PRE-VEDIC AND VEDIC RELIGION

India is a beautiful, lovely and a lively country to be in. This is because religion has always been
a significant factor in influencing the lives of people in India from the earliest times.

Religion
Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion. Religion
played an important part in lives of the Indians from the earliest times. Religion in India was
never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion

Vedic religion, also called Vedism, the religion of the ancient Indo-European-speaking peoples
who entered India about 1500 BCE: The Aryans, referred to as “the noble ones,” were a
nomadic people from central Asia. And as they made their way into India (during the early
Vedic time period), they brought with them their religion.

Their religion was based on the (oftentimes sacrificial) worship of many gods and goddesses.
Their religion was based on a collection of oral poetry and prose, containing many chants,
hymns, prayers, spells, mantras, and commentaries known as “Vedas.”

The word “Veda” means knowledge, wisdom, or vision.

These Vedas made up the basis of their religion.The Vedas have never been attributed to any
human author. They believe that the Vedas are the very breath of Paramātman: the “Primordial
Self,” the “Self Beyond,” or the “Absolute Atman.”

They believed that it was the risis (the seers, the sages) that perceived the Vedas in space and
shared them with the world. The Vedas are broken into 4 separate sacred texts:

The Rig Veda: The Book of Mantra

The Sama Veda: The Book of Song
The Yajur Veda: The Book of Ritual
The Atharva Veda: The Book of Spell

It is from The Vedas that the world religion of Hinduism emerges, and the Vedic religion lives
on.

There are two main groups of Vedic gods: the Devas and the Asuras :

The Asuras, nature spirits, constantly battle with the Devas (heavenly, divine).The most
prominent Vedic god is Indra, slayer of Vritra, destroyer of Vala, liberator of the cows and the
rivers.
  They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by personifying
them into deities.
 Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni
(fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind).
 Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
 There were no temples and no idol worship.

JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

Origin of Jainism
 Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic
religion.
 The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira.
 The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev.
 The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may
have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC.
 All the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth.

Founder of Jainism – Vardhaman Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)

 Considered the last Tirthankara.
 He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali.
 His parents were Kshatriyas. Father – Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan);
Mother – Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter
married Haryanka King Bimbisara).
 He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana.
 At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering
ascetic.
 He also observed self-mortification.
 After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called
Kevala Jnan. He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42.
This is called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one
who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds), and Kevalin.
 He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged
72.

Causes of the rise of Jainism

 Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic.
  Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common
man as compared to Sanskrit.
 It was accessible to people of all castes.
 Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives.
Jainism offered them an honourable place.
 About 200 years after the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley
prompted Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided
Jain sangha) to migrate to Karnataka. Jainism spread to Southern India after
that.

Teachings of Jainism
 Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.
 He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product
of the natural phenomenon of cause and effect.
 He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but the soul
does not.
 One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.
 Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
 Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he
also said that man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not birth.
 The five great principles that they follow.
Nonviolence (Ahimsa) – not to cause harm to any living beings
Truthfulness (Satya) – to speak the harmless truth only
Non-stealing (Asteya) – not to take anything not properly given
Chastity (Brahmacharya) – not to indulge in sensual pleasure
Non-possession/Non-attachment (Aparigraha) – complete detachment from
people, places, and material things.
Sects
Jains have been partitioned into two significant groups: Digambara and Svetambara.

1. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners

2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners

Jainism – Jain Councils

First council

 Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC.

 Presided by Sthulabahu.
Second Council
  Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in 512 CE.
 Presided by Devardhigani.
 12 Angas was compiled here.

Jain Literature/Texts
Jain literature is classified into two major categories:

 Agam or Canonical Literature (Agam Sutras)

 Agam literature consists of many texts, which are the sacred books of the
Jain religion.
 They are written in the Ardha-magadhi, a form of Prakrit language.

 Non-Agam Literature
 Non-agam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Agam
literature, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars.
 They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa,
Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and
English.

Buddhism
 Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years ago as a way life that had a
potential of transforming a person.
 The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder
Siddhartha Gautam (also known as Buddha) (563 BC- 483 BC) was born at
Lumbini near Kapilavastu. Left palace at the age of 29 and started traveling in the
search of truth.

 At the age of 35, he was sitting under a Banayan tree at Bodh Gaya, after taking
a bath in the stream of a river Niranjana, modern Lilajan, and obtained
enlightenment and known as Buddha.

 Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath, and this is called “Dharma-chakra-

parivartan” or “Turning of the wheel of law”.

 Taught his followers Four Noble Truths:

 The world is full of sorrows.
 Desire is the root cause of sorrow.
 The desire if conquered, all sorrows can be removed.
 Desire can be removed by following the Eight Fold Path.
 Eight-Fold Path is right understanding, right speech, right livelihood, right
mindfulness, right thought, right action, right effort, right concentration.
  Buddhism was totally against Varna System.
 Buddha died in Kushinagara capital of Mahajanapada in 483 BC.

The Three Jewels

There are three Buddhist central beliefs or three jewels as they are very precious.

 Belief in Buddha
 Dharma – The teaching of Buddha
 The Sangha- the Buddhist people group of monks and nuns. The design is to help other
people and by doing this proceed onwards the path towards illumination

Special features of Buddhism and the causes of its spread

 Ashoka embraced Buddhism and spread it to Central Asia, West Asia and Srilanka
 Buddhist Councils: Buddhist Councils marked important turning points in the early
Buddhism.
First Council: The first council was held in the year 483 B.C at Saptaparni caves
near Rajgriha in Bihar under the patron of king Ajatshatru, during the first council two
Buddhist works of literature were compiled Vinaya and Sutta Pitaka by Upali.

Second Council: The second council was held in the year 383 B.C at Vaishali under
the patron of king Kalashoka.

Third Council: The third council was held in the year 250 B.C at Patliputra under the
patron of King Ashoka the Great, during the third council Abhidhamma Pitaka was added
and Buddhist holy book Tripitaka was compiled.

Fourth Council: The fourth council was held in the year 78 A.D at Kundalvan in
Kashmir under the patron of king Kanishka, during this council Hinayana and Mahayana
were divided.

Sects:
 Hinayana: They believed in the real teachings of Gautam Buddha acquiring
Nirvana and they do not believe in ideal worship. Pali language was used in
Hinayana text.
 Mahayana: Started Idol worship and Sanskrit was used in Mahanaya text.
 Vajrayana: They believe that the real teachings of Gautam Buddha is attained
by the help of black magic.

Importance and influence of Buddhism Literature

 Tripitaka
o Sutta Pitaka – Buddha’s sayings
o Vinaya Pitaka – Monastic code
o Abhidhamma Pitaka – religious discourses of Buddha
  Milindapanho – the dialogue between Menander and Saint
Nagasena
 Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha – the great chronicles of Sri Lanka
 Buddhacharita by Ashvagosha

Causes of the decline of Buddhism

 Buddhism succumbed to the rituals and ceremonies which it had originally
denounced
 They gave up Pali and took Sanskrit. They began to practice idol worship
and received numerous offerings from devotees
 Monasteries came under the domination of ease loving people and
became the centre of corrupt practices
 Vajrayana form started to develop.
 Buddhists came to look upon women as objects of lust.

How is Jainism different from Buddhism?

 Jainism recognized the existence of god while Buddhism did not.
 Jainism does not condemn the varna system while Buddhism does.
 Buddhism prescribes a middle path while Jainism advocates its followers to live the
life of complete austerity.
 Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul i.e. reincarnation while Buddhism
does not.

SIX SYSTEMS OF THE INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION

 The rational investigation of questions about existence, knowledge and ethics is

called Philosophy.
 Indian Philosophy refers to several traditions of philosophical thought that
originated in the Indian subcontinent.
 Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented
by six systems of philosophy.
 Each of these systems differs in one way or the other in terms of its concepts,
phenomena, and laws. Each system has its own founder as well.
 Each system of Indian philosophy is called a Darshana. Thus, the Sanskrit word
‘Shad-Darshna’ refers to the six systems of philosophy’.
 And these are known as Vaishesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa
and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa.
 These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages,
Gotama, Konada, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively.

Nyaya :
 Gautama is known as the founder of the Nyaya system of
philosophy.Nyaya Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it
is in accordance with reason and experience (scientific approach). Nyaya
is considered as a technique of logical thinking.
 Nyaya Sutras say that there are four means of attaining valid knowledge:
perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony.

Vaisheshika

 The Vaisheshika System of Indian Philosophy was founded by Kanada.

 Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of
five elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether.
 They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were
rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on actions of
merit and demerit.
 The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged because of their
closely related metaphysical theories (Vaisheshika only accepted perception
and inference as sources of valid knowledge).

Samkhya
 Sage Kapila founded the Samkhya System of Philosophy.
 Samkhya is the oldest of the philosophical systems, and it postulates that
everything in reality stems from purusha (self, soul or mind) and prakriti
(matter, creative, agency, energy).
 Purush cannot be modified or changed while prakriti brings change in all
objects.
Yoga
 The Yoga Syatem of Philosophy was founded by Patanjali.
 Yoga literally means the union of two principal entities. Yogic techniques
control body, mind & sense organs, thus considered as a means of achieving
freedom or mukti.
 This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation
of rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath
control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the
mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete
dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi).
 Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide.

Purva Mimamsa
The Mimamsa Darshna belives firmly in the performance of rituals and supports
the view that the body is perishable but the soul survives even after the death of
the body and it reserves the right to enjoy the fruits of the rituals in heaven. The
school firmly believes in the preservation of the effect or the fruits of the rituals by
a remarkable power. This philosophical system of Purva Mimamsa was founded
by Jaimimi He accepts two types of knowledge namely Pratyaksha (immediate
knowledge) and Paroksha (mediate knowledge). Mimamsa does not speak about
the existence of God. Performance of daily duties or the Nitya Karmas is the
uttimate goal of man.

Uttara Mimamsa /Vedanta:

 The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the
philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (mystic or spiritual
contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas
(instructions for ritual and sacrifice).
 It was expounded by ‘Badaryana’ Vedanta says that the world is
unreal, Maya. Vedanta is monistic, in other words, it says that there is
only one reality, Brahman. Vedanta lays emphasis on brahmagyan,
hence relies on the Upanishad part of the Vedas.
 The school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in
its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries:

 Advaita (Adi Shankara): It states that both the individual self

(Atman) and Brahman are the same, and knowing this difference
causes liberation.
 Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja): It believes that all diversity is
subsumed to a unified whole.
 Dvaita (Madhvacharya): It considers Brahman and Atman as two
different entities, and Bhakti as the route to eternal salvation.
 Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka): It states that the Brahman is the highest
reality, the controller of all.
 Shuddhadvaita (Vallabhacharya): It states that both God and the
individual self are the same, and not different.
 Achintya Bheda Abheda (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu): It emphasizes
that the individual self (Jīvatman) is both different and not different
from Brahman.

Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

The Indian Philosophy refers to the ancient philosophical traditions of Indian sub-
continent which can be orthodox or heterodox. Every Indian School of Philosophy
accepted the theory of karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha is conceived
 as liberation from the cycle of births and deaths. Moksha/liberation is considered
as the highest goal of human struggle. But the basic difference is that- orthodox
School recognize the authority of Vedas whereas heterodox schools don’t
believe in the authority of Vedas.
The Schools of Indian Philosophy that do not accept the authority of Vedas
are unorthodox (nastika) systems. The heterodox schools of Indian
Philosophy are:

1. Ajivika (Fatalism)

Makkhali Gosala was the founder of this philosophy. He was the first
disciple of Mahavira. According to him every object of the universe is
coordinated with fate and destiny. This philosophy believed in Karma,
Fatalism and extreme passivity. It was very popular during the time
Bindusara (Mauryan Emperor).

2. Charvaka

It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school of thought. Accepted

direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth of anything. Insists on
joyful living. Eat, Drink, Make merry. There is no ‘other’ world. There is no God or
Bramha. Man is at the center of universe, he should eat, consume and enjoy. It
was propounded by Brihaspati.
It is also called Lokayata School of philosophy i.e. derived from common people.

3. Ajñana

This was also one of the nāstika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian
philosophy and ancient Indian school of radical skepticism(views that questions
the possibility of knowledge. They argued that it was impossible to obtain
knowledge of the metaphysical nature, or determine the truth values of
philosophical propositions, and even if knowledge were possible, it was useless
and unprofitable to final salvation. They specialize in rebuttal (contradict or
argument) without the expansion of its own teachings.

4. Buddhism
5. Jainism

Bhakti Movement

An important landmark in the cultural history of medieval India was the silent revolution
in society brought about of socio-religious reformers, a revolution known as the Bhakti
Movement.
This movement was responsible for many rites and rituals associated with the worship
of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs of India. Their method of expression was to sing
devotional compositions in the temples, Gurudwaras and Masjids.

The wave of Bhakti movement started from south India, by Alvaras-the devotees of Lord
Vishnu and Nayanars-devotees of Shiva.

They travelled to various places singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
Later, many temples were built that became the sacred places for pilgrimage.
The compositions by the poets- saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines .
Some historians also believed that the Alvaras and Nayanars initiated a movement of
protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least
attempted to reform the system.

Main Features of the Bhakti Movement:

1. Unity of God or one God though known by different names.

2. Bhakti, intense love and devotion, the only way to salvation.

3. Repetition of the True Name.

4. Self-Surrender.

5. Condemnation of rituals, ceremonies and blind faith.

6. Rejection of idol worship by many saints

7. Open- mindedness about deciding religious matters.

8. No distinction of different castes, higher or low

9. Need of a guru for guidance advocated by some.

10. Preaching’s through local or regional languages and travelling from place to place
for spreading the religious message.

Causes of the rise of the Bhakti movement

1. Influence of Vaishnavism
2. Evil practices of the Hindus
3. Fear of spread of Islam
4. Influence of Sufi sects
5. The emergence of great reformers

Leaders of Bhakti movement

One of the major leaders in the bhakti movement is Guru Nanak Saheb, the reformers
of the society and founder of Sikhism.
The leader of the bhakti movement focuses on:

Ramananda-He is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century .He was a
follower of Ramanuja. He was born at prayag (Allahabad) and lived there at Banaras.
He was a great devotee of Lord Ram He picked up disciples from different castes of
Indian Society. His disciples also included women like Padmavati and Surasari.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu- he was an ascetic Hindu monk and social reformer from the
16th century. According to Chaitanya, worship consisted of love and devotion and song
and dance which produced a state of ecstasy in which the presence of God, whom we
called Hari, could be realised.

Guru Nanak- he is the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, and also a Nirguna
Bhakti Saint and social reformer. He opposed the discrimination on the basis of caste,
religious rivalries and rituals.

Kabir Das- he was one of the followers of Bhakti movement in the 12th and 13th
century. He insisted on the devotional singing of praises of god through their own
compositions. The teachings of Kabir were very simple. He first of all emphasized on
the unity of God. He said, we may call the God by any name such as Rama, Hari,
Govinda, Allah, Sahib etc. it makes no difference. They are one and the same. Kabir
said God is formless.
Influences made by the Bhakti movement in the society

Religious effects
1. Sacked Hinduism
2. Lowered the prestige of the Brahmins
3. Checked the propagation of Islam
4. Emergence of Sikhism
5. Setback to Buddhism

Social impact
1. Improvement in the social relation between the Hindus and Muslims
2. The better social status of lower casts
3. Promotion of social service
4. Development of composite art in the society
5. Enrichment of literature.

The Sufi Movement

The Sufi movement was a socio-religious movement of fourteenth to sixteenth century.

The exponents of this movement were unorthodox Muslim saints who had a deep study
of vedantic philosophy and Buddhism of India.

They had gone through various religious text of India and had come in contact with
great sages and seers of India. They could see the Indian religion from very near and
realized its inner values. Accordingly they developed Islamic Philosophy which at last
gave birth to the Sufi Movement.

The Sufi movement therefore was the result of the Hindu influence on Islam. This
movement influenced both the Muslims and Hindus and thus, provided a common
platform for the two.

Though the Sufis were devout Muslims, yet they differed from the orthodox Muslims.
While the former believed in inner purity, the latter believed in external conduct. The
union of the human soul with God through love and devotion was the essence of the
teachings of the Sufi Saints.

The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas. They were against formal
worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to
achieve religious satisfaction.

Sufi Movement: Importance

The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti
saints who were engaged in breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too
infused a new liberal outlook within Islam.

The Sufis believed in the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being). A notable

contribution of the Sufis was their service to the poorer and downtrodden sections of
society.

While the Sultan and ulema often remained aloof from the day to day problems of the
people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the common people. Nizamuddin
Auliya was famous for distributing gifts amongst the needy irrespective of religion or
caste.

According to the Sufis, the highest form of devotion to God was the service of mankind.
They treated Hindus and Muslims alike.
The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. Like the Bhakti saints, the
Sufi saints contributed greatly to the growth of a rich regional literature. Most of the Sufi
saints were poets who chose to write in local languages.

Baba Farid recommended the use of Punjabi for religious writings. Syed Gesu Daraz
was the first writer of Deccani Hindi. He found Hindi more expressive than Persian to
explain mysticism. A number of Sufi works were also written in Bengali. There were
some leading Sufi saints like Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-
ud-din Auliya etc.

Adi Shankaracharya – A Sanyasi Who Walked Length and Breadth of the

Nation to Establish Dharma

Shankara was born into a pious Nambudiri Brahman family in a quiet village called
Kaladi on the Periyar (Purna) River, Kerala, southern India. He is said to have lost his
father, Shivaguru, early in his life. He renounced the world and became
a sannyasin (ascetic) against his mother’s will.

Renounced Worldly Pleasures at Young Age

Adi Shankaracharya renounced worldly pleasures at a very young age and

amalgamated the ancient Advaita Vendata ideologies. He also explained the basic
ideology behind the Upanishads and advocated the oldest concept followed by
Hinduism explaining the union of soul or atman with the Supreme Soul (Nirguna
Brahman).

Explained Key Differences between Hinduism and Buddhism

Shankaracharya gave a major insight into how Buddhism is different from that of
Hinduism. He stated that Hinduism supports and accepts the concept of Atman which
means soul or self exists. Buddhism believes that there is no self or soul.

Traveled Across Indian Subcontinent

Shankara traveled across the Indian subcontinent for propagating his philosophy that
supported Hinduism. He did that through debates and discourses with thinkers of those
times.
Established Importance of Monastic (Matth) Life

Adi Shankaracharya established the importance of monastic life as mentioned in the

Upanishads and Brahma Sutra. His work is all the more credible because in those times
Mimamsa school that was based on strict ritualism and considered monasticism
ridiculous was at the helm.

Founder of Four Mathas

He founded four mathas or monasteries that helped to revive the spread of Advaita
Vedanta. That is why he is considered the greatest revivalist of Advaita Vedanta.

The four mathas founded by Adi Shankaracharya are Sringeri Sharada Peetham along
the banks of Tunga formed on the basis of Yajurveda, Dvaraka Pitha in Western India
formed on the basis of Sama Veda, Jyotirmatha Peetham located in northern India
formed on the basis of Atharva Veda, and Govardhan Matha in eastern India formed
on the basis of Rig Veda.

Synthesized Six Sub-sects

One of the most important works of Shankaracharya is the synthesis of the six sub-
sects or the Shanmata which means six religions that worshipped six different deities.
Shankaracharya put across the thought that there is only one Supreme Being
(Brahman) and all these six supreme deities are part of this Brahman or one divine
power.

Renowned For Commentaries on Ancient Texts

Adi Shankaracharya is renowned for his in-depth and insightful commentaries on

ancient texts. The review of Brahma Sutra that he wrote is famous as
Brahmasutrabhasya and is the oldest commentary on Brahma Sutra. He also wrote
views and commentaries on the 10 principles of Upanishads and Bhagvad Gita.

Well Known For Stotras

Adi Shankaracharya also composed many poems praising gods and goddesses. Some
of the most famous ones are those dedicated to Shiva and Krishna. One of his most
famous literary works is Upadesasahasri which means a thousand teachings.
Disciples
Shankara came to be known as Shankaracharya among his disciples. Though he had
several disciples, four of them would go on to achieve great heights to be later
considered as Shankaracharya’s main disciples. Shankara’s four disciples:

Padmapada , Totakacharya, Hasta Malaka, Sureshvara

Death

At the age of 32, Adi Shankaracharya retired to the Himalayas and is believed to
have entered a cave near Kedarnath. He was never seen again and the cave that he
entered is considered as his final resting place.