles, named after Colin Maclaurin (1698 - 1746) who made extensive use of it in the
18th century. 656 _MACLAURIN SERIES _eChapice 24)
:
MACLAURIN SERIES
Consider a continuous function f which can be differentiated infinitely many times.
‘The Maclaurin series expansion of f(x) is
Fee) = 10) +210) + BI"0)+ 2/0) +. = SO
For any values of where the series converges, itis an exact representation of the function
However, if we consider just the first n terms of the Maclaurin series expansion, we are let with an nth
‘order polynomial approximation forthe function,
is ory B f(t(0)
‘The nth degree Maclaurin polynomial approximation to f is M,(z) = >
a Find the Maclaurin series representation for
Ts"
& Hence find f(z), the 4th order Maclaurin polynomial approximation for =
Compare Ma(1) with f(1).
-2)(2-+ 2)
fa) = (Caytnia ee)
nn
. £0) = SE forall ke
Since J(0) =, the Maclaurin series representation for f(z) is
ly (phe oo
Se = 3+ Oe
1
a
& ries Ma pointe
Miz) = = cr
ee
oer
1!
er
— fat i?
MA
hed
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MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapisr 24) 657
EXERCISE 244
1 Consider the function f(z) = e*.
@ Find the nth derivative s(")(2) for ne Zt
Hence explain why c* = J°
i
© The first two Maclaurin polynomial approximations for e* are M(x) = 1 +2.
2
and M(e)=142+5
Write down the next four Maclaurin polynomial approximations.
© Graph y =e and the first our polynomial approximations on the same set of axes. Discuss
how the accuracy of the approximation is affected by the addition of the extra terms.
Copy and complete this table of values: mn [i]2]3]4[5]6
Mn(1)
Compare your results with f(1) =e.
2 Derive these Maclaurin series representations:
ltrtattat tie Sot
é
@& (nk
fete det dete = BY
3° Explain why there is no Maclaurin series representation for In.
4 Fird an infinite series polynomial representation for oa using:
a the binomial theorem © Maclaurin series,
5a Show that the Maclaurin series representation for cosir is
re @ (1
cor a1- 24h Hy = BCU ye
ata ate 2, aor
Explain why there is no 3rd order Maclaurin polynomial in this case. What feature of cos.z
has caused this?
€ Find M,(z), the fourth order Maclaurin polynomial approximation of cos:r.
Compare My ($) with cos $
2
6 a Show that sinz +
& Explain why there is no 2nd order Maclaurin polynomial in this case. What feature of sin.z
has caused this?
€ Find M(x) and compare Mg(#) with sin
in(++2) = s set arctan 3 cnet
» (73) & sme FO
yak 658 _MACLAURIN SERIES _(Chayier 29)
INVESTIGATION:
[aw
We have previously seen that, for k # =1, /
In tis Investigation, we will consider the idea that a “better” formula might be
[se
The expressions ony ier by he conan =o, and fork
the derivative of both
expressions is x*, So, at first glance there may scem little meaningful differeace between them.
To see why i stds = 2° =I 46 might be considered a “beter” result, we will consider the
limit of B=! as + 1
et
What todo:
1 We frst establish the result tim, (1+ 2)" discovered by Leonhard Euler.
2 Show that inthe expansion of 1+)", the cote o a be writen
x2xtitn
n-it)
1b Hence find the limit of the coefficient of 2! as_m — 20.
€ Compare Jin (1-+2)" wih he Maclarin series expansion of
An Het 4
wppose y= A= for > 0,
4 .
By letting n= 1, show
& By leving n= <7, show that = (1+ 4)
1 Show that inthe limit as n+ 00, 2 =e"
oe
€ Hence show that nz.
rosy
at
cas
+6 might be censidered “better” than
3 Can you explain why the formula f ah de =
[ote B oe
‘ THE REMAINDER TERM
‘The remainder term isthe difference between a function and its nth order Maclaurin THe agMaNoex
polynomial approximation. “a
ee *
using the approximation. This is particularly useful if we do not have an accurate
value to compare our approximation wit,
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MACLAURIN SERIES (Chaptsr 26) 659
[CONVERGENCE |_
Given your previous study of infinite geometric series, what condition(s) do you think might be
necessary for the convergence of a Maclaurin series?
We have seen that the nth order Maclaurin polynomial approximation My(z) can be used to approximate
a function f(x). We can say that M,() is the “nth order polynomial of best fit” for the curve.
Since My(x) is generated using the values of f and its derivatives at x =0, M(x) will generally be
most accurate near to x=
As we get further from x =0, we need to consider whether increasing the order of the polynomial will
bbe sufficient to accurately model the shape of the function,
For example, it is not possible for any polynomial approximation to model a vertical asymptote, no matter
‘hat order polynomial is used
The infinite Mactaurin series for f(c) converges for ary value of x such that
(lim My (2)'= f(x).
The set of values of x for which the infinite Maclauin series converges is
called the interval of convergence.
It should be clear that any interval of convergence for a Maclautin series must include x = 0, since
My (0) = $(0) forall n.
From our previous study of infinite geometric series, we can also deduce thatthe infinite Maclaurin series
will only converge for values of x such that the terms of the series are getting smaller.
For example, consider these series from Exercise 244:
Ltrtotatgaty...
‘Thé terms decrease in size provided |x| <1, and indeed the series is convergent for || <1.
© Ind+z)=2—he?+de beta. exes =
It might seem like the fractions would help the terms to reduc
the terms will certainly increase.
For example, using I'Hopital’s rule, lim 2 = lim ~
size, However, for any |r| > 1,
which does not exist.
For the case
is undefined,
For the case x= 1, 1344-44... does convenge.
So, the Maclaurin series is convergent for -1 < x < 1,
does not converge, which is reasonable since In0
ieee esr
tat dut+ tet y tot
tet batt tat bats
In this case, the fractions do help the series to converge. For any value of x we pick, we can
find a value of 1 for which n! grows faster than x". Hence = will reduce in size. This series
converges for all .¢ i, [a>
(A CUE ,20+1 wo find the Mactaurin series for:
Pres :
a sin(—2) b singr © sin(z?) desing
2. Use the Maclaurin series. sin:
4 Use the Maclaurn eres e* = 5° = to find the Maclarin series forthe following.
&
In cach case, write down the terms of the series up to
= = het hal
ae ’ Le e . el at
5 Usethe Maclin sees sine = $8 “CDF 04+ fnd a nite series eresenttin
for sin(z + §).
Use the binomial theorem to write out the terms of the series up to x. Explain your result.
Care
Use the Maclaurin series expansion for e* to write down expansions for:
ie lie ie", neZt.
1b Use the Maclaurin series expansion for cos to find the frst two non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series expansion of cos(¢*). a
Hence show that for x near 0, cos(@*) ~ cos(1) ~ sin(1)a.
Find, by direct calculation, the Maclaurin polynomial of degree 2 of cos(e*).
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MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapter 24) 663
162?
1
Ped (+ Aa + AE td) +
+s amet sou) toe fusing ali}
GRE
7 ee (1k
=1+ 3 gor t gem
€ For x close to 0, higher order terms involving 2%, x*,.... tend to 0.
ee
cos(er) 14 5 EBS
+
{using known series for
1
Now cos(1) =1-2
ow zt cos. and sin}
and sin(l)=1- 543 -. Oke
0s (€*) % eos(1) — sin(I}x
Let f(z) = cos(e*). +. $(0) = cos(e®) = cos(1)
2. f(x) = ~sin(e*) xe 2. (0) = ~sin(1) x 1 = ~sin(1)
f(a) = -€F sin(e*) — cos(e*)e* $0) = —sin(1) ~ cos(1)
My(x) = cos(t) ~ sin(3}2 ~ (sin(1) + eos(1))
Use the Maclaurin series expansion for e* to write down expansions for
ber it et Wh ent, ne Zt.
& Use the Maclaurin series expansion for sine to find the first two non-zero terms of the
Maclaurin series expansion for sin(e“*).
¢ Hence find an approximation for sin(e*) for 2 near 0.
4 Find, by direct calculation, the Maclaurin polynomial of degree 2 of ‘sin(e~*).
DITION AND SUBTRACTION
Maclaurin series can be added and subtracted like normal polynomials. The resulting series will converge
on the intersection of the intervals of convergence of the individual series
EXERCISE 24D
U 1-2
1 Use cose =1-F +
to write the terms of
the Maclaurin series for the following up to
a sing + cose b sine + € sin(x?) ~ eos 3 664__MACLAURIN SERIES _(Chonter24)
to write the Maclaurin series for e*.
'b The hyperbolic sine function is defined as sinh
gk
ae
Show that sinh
© The hyperbolic cosine function is defined as cosh x =
Find the Maclaurin series expansion for cosh.
3. Use the Maclaurin series expansion for e* (o find the series for e*® where i= V=T, 9ER.
By separating the series into real and imaginary paris, prove Euler's formula ¢'? = cos +isind.
FG DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION
One advantage of polynomial representations for functions is that they can be differentiated and integrated
term by term.
This is particularly useful for integrating functions for which we otherwise cannot write an indefinite
integral,
The Maclaurn seties for coszris cosr = ¥° ae 2, Find the Maclaurin series for sin x by:
2 differentiation integration
e |
a Z(cosz) =-sine (Gat)
{letting n =k —1}
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MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapise24) 665
= . = [i (8 corre
& — feosede= sine vo sine = ff (ESR) a
cP costa = [pine R ( [* cuter
froma bo E([ Sar)
sin ~ sin
ine & eevkatey
Earl,
forall re R
EXERCISE 24E
1. Show that the derivative of the Maclaurin series for e* is itself,
SK ae gy :
2 ries of sin is 5 a7#+1, Find the Maclaurin series for cos:z
The Maclauin series of sine is 3° Oy amhiate cosz by:
@ differentiation & integration,
3) a Use the Maclaurin series In(1 +2) to find the Maclaurin
1
cries for 1.
: Tee
© Hence find the Maclaurin series for
ve
€ Hence show that the Maclaurin series for arctan = x —
§ GO 28 ote Maclin series or col)
Use the Maclaurin series cos.
1
Hence estimate if cos(z*) de correct to 4 decimal places.
= 0.00000146 666 _MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapt 24)
4a Usethe Maclaurn series sin = $s CU" 42641 9 find the Maclaurin series for sin(22).
Beery
b Hence estimate i sin(2") de correct t 4 decimal places.
6 a Use the Mactaurin series
2 tofind ie Masai ses fr 7. ute he
values of x for which you would expect the series to converge.
a 1 10 4 decimal places
w esis [te dial
Example 6 6)
Use the Maclaurin series for (1-+:2)” to find the Maclaurin series for (1 ~ 22)
Use the fact that arceas:r — arccos(0) £ FA 0 00 find a Mactaurin series for
oa =
arccos. For which values of x is this valid?
€ Hence find the first three non-zero terms of arccos(22), and use them to estimate
~ pa
so X (RM) DHAKO XX ah
Tea Ox ee
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MACLAURIN SERIES (Chapter 24) 667
=
& arceosz — arceos(0) ‘A
1= a
arecosz ~ } = “at +Ex #5 ) a
ee SOO aes
& cat
eee
Fe)
é ORF)
‘This is valid provided |r| <1. These values of x all lie in the domain of arccos., so the
series is valid for -I
