AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

MODULE 4: LIVESTOCK HUSBANDRY

4.1 Livestock management

4.2 Anatomy and physiology
4.3 Livestock health and disease
4.4 Game farming and game ranching
4.5 Range and pasture management
4.6 Extensive range management
4.7 Intensive range management

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 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives / Revision questions

(a) Outline reasons for housing livestock

(b) Describe the type of housing needed for one type of livestock
(broilers, layers, rabbits, dairy animals or pigs)
(c) Describe qualities of a good livestock house
(d) Define stockmanship
(e) Explain stockmanship in the following areas for one of the following
livestock (broilers, or layers or rabbits or dairy animals or pigs)
 Animal handling
 Record keeping
 Rearing of young stock
 Nutrition and feeding practices

LIVESTOCK HOUSING
Outline reasons for housing livestock

It is necessary to have houses for domestic animals for the following reasons:-

1. To protect the animals from predators/thieves/intruders.

2. To protect animals from unfavourable (adverse) weather conditions (e.g.
heat/ cold/ rain / wind)
3. To facilitate some operations carried on animals (e.g. feeding, deworming)
4. To control the movement of animals easily.
5. To control diseases and parasites of livestock easily.
6. To control breeding of livestock easily.
7. To facilitate proper record keeping.

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Qualities of a good livestock house

(i) it has to be located in the most convenient and suitable position in the
farm
(ii) it must be well-built from strong and durable materials.
(iii) It must have protection from thieves, predators, intruders and harsh
weather conditions.
(iv) It has a good and effective ventilation system to avoid heat and high
humidity.
(v) It must be hygienic, with good drainage and be easy to clean
(vi) It must have adequate light.
(vii) It must have adequate space.

DESCRIBE THE TYPE OF HOUSING SUITABLE FOR BROILERS

Broiler chickens are kept under deep litter system. Under this system the birds
are controlled all the time. They are closely monitored. The aim is to obtain
maximum production from them.

Birds carry all their activities (e.g. clinging, feeding etc.) in the same building.

A broiler chicken house should be:-

 spacious for birds to move about freely to avoid vices (cannibalism);

 having light for birds to see when it is darker;
 well ventilated to remove the foul smell from droppings;
 always dry to avoid damp conditions which encourages diseases;
 opening to an outside pen/fowl run for birds to exercise;
 fitted with perches for roosting/resting,
 Sheltered from winds.

(Draw Fig 30.37 and/or Fig 30.40 from pp190/1 from Elliot et al 1998 reprint)

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The structure of a broiler chicken house

Feature Description and reasons

Sides  it should be open-sided to allow proper ventilation

Lower walls  the lower walls should be 0.45m - 1m high;
 they should be made of blocks / bricks /off-cuts
 they must be solid to prevent drafts/ground winds;
Upper walls  Smooth or plastered with complete solid wall to the roof
Floor  Should be made of concrete with a rough surface;
Roof  can be flat / gable roof with good overhang, to keep out
rain and direct sunlight;
 Can be made of corrugated iron / aluminum sheets /
thatch / tiles / asbestos;
Wire mesh /  It should be fitted with wire net / mesh on the open sides
net / up to 1.4m on the length to allow movement of air in
and out of the house
 chicken wire lets in light
Dimensions  length – any convenient length is suitable;
 width – it should not exceed 10m;
Security  Should have a secure / tight fitting /lockable door
 Chicken wire mesh screens against wild birds and
predators (e.g. dogs, cats, snakes, birds of prey)
Curtains  to control ventilation
Perches  fitted with perches for roosting/resting,

Floor space required by chickens and rabbits

Animals Floor area needed

Small chicks in a brooder 50 cm2 each
Laying hens, heavy breeds 3 birds/m2
Laying hens, light breeds 4 birds/m2
Broilers 6 birds/m2
Rabbits 2 rabbits/m2

Assignment 1
Calculate the number of broilers needed to stock a chicken house with floor
dimensions 4m x 2m.

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STOCKMANSHIP

Stockmanship is the skill (or science and art) of looking after livestock.

General roles of a stockman

1. A good stockman should be kind to animals. They should not beat

animals, pull their ears, twist their tails or torture them in any way.
2. He should have routine activities. A stockman should know daily/monthly
routine activities and should work and do the routine operations regularly.
Examples weighing of animals, picking of eggs, feeding and cleaning
animal houses.
3. Should ensure cleanliness of the buildings. Livestock buildings should be
free from any material that can injure animals, such as pieces of wire and
wood.
4. Should recognize and interpret signs shown by animals. They should be
able to recognize signs of heat or ill health and be able to make
appropriate measures.
5. Must keep up-to-date records. Records are very important because they
can help tell whether the farm is making profit or loss. Examples are
records of feeding, breeding, production, accounts and health records.

STOCKMANSHIP IN BROILER PRODUCTION

Good Stockmanship in broiler production entails the following:

1. Knowing the proper way of handling broilers for whatever operation.

2. Ability or skill to recognize signs of ill health quickly in a flock.
3. Knowing the correct way of carrying out management tasks such as
vaccination, sexing, and weighing.
4. Working out a schedule of regular routines for the enterprise.
5. Knowing the correct feed, correct amount of feed, when and how to feed the
chickens.
6. Knowing main factors or situations that cause stress to the chickens, and
trying as much as possible to minimize stress.
7. Ensuring that birds are never frightened unnecessarily.

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(a) ANIMAL HANDLING

Broiler chickens easily get frightened and hurt without intention. A frightened
chicken is an unproductive bird.

Therefore it is vital that the following tips should be considered when working
with chickens:-

 Never surprise the chickens – when one approaches the broiler house
they should make a continuous noise or sing to alert the chickens that you
are coming. Open the door slowly or gently.
 Move slowly – while inside the chicken house, never flap an empty meal
sack or cloth. They find that very alarming. Buckets should be carried low
down and moved slowly.
 Catching the birds – it is best done in the evening when they had gone to
roost on their perches. They should be sleeping and offer no resistance.
During day time keep your hands low and grab their legs quickly by using
a catching hook made of stiff wire that just fits over the thin shanks for
catching.
 Hold a chicken firmly – hold the chicken by the wings of legs with the
head hanging down so that it does not struggle and hurt itself.
 Keep a regular routine – always provide feeding, watering and cleaning
troughs at regular intervals.
 Moving birds to a new place – transport birds in chicken crates. Avoid
overcrowding the chickens. Protect chickens from heat/cold conditions
when transporting them. Arrive before dark so that they get used to their
new environment.
 Examine birds regularly – to check if they are sick/healthy, lame/injured
or not eating.

(b) RECORD KEEPING IN A BROILER ENTERPRISE

Records generally refer to any information kept for future use.

Reasons for keeping broilers records

 To provide figures for planning and budgeting

 To indicate if farmers are making profits/losses
 To facilitate application for funding/loans
 To trace the history of the broiler enterprise

There are two main types of records to keep in a broiler production enterprise:
production and financial records.

Production Records – they record details of physical quantities of inputs and

outputs obtained from the enterprise. Examples:

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1. Live weight gain records. This record is mainly used in determining the food
conversion ratio (FCR). It is also used to decide when to sell the birds.

2. Mortality/death record. Records deaths of birds over a given period. The

number of deaths is used to determine the mortality rate or percentage.

3. Vaccination record. Records vaccinations carried out, when done, who did it,
and what vaccines were used.

4. Inventory record. It lists all assets and their values that the enterprise
possesses. It records lost and damaged/obsolete equipment.

5. Farm diary - records all significant (past, present and future) events, which
affect the broiler production enterprise.

6. Slaughter weight - records individual weights of each bird at slaughtering.

7. Culling records – records numbers of birds culled and reasons for culling.

8. Feeding records – records the names and amounts of feeds given to the birds.
operational records; produce used at home; etc.

Financial Records – they record details of income and expenditure of all

transactions of a business enterprise. Examples:

1. Sales record. It records all sales of table birds over a given period. Both
credit and cash sales are included.

2. Expenditure record. It records both fixed and variable costs associated

with the broiler enterprise.

3. Debtors and creditors record. It records all those people who owe the
business some money (debtors), and those to whom the business owes
some money (creditors).

4. Cash book. Records all cash received and paid out by the business
enterprise.

5. Profit and loss account. A financial statement/report for a broiler

production enterprise over a period of time. It helps in determining whether
the enterprise has made profit/loss over a given period.

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(c) REARING OF YOUNG STOCK

In broiler production, this refers to management of chicks from day-old to 4

weeks of age, when they are in a brooder.

Artificial Brooding
 Brooding is taking care of young chicks from the time they hatch from the
eggs until they grow their “true” feathers (2-4weeks).
 At the time of hatching day old chicks are covered with “downy feathers”.
These feathers are fluffy/soft and cannot protect them cold conditions.
They need warmth until their “true feathers” develop.

 For artificial brooding, the farmers provides the feed and heat/warmth
needed by chicks.
 The sources of heat can be coal fires (e.g. mbawula) / firewood / gas
heaters / electric heaters (infrared lamps) / paraffin lamps
 Use artificial brooders for large number of chicks in a poultry farm.
 Provide enough heat for chicks to evenly distribute themselves in the
brooding unit. When the heat is not enough the chicks will huddle together
and they will not eat.

Preparation for the arrival of day old chicks

Thorough preparation for the arrival of day-old chicks is the first and most
important step in the proper management of broiler chicks. The following need to
be attended to:

 Clean and disinfect the brooder 3-4 days before the expected date of
arrival.
 Pre-heat the brooding area for a period of at least 24 hours before arrival
of the chicks. This will stabilize the temperature at the required level
before the chicks arrive.
 Ensure that there is enough clean fresh water and feed available before
chicks arrive. Feeding and watering points should be enough to prevent
chicks from trampling each other.
 Cover the floor of the brooding unit with a soft layer of litter (e.g. sawdust,
wood shavings, grass/straw, etc.) of about 50mm deep.
 Ensure ventilation is adequate.
 Ensure that necessary vaccines and stress pack are there and ready for
use.
 Prepare the footbath and fill it with enough disinfectant.
 Ensure that there is enough equipment, (e.g. oval-hole chick feeders,
chick trays, chick water founts, infrared brooder lamps, thermometers,
syringes, etc.)

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Management of chicks in a brooder
As soon as chicks are removed from their boxes they can be encouraged to drink
by dipping their beaks in water. Place them near the drinking troughs to assist
them to learn to drink.

Spread the feed on a paper laid on the litter for chicks to peck it. After three days
put the feed on the feeding troughs.

Temperature control – keep chicks at the correct temperature for good feathering
and normal growth. Example:-
Week 1: 35ºC Week 2: 32°C Week 3: 29°C Week 4: 26°C

Feeding – for the first two days spread chick starter mash on newspapers or
chick trays to encourage chicks to start feeding. Then from there use oval-hole
chick feeders. Distribute the feeders evenly in the brooder area.

Watering - Provide chicks with clean, fresh water all the time using chick
drinkers.

Floor space - allow 0.05m2 of floor space per chick in the first 4 weeks and then
increase to 0.008m2 per chick. This will encourage rapid development, good
feathering, and evenness of growth etc.

Proper ventilation. Provide adequate ventilation but protect birds from

draught/ground winds. This will prevent respiratory diseases, build up of
ammonia and fumes from brooder lamps. Maintain 65% relative humidity for
optimum growth.

Litter. Cover the floor with suitable material to absorb droppings and spilt water.
Remove any wet litter immediately.

Disease and parasite control. Vaccinate chicks against New Castle, Coccidiosis,
Marek‟s, Fowl pox, Gumboro, fowl typhoid and cholera.

Protection from predators. Protect chicks from predators such as snakes, cats,
and mice; make the chicken house predator proof using chicken wire at the
windows.

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(d) NUTRITION AND FEEDING PRACTICES

Nutritional requirements
Chicks require a balanced diet with sufficient supply of the following essential
nutrients:-
Nutrient Functions
Carbohydrates  Provide chickens with energy
and fats  In less active/older animals they increase body weight
Proteins  For repair and replacement of worn out tissues
(very important in  For growth/building up new muscles
the diet of chicks)
Vitamins  Promote growth and muscular activity
 Act as catalysts in many metabolic reactions
 Vitamin K – for blood clotting
 Vitamin E – for feather development
 Vitamin D – for bone formation
Minerals  Form part of bones and teeth (e.g. Calcium)
 Form part of blood (e.g. Iron)
 Form part of animal products like meat and eggs
Water  Medium for all chemical reactions
 Needed for digestion, absorption, blood formation
 For maintenance of body temperature
 For facilitating excretion (of faeces and urine)

Feeds for broilers

Broilers should be given free access to appropriate feed, and clean and fresh
water to promote rapid growth. Each age group is fed a different type of broiler
feed formulated to meet nutritional requirements of that age group.

Thus, a broiler-feeding programme normally consists of three phases:

Phase/age Feed Reasons and functions
Phase 1 Chick starter  to promote faster growth, body building
(0–4 weeks mash (21-24% protein) and strength
old)
 has higher protein content
 has higher levels of minerals & vitamins
than feed given at later stages.
Phase 2 Broiler finisher  It is rich in carbohydrates/energy for
(5-6 weeks mash (18-20% protein) these more active chickens
old)
 Rich in protein for rapid growth
Phase 3 Broiler post  Has lesser protein content
(7-8 weeks finisher  Gives birds a final boost for substantial
old)
mash/pellets slaughter weights.
 Has more energy for increased activity
 Has more calcium for strong bones

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Feeding practices

Amount of feed consumed - Broilers are usually fed ad libitum (ad lib): this
means that they are given as much feed as they want. Therefore feed should
always be available all the time. From day-old to 8 weeks of age, a chicken
consumes a total amount of 3.5kg of feed. At this age, a chicken should weigh
1.5 – 1.8kg. This should give a feed conversion ratio (FCR) of about 2:1.

Frequency of feeding – broilers should be fed twice a in a day. They should

always be provided with clean water for drinking all the time.

Cleanliness of feeding equipment – feeding and drinking troughs should be

positioned such that droppings/litter cannot contaminate the feed/water. Troughs
should be cleaned every time fresh feed/water is given.

Types of rations given to broilers

Maintenance ration – quantity of feed given to broilers to keep them alive without
gaining or losing weight
Production ration – quantity of feed given in addition to maintenance ration for
broilers to produce more meat.

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 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Learning objectives / Revision questions

1. Describe the structure and function of the male and female reproductive
systems of cattle and chickens.
2. Describe digestion in ruminants and non-ruminant animals including
enzymatic action.
3. State at least four signs of heat in a cow.
4. State the relevance of the signs of heat for breeding.
5. Describe oestrous cycle in a cow.
6. State the relationship between oestrous and pregnancy.
7. State the roles of oestrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone,
corpus luteum, leutenizing hormone and testosterone in the reproductive
system of a ruminant.

Reproduction in cattle

Reproduction in mammals involves a process by which the male and female

reproductive cells (gametes) fuse together to form a zygote. The zygote then
develops into a foetus that grows into a calf until it is born.

Both sexually mature males and females produce gametes when they are at
puberty. The age of maturity depends on nutrition and the breed of cattle, which
usually ranges from 9 – 20 months old.

Puberty

This is the stage when the reproductive processes begin to function in the young
male or female cattle.
In female animals puberty is characterized by the oestrous cycle.

In males puberty is characterized by:-

 Production of sperms and ejaculation

 Development of accessory sex organs
 Growing urge (libido) for mating
 Development of secondary sexual characteristics

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A BULL

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Functions of the parts

Part Description Function

Scrotum  Muscular sac-like  Contains the testicles
structure located between  Maintains the constant
the thighs temperature of testes
Testis / testicle  oval-shaped reproductive  Produce sperms (in the
gland contained in a seminiferous tubules)
scrotum  Produce testosterone (male
sex) hormone
Epididymis  Large coiled tube (6m) on  Stores sperms until they
the outside of the testis mature
Vas deferens /  Muscular tube connecting  Transports sperms from
sperm duct each testis to the urethra epididymis to the urethra
 Secretes an energy giving
Accessory sex Seminal vesicles fluid for sperms (containing
glands – vitamins, fructose,
attached to the enzymes & ascorbic acids)
side of urethra  Secretes a fluid that
Cowper’s gland neutralizes urine left in the
urethra
 Secretes a fluid rich in ions
Prostate gland to create a suitable
environment for sperms
Urethra  Long tube running from  Conducts semen to the
the bladder into the penis penis during ejaculation
Penis  Muscular organ / soft  Deposits semen into the
bone contained in a vagina during mating
sheath

Semen – this is a mixture of sperms and all the fluids secreted from the
accessory sex glands. Semen has a milky appearance.

Ejaculation – the act of releasing sperms. This is a reflex action that occurs due
to sexual stimulation during mating.

Mating / copulation - a sexual act where a bull‟s erect penis is thrust/pushed

through the vulva and into the vagina.

Libido – a strong desire for mating.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A COW

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Functions of the parts

Part Description Function

Ovary  Small round organ lying  Produces ova (eggs)
in the lower part of  Produces oestrogen and
abdomen progesterone hormone
Infundibulum /  Flat or expanded part of  Receives the ovum/egg
funnel the oviduct from the ovary during
ovulation
Oviduct /  Tube that connects the  A place / site for
fallopian tube ovary to the uterus fertilization
Uterus / womb  Wider tube found lower  Site for implantation of the
down the abdomen zygote/embryo
 Nourishes / feeds the
foetus until birth
Cervix  Thick muscular  Closes to prevent entry of
connection between the foreign matter into the
vagina and uterus uterus
 Opens to release the calf
at birth
Vagina  Muscular tube with a soft  Receives sperms from the
moist lining penis during mating
 Passage for removal of
foetus during birth
Vulva  External opening of the  Prevents foreign matter
vagina from entering the
 Fold of skin that covers reproductive tract
the vaginal entrance

DESCRIBE OESTROUS CYCLE OF A COW

Oestrous (also called the heat period) is the period within the cycle of the cow
when the sexual desire is high and the cows are prepared to receive the males.
This marks the ripening of an ovum in the ovary and its subsequent release.

Oestrous cycle is the period between end of one heat period and the beginning
of the next. In cows it takes 21 days. During this cycle the cow comes on heat
and an ovum is released from an ovary. The cow becomes receptive to the male
only when it is on heat.

Duration of heat in cows is 18 hours and ovulation occurs 10 - 12 hours after the
end of oestrous (heat period). That is the best time for breeding.

The normal cycle in cattle has four stages: proestrous, oestrous, metoestrous
and dioestrous. The changes associated with these phases are dominated by

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two major hormones – oestrogen for the proestrous and oestrous while
progesterone is for the meteoestrous and dioestrous

State the signs of heat in a cow

 The cow mounts other cows

 The cow bellows (like a bull)
 The cow becomes restless
 Reduction in milk output
 Swollen or slightly inflamed and wet vulva
 Clear mucus discharge from the vulva
 Loss of appetite
 Frequent urination

Stages of the oestrous cycle

Phase/stage Duration Main features

Proestrous – 1st Last for 2-3  Increase in the size of the egg follicles
stage days  Thickening of vaginal walls
 Increased secretory activity of glands
 Increase in vascularity of uterus walls
 Increased levels of oestrogen
Oestrous – 2nd Lasts for  Cow willing to accept bulls to mount her
stage 18hrs  High levels of excitement / restlessness
 Drop in milk yield in lactating cows
 Loss of appetite
 Frequent bellowing
 Frequent urination
 Swollen vulva
 Slimy discharge from the vulva
Meteoestrous – Lasts for  Oestrogen levels decrease
3rd stage 3½ days  High levels of progesterone
 Formation of the corpus luteum
 Maximum development of the uterus
 Cows unwilling to stand for a bull
 Ovulation in the first 10 – 15hrs
Dioestrous – 4th Lasts for  Uterus retains normal size
stage 14 days  Regression of the corpus luteum
 Oestrogen levels increase
 Progesterone levels decrease
 Egg (graffian) follicle begins to develop

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State the relevance for the signs of heat in a cow for breeding

It is important for farmers to recognize the signs of heat in a cow so that:-

 A cow may be introduced to the bulls at the correct time or
 Insemination can be done at the correct time.

Ovulation
This is the rupture (bursting of the graffian follicle leading to the release of the
egg/ovum into the fallopian tube (oviduct) through the infundibulum (funnel).
 Ovulation is stimulated by the luteinizing hormone (LH).
 The ruptured follicle then develops into a yellow body called corpus luteum
which will produce the hormone progesterone.
 Progesterone stops heat and maintains pregnancy in case fertilization
took place.
 When fertilization does not occur the corpus luteum degenerates.

Fertilization
This is the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote.
 If the egg (ovum) is available in the oviduct and sperms are deposited into
the vagina one of the sperms penetrates into the egg to form a zygote.
 The zygote undergoes several cell divisions and keeps on moving down
towards the uterus.
 After fertilization the embryo gets enclosed by an amnion membrane.
 The membrane contains amniotic fluid which protects the foetus from
mechanical damage.

Pregnancy
This is the time when a calf is growing inside the mother‟s uterus.
 The length of time it stays inside the mother is called gestation period.
 At the end of this period the uterus begins to contract and the calf is born.
 The gestation period of a cow is between 280-285 days/9months

Giving birth (parturition)

This is the expulsion/removal of the foetus and its membranes from the uterus.
 Relaxin hormone, produced by the ovary, causes the relaxation of the
ligaments of the pelvic area during birth.
 In normal birth the calf is presented with the fore legs extended the head
between the forelegs followed by the chest, body and back legs.
 Parturition can take place without human assistance. But assistance is
necessary farmers should:-
o Clear mucus from the passage of the calf
o Wipe / dry the calf
o Disinfect the navel
o Gently and slowly pull the calf‟s head and limbs
o Confine the cow to a safe place

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Roles of reproductive glands and hormones

Hormones are chemical substances produced in certain areas of the body

(called glands).
 They cause changes (excitements) to occur in certain areas of the body.
 Hormones are transported through the blood (circulatory system).

Name of hormone Site of Role/function of the hormone

production
Follicle stimulating Pituitary gland  Stimulates the development of
hormone (FSH) graffian follicles
 Stimulate the ovary to secrete
oestrogen
 In males it initiates the growth of the
testis
 Induces the production of sperms
Leuteinizing Pituitary gland  In females it controls the rupturing of
hormone (LH) follicles leading to ovulation
 In males it stimulates secretion of
testosterone by testis
Testosterone Testis  Stimulates libido (mating drive) in
males
 Stimulates the development of
secondary sexual characteristics in
growing males
Oestrogen Graffian follicle /  Stimulates the onset of heat
ovary  Controls oestrous cycle
 Stimulates development of female
secondary sexual characteristics
Progesterone Corpus luteum /  Maintains pregnancy
ovary  Stops heat in cows
 Prepares the lining of the uterus for
implantation
 Prevents the release of leutenizing
hormone
 Prepares mammary glands for
lactation (production of milk)

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN

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Egg formation and functions of the parts

The whole process of egg formation takes place in 24-26 hours. Consequently a
hen can only lay one egg in a day.
The process of egg formation is as follows:-

Part Description Function

Ovary  Has many developing  Produces the egg / yolk
eggs at various stages.
Infundibulum  11cm long  Catches the yolk from the
(funnel)  Egg stays here for 15 ovary
minutes (¼ hrs)  A site for fertilization
 Two chalazae are formed  Keep the egg yolk in position
here
Magnum  It is 33cm long  Deposits albumen around the
 Has glands that secrete yolk.
albumen (egg white)
 Egg spends 3hrs here
Isthmus  It is 10.6cm long  Deposits shell membrane
 Egg spends 1¼ hrs here around the albumen
 Determines the characteristic
shape of the egg
 Adds water and minerals to the
egg
Shell gland  Egg spends 18-22hrs  Deposits a (calciferous) egg
(Uterus) here shell around the egg
 Pigmentation of the egg membranes
takes place here.
Vagina  It is 6.9cm long  Receives sperms during
 Egg passes very fast here mating and pass them to the
and only spends 1 minute funnel
here  Secretes vaginal fluid for
lubrication
Vent  This is the exit of the  A site for sperm entrance
(cloaca) reproductive and  Releases the egg from the
digestive systems vagina

NB: Once the egg is laid the next follicle ruptures in 30 minutes.
If there isn‟t enough light to influence the production of oxytocin, the egg will
remain in the body of the bird until there is adequate light.

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A COCK

 For poultry to reproduce, mating is necessary between a cock and a hen.

 The cock has two testes which produce sperms.
 When stimulated to mate by the male sex hormone the sperms pass along
the sperm ducts (vas deferens) in a fluid form.
 There is no penis in a cock and for mating to take place the vent of the
male must be pressed up against the vent of the female.
 When sperms are released they begin to swim up the oviduct towards the
ovary.
 If a ripe yolk is present in the infundibulum, it may be fertilized by a sperm
cell.
 This forms a fertile germ disc attached to the yolk.

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 DIGESTION

Digestion is the breaking down of food into smaller particles/substances.

This enables the absorption of nutrients into the blood stream.

The digestion process takes place in three ways:-

(a) By physical or mechanical means (mechanical digestion) – done by teeth
and peristaltic forces.
(b) By action of micro-organisms (microbial digestion) – done by bacteria,
fungi and protozoa.
(c) By enzymatic action (chemical digestion) – done by enzymes.

 Ruminants are animals that swallow their food, partly digest it, and then
return it to the mouth to chew it again, e.g. cows, goats, sheep. These
animals have four stomach chambers.

 Non-ruminants on the other hand, have only one stomach and do not
chew the cud.

DIGESTION IN RUMINANTS – Cattle

23
Mouth
 Food (roughage) is chewed by teeth and mixed it with saliva.
 Saliva moistens the food so that it can pass easily down the gullet.
 Unlike in monogastric animals, ruminants do not have ptyalin in their
saliva.

Oesophagus (gullet)
Moves the food from the mouth to the rumen by peristalsis.

Rumen (pouch)
This is the largest of the four stomach compartments of ruminants. Functions:-
(i) Store roughage temporarily before regurgitation.
(ii) Churn, soften and ferment the food
(iii) Digest cellulose by bacteria, fungi and protozoa (microbial digestion)
(iv)Synthesize the vitamin B complex.

Reticulum (honey comb)

This is the second compartment of a ruminant stomach. Functions:-
 Bacterial action continues here.
 It separates / sieves finely ground material from the coarse one.
 It traps foreign objects, e.g. stones, metal pieces, etc.

Omasum (manyplies)
This is the third compartment of a ruminant stomach characterized by a mass of
parallel rough-surfaced „leaves‟. Functions:-
 Grinds food to a fine consistency
 Absorbs water from the food.

Abomasum (true stomach)

This is the fourth stomach compartment where enzymatic digestion begins.
The abomasum secretes gastric juice that contains enzymes: pepsin and
rennin. Functions:-
 Pepsin digests proteins into proteoses, peptones and polypeptides.
 Rennin curdles / coagulates the milk in young animals

24
DIGESTION IN NON-RUMINANTS – Pig

Mouth
Food is taken into the mouth. In the mouth:-
 Food is ground into a pulp by the teeth and mixed with saliva.
 The salivary glands produce saliva containing the enzyme salivary
amylase (ptyalin).
 Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose.

Oesophagus (gullet)
The Oesophagus passes the food from the mouth to the stomach by peristalsis
(relaxation and contraction of muscles).

Stomach
 Food is churned (mixed vigorously) by the squeezing action of the
muscular walls of the stomach.
 Gastric glands secrete gastric juice (mixture of hydrochloric acid, pepsin
and rennin) into the food.
o Hydrochloric acid lowers the pH of the food to pH 2 to enable pepsin
enzyme to work well.
o Pepsin break down proteins into peptides
o Rennin curdles / coagulates milk in young animals. To enable the milk
to stay longer in the stomach before further breakdown into amino
acids.

25
Small intestines
The small intestines are divided into three parts: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

(i) Duodenum – into which the bile duct and pancreatic duct empty.
Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing three enzymes:-
Amylase - breaks down starch into maltose
Trypsin - breaks down proteins into peptides
Lipase - breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Liver secretes bile juice which contains sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).

NaHCO3 reduces the acidity of the food in the duodenum
Bile contains salts that emulsify fats so that lipase can work well on
them
(ii) Jejunum – composed of intestinal glands that secrete intestinal juice
containing four enzymes: peptidase, sucrose, maltase and lactase:-

Peptidase – breaks down peptides into amino acids.

Sucrase – breaks down sucrose into fructose
Maltase – breaks down maltose into glucose
Lactase – breaks down lactose into galactose

(iii) Ileum – this is the main site for absorption.

 It has with many finger-like projections called villi which increases the
surface area for absorption of digested food.
 Glucose, inorganic salts and amino acids are absorbed into the blood
stream.

Large intestines
It is divided into three main parts: caecum, colon and rectum.

Caecum – lies at the junction of the small and large intestine. It contains a
lot of bacteria that digest cellulose (microbial digestion) which has
not been digested before.

Colon – this is a wide coiled tube which absorbs large amounts of water
into the body.

Rectum – this is a short tube at the end of the colon. It stores waste
materials before they are removed from the body.

Anus
This is an opening through which waste products or undigested food (faeces)
leaves the animal‟s body. It is closed by powerful muscles called anal
sphincters.

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Differences between ruminants and non-ruminants

Ruminants Non-ruminants
Chew the cud / regurgitate Do not chew the cud
Have four (4) stomach chambers Have one stomach chamber
(polygastric) (monogastric)
No ptyalin in their saliva Have ptyalin in their saliva
Cellulose digested in all four chambers Cellulose digested in the caecum

Summary of digestive enzymes

Part Juice Enzyme Function

secreted
Mouth Saliva Ptyalin (in non- Starch  maltose
ruminants only
Stomach or Gastric juice Pepsin Proteins peptides
abomasum Rennin Coagulates milk protein
Pancreatic Amylase Starch  maltose
Pancreas juice Trypsin Proteins  peptides
Lipase Fats  fatty acids & glycerol
peptidase Peptides  amino acids
Jejunum / Intestinal juice Maltase Maltose  glucose
Ileum Sucrase Sucrose  fructose
Lactase Lactose  galactose

27
 MODULE 4.3 - LIVESTOCK HEALTH AND DISEASE

Learning Objectives / Revision Questions

1. Describe the characteristics of healthy animals

2. Outline the general methods of prevention of livestock diseases
3. Classify Coccidiosis, Trypanosomiasis, Fowl typhoid, Tuberculosis, Mastitis,
Botulism, Anthrax, Contagious abortion, Foot and mouth, Swine fever,
Newcastle, Heartwater, Rabies, Rickets, Piglet anaemia, Aphosphorosis and
Contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonium (CBPP) on the basis of causative
agent and host animals affected.
4. Choose one disease from the list above and describe the etiology, symptoms,
prevention and control of the disease.
5. Classify round worms, tape worms, liver fluke, ticks, flies, mites, lice and
tsetse fly into internal and external parasites.
6. Describe the host, life cycle and control of one internal and one external
parasite from the list above.

ANIMAL HEALTH

An animal is healthy when its movement, appearance, feeding habits, body

temperature and excreta are normal.

Any deviation/divergence from the normal condition of the body means that the
animal has a disease.

Describe the characteristics of healthy animals

 The eyes are bright and clear (not watery and runny)
 The skin is smooth, pliable and has a shiny/glossy appearance.
 The body temperature is normal. E.g. cattle (38.5-39.5°C), chickens
(40.5-43.0°C)
 The pulse rate is normal.
 The appetite is normal.
 Faeces are fairly loose (not watery or too hard)
 Urine is normal / pale yellow in colour.
 The animal is always alert and responsive to touch
 Animal stands upright with the head held up high.

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GENERAL METHODS OF PREVENTION OF LIVESTOCK DISEASES

1. Provide suitable housing – suitable living conditions for animals are

important. There should be enough space, light and ventilation in livestock
houses. Avoid dampness, cold draughts, access by wild animals, and
overcrowding in the livestock house.

2. Provide a suitable diet – animals should be given enough fresh and clean
feed of the right type and quantity. Malnourished animals have low resistance
to diseases.

3. Separation of young and old stock – this should prevent the transmission
of the diseases from older animals (disease carriers) to the young animals
with low resistance to diseases.

4. Observe good hygiene – there should be regular cleaning and disinfection

of animal houses, cages, drinking troughs, and feeding troughs. Livestock
houses and equipment should be cleaned/disinfected before the arrival of
new stock.

5. Isolation of sick animals – sick animals should be separated from the

healthy ones to prevent the spread of the disease/pathogens from sick
animals to healthy ones.

6. Control of vermin – kill or prevent vermin from coming into contact with
animal feed. Vermin are pests like rats, mice, insects like cockroaches, which
carry/transmit pathogens that cause some diseases.

7. Control of parasites – external parasites (e.g. ticks, mites, lice, tsetse fly,
etc.) should be controlled by regular dipping. Internal parasites (e.g. round
worms, tape worms) should be controlled by regular drenching. They harm
livestock by biting animals and sucking blood, causing wounds and
transmitting several diseases.

8. Vaccination – vaccines are injected on animals as a precaution against

contracting diseases. This is a method of preventing diseases from attacking
animals.

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Classification of livestock diseases
Causative agent Disease Host animals affected
Anthrax Cattle, sheep, goats
Botulism Cattle, sheep, goats
Contagious abortion (brucellosis) Cattle, sheep, goats
Bacteria Contagious bovine pleuro Cattle
pneumonium (CBPP)
Fowl typhoid Poultry
Mastitis Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
Tuberculosis Cattle, chickens
Foot and mouth Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
Virus New castle Poultry
Rabies Dogs, cats, donkeys,
horses
Swine fever Pigs
Coccidiosis Poultry, kids, calves,
Protozoa rabbits
Trypanosomiasis Cattle, Pigs, horses
Rickettsias Heartwater Cattle, sheep, goats
Lack of Aphosphorosis Cattle, sheep, goats,
phosphorus donkeys
Lack of iron Piglet anaemia Piglets
Lack of calcium Rickets Cattle, chickens

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

Foot and mouth is a highly contagious and infectious disease affecting cloven
hooved animals (those with divided hooves). For example cattle, sheep, goats,
pigs, kudu, etc.

FMD is a notifiable disease. This means, by law this disease must be reported to
the Police or veterinary staff of the area once spotted. It causes great economic
losses. It takes a long time from the onset until recovery of animals.

Etiology (cause)
It is caused by an infectious virus of the myxovirus group. The virus attacks the
mucus membrane of the mouth and coronet (area below and between the
hooves). The virus can persist for over a year in infected areas, for 10-12 weeks
on clothing and feed and up to 1 month on the animal fur/hair. The virus can also
survive in a bull‟s semen for at least a month.

30
Transmission
FMD is spread by both inhalation and ingestion. The disease spreads mainly by
the contents of blisters on bursting/breaking and by milk, urine, nasal discharge
and other secretion and excretions which transmit the virus directly from a sick
animal to a healthy one.

The spread from pigs to cattle is via movement of people, animals or abattoir
waste in which case ingestion is the likely method of spread. Further spread to
cattle and between cattle is more likely to be by means of air borne. The virus
can persist in aerosol form for long periods over long distances of 100km.

Symptoms
 Painful blisters in the mouth, tongue, udder, and between the hooves
 Fever – a sharp rise in body temperature
 Excessive salivation
 Loss of body weight (emaciation)
 Lameness / difficulty in walking due to wounds in the hooves
 Loss of hooves
 Difficulty in eating and loss of appetite
 Reduced milk yield
 Dullness

Prevention and control

 Report any suspected cases of FMD to the Police or veterinary staff
 Vaccinate all the animals regularly every six months
 Build cordon fences to control movement of animals/animal products
 Isolate/quarantine/separate infected herds from healthy ones
 Slaughter all infected animals and burn/bury their carcasses
 Disinfect all objects that came into contact with the virus
 Disinfect the wounds
 Allow affected areas one month before restocking them

PARASITES OF LIVESTOCK

A parasite is an organism which derives all its nourishment from another

organism (the host) while the host does not benefit from the association.

Parasites depend on other living organisms for shelter and food. Most parasites
are hosts specific and have particular organs in which they stay.

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Classification of parasites
External / Ectoparasites Internal / Endoparasites
Live on or under the animal skin Live inside the animals body
Ticks Round worms
Flies Tape worms
Mites Liver flukes
Lice
Tsetse fly

EXTERNAL PARASITE – e.g. ticks

Damage caused by ticks

 Ticks act as transmitters (vectors) of animal diseases, e.g. Heartwater, red
water, anaplasmosis
 They suck blood causing anaemia (lack of blood) in animals
 Ticks bites cause severe wounds leading to secondary infections
 Tick-bites damage the skins and hides which lower the hide value
 Cause severe weakness due to loss of blood
 Cause irritation/itching/pain on the animal

Life cycle of a one-host tick – e.g. blue tick (Boophilus decoloratus)

The life cycle of ticks shows complete metamorphosis (with four stages):-
Egg Larva Nymph Adult

(i) Male and female ticks mate and fertilization occurs while on the host.
(ii) The female tick sucks more blood and becomes engorged (full of blood) and
falls to the ground.
(iii) Female tick then lays eggs on the grass/ground and dies.
(iv)Eggs hatch into larvae (with 6 legs), which climb the grass waiting for host
the animal.
(v) Larvae climb the host animal, sucks blood and become engorged
(vi)Engorged larvae moult/change into nymphs (with 8 legs).
(vii) Nymphs suck blood and moult into adult ticks and start a new life cycle.

Control of ticks

 Burning areas/pastures infested with ticks to reduce their population

 Rigorous smearing, spraying or dipping animals with acaricides every
week (e.g. Pfizertox, Gammatox, Coopertox and Delnav)
 Cultivation of pastures to bury the ticks/eggs.
 Deticking by hand (in small herds)
 Controlled grazing of livestock
 Fencing the land/pasture to prevent introduction of ticks by stray animals

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INTERNAL PARASITES – e.g. Liver flukes

A liver fluke is a worm with a flat body. The adult liver fluke lives in the liver of a
host animal. Liver flukes affect cattle, sheep, and goats. Liver flukes prefer
swampy areas as part of their life cycle is spent in the water.

Damage caused by liver flukes

 Loss of appetite due to upset digestive system
 Loss of weight due to lack of appetite
 Animal becomes depressed/dull
 Swollen and painful abdomen
 Haemorrhage of the liver and anaemia
 Death may occur after a few days

Life cycle of the liver fluke

(Diagram)
(i) Adult liver fluke lays eggs in the liver. Then the eggs pass through the bile
duct to the intestines and passed out with faeces.
(ii) Each egg hatches into a small larva (aka miracidium) within 9 days.
(iii) Larva then penetrates the body of a mud snail (secondary host) and feed
on the snail.
(iv)Larvae then leave the snail and swim up the stems of grasses or other
plants in the water.
(v) Larvae then develop into cysts (resting stage) and wait for the host animal
to eat the grass.
(vi)The primary host animal eats the grass with cysts, then the cysts hatch
into young flukes in the intestines.
(vii) Young flukes then burrow through the intestines and migrate to the
liver where they develop into adult flukes and live there.

Control of liver flukes

 Drain swampy areas to remove snails (secondary hosts)
 Burn affected swampy areas during the dry season to kill the snails.
 Spray affected areas with copper sulphate to eradicate the snails.
 Hand picking of snails from the affected areas.
 Administer anthelmintics which can kill liver flukes (e.g. Ranide or 40%
carbon tetrachloride every 4-6 months
 Keep grazing animals away from swampy areas.

33
 4.4 - GAME FARMING AND GAME RANCHING

Learning objectives / revision questions

(a) Differentiate game farming, game ranching and game and livestock
ranching
(b) Name at least five game animals.
(c) Explain four importance of game farming.
(d) Explain the following ecological principles used in selecting a suitable
game farm:-
 Size of area
 Flow of energy
 Carrying capacity
 Numbers of game
 Ecosystem concepts
(e) Outline the habitat preference of three species found in different habitats
of Botswana. Only one species from each of the three geographical areas
should be selected. Choose only one species from each of the three
geographical areas:-
 Chobe area – Roan antelope or Elephant or Buffalo;
 Tuli block – impala or kudu
 Kalahari – gemsbok or eland or springbok
(f) Describe either capture of game by means of movable capture corrals or
capture of game by use of crossbows, dart guns and game capture drugs
(g) Outline Ostrich farming in relation to the following:-
 Extensive, semi-intensive and intensive farming
 Incubation of ostrich eggs
 The need to mark birds in captivity by the use of microchips
 Advantages of ostrich meat over beef
(h) Outline efforts by government towards game farming development in
Botswana
(i) State legislative measures ensuring sustainable use of game, especially
endangered species.

Differences between terms

Game farming Game ranching Game and livestock
ranching
Keeping wild animals in Keeping wild animals in Keeping wild animals
small enclosures under large open and fenced together with livestock in
intensive management ranches the same ranch under
extensive management
Requires high capital Wildlife kept under Animals are under
input, expertise and extensive management extensive management
managerial skills
e.g. ostrich farming, e.g. Wildlife Management e.g. Freehold/Leasehold
crocodile farming Areas (WMA), Mmokolodi ranches
Nature Reserve

34
Examples of game animals found in Botswana

Roan antelope
Elephant
Buffalo
Impala
Kudu
Gemsbok
Eland
Springbok

Explain the importance of game farming

 It is a source of income/foreign exchange – game farmers sell/export

game products such as live ostriches, ostrich eggs, meat and skins to
earn income or foreign exchange for the country. This provides economic
diversification.
 It is a source of employment – game farming contributes towards
creation of employment opportunities as people work on game farms to
take care of wild animals. Some people work in abattoirs for processing
game meat.
 It is a source of food – most people eat game products such as meat
and eggs.
 It is a source of raw materials – some game products are important raw
materials for agribusiness. E.g. ostrich and crocodile skins for leather
products.
 It is a source of tourist attraction – wild animals beautify the
environment and attract tourists for game views and trophy hunting.
 It encourages conservation of endangered species – game ranches
contribute to the build-up of populations of conserved game species.

Ecological principles to consider when selecting a suitable game farm

1. Size of the area – larger game farms offer game a better chances of survival
while small farms can easily become overgrazed leading to other management
problems. Size of area also determines the level of management required: small
areas would require intensive management but larger area require extensive
management.

2. Carrying capacity – This is the maximum number of game animals that can
be supported by a particular area without causing habitat deterioration. It
determines the number of game that the farm can contain as well as the species
that the farm can support. it is usually based on the veld/range conditions, plant
composition and climate.

35
The carrying capacity of an area can be increased for a given species or
combination of game species by veld management and other forms of habitat
manipulation.

3. Number of game animals (game population – this is mainly determined by

the carrying capacity, size of the area and level of management used (extensive
or intensive). if larger numbers are required are desired then the game farmer
must ensure that the area is suitable to maintain them.

4. Ecosystem concept – the ecosystem consists of two components:-

(a) Biotic (living) factors – these are living organisms (plants and
animals) ranging from the smallest microbes to the biggest plants and
animals.
(b) Abiotic (non-living) factors – these are the non-living factors such as
soil, water, climate, etc.

These two components depend on each other and influence each other in many
ways. All these are essential for preservation for of life in a given area. A change
or disturbance in any one part of the ecosystem has a direct effect on the whole
system, leading to a disruption in the equilibrium (balance) of the ecosystem.

5. Flow of energy – all energy for life originates from the sun.
Plants (producers) convert solar energy into carbohydrates.
The producers are then eaten by the herbivores (which are mostly the
game animals used for game ranching/farming.
Carnivores/Omnivores then eat these herbivores. In game farming or
ranching carnivores and omnivores are mainly people.

Thus energy flows from the sun to the people through plants and herbivores (or
game animals). if one part of this flow is disturbed all other aspects will also be
disturbed (creating a ripple effect).
Therefore, game farmers must ensure that plants grow to ensure that game
animals produce so that the farm can make food / profit and be successful.

36
Habitat preferences of some game species found in different geographical
areas of Botswana.

Name of game Habitat preference Geographical

area
Impala They prefer:-
Kudu  bushveld and savanna with availability
of water close by Tuli block
 green grass in summer; but pods and
twigs in winter
Buffalo They prefer:- Chobe
Roan antelope  tall grass veld, forests, savanna and
Elephant open grass lands with quality grasses
 requires large amounts of water and
shade
Springbok  prefer short grass veld and shrubs Kalahari
Eland  prefer grass and leaves for food

CAPTURING GAME ANIMALS

Reasons for capturing/immobilizing game animals

 To obtain exact measurements on animals, e.g. body length, weight,

 To perform clinical examination, e.g. taking blood samples, body temp.
 To treatment for diseases and parasites
 To transport them to another place/farm
 To mark them for future recognition

Methods of capturing game animals

There are many methods of capturing game animals. These methods depend on
the size and behavior of the animals being captured.

The two commonly used methods include:-

 movable capture corrals (aka boma)
 dart guns and game capture drugs
(Study only one method)

A. BOMA / MOVABLE CAPTURE CORRALS

 Capture corrals are large enclosures made from high density

polythene/plastic or any opaque materials that animals may hesitate to
jump over.
 The corrals are often hidden or camouflaged with the thick vegetation.
 The corrals should be located on the downwind side

37
 During the capturing process:-
 Animals are driven / herded towards the corral by the use of a helicopter.
 Upon reaching the corral, a capture funnel would guide animals towards
the capture area
 They would then pass through each component with curtains closing
behind them at every entrance of the component.
 At the capture area a curtain in the area is opened quickly to allow
animals in and then closed.
 There is a holding area where animals are allowed to stay longer to calm
down. Animals can be inspected for injuries here. Any wounded or
unwanted animals are isolated from others.
 A loading funnel is then used to guide animals towards a loading ramp.
 The loading ramp is then used to facilitate in the loading of animals onto
the trucks.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Little disruption/handling of animals 1. Expensive equipment is required
2. Death and injuries are minimized 2. Animals are frightened/agitated by
3. Large number of animals captured the helicopter
at the same time 3. It can only be used in thick
4. Suitable for most animals vegetation
4. Smell of plastic may irritate the
animals
5. It is not effective in windy conditions
6. It is very labour intensive

B. DART GUNS AND GAME CAPTURE DRUGS

 A dart containing an immobilizing / tranquilizing drug is loaded onto a dart

gun. E.g. Orivapine hydrochloride, M99, Fentanyl citrate, Super fentanyl,
etc.
 Then a helicopter is used to launch the dart from a shooting range of 80-
100m at a speed of 90m/s.
 The gun shoots the dart at a target spot on the animal.
 Then the drug is released into the animal.
 The drug then makes the animal docile / sleepy / paralyzed.
 After the work on the animal is complete, the animal may require an
antidote to awaken it.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Suitable for very dangerous / 1. There is risk of overdose
aggressive animals 2. It is not suitable for all animals
2. The method does not scare 3. Only one animal captured at a time
animals 4. Ineffective in bushy or thick forest
5. Drugged animals need close monitoring
6. It is an expensive method (drugs)

38
 OSTRICH FARMING
Importance of Ostrich farming

 Ostrich meat and eggs are a source of food for humans

 Ostrich feathers and egg shells are used for decoration
 Ostrich skin is used for making leather products (shoes, belts, bags, etc.)
 Source of income through selling live birds, eggs, meat, feathers, etc.

Breeds of ostriches
 Doboshane
 Kalahari blue
 South African black

METHODS OF REARING OSTRICHES

Ostriches can be kept under three (3) systems of rearing:-

- Extensive method
- Semi-intensive method
- Intensive method

1. Extensive method
 birds are allowed to roam over a large open area which is fenced to
keep them from escaping
 birds depends mainly on natural vegetation for their survival

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) It has low feeding costs (cheap) (i) It has low productivity and
(ii) Low amount of labour required hatchability
(iii) It does not need too much skills to (ii) Birds/eggs may be easily eaten by
practice predators
(iii) Birds waste lots energy looking for
food
(iv) It is difficult to control diseases and
parasites
(v) It is difficult to control breeding

2. Semi-intensive method

 Birds are kept under medium sized paddocks (approx.. 40ha)

 Birds allowed to get much of the food from the rangeland and get regular
supplementary feeding from the farmer
 Birds are allowed to breed and lay eggs freely in the bush
 Ostrich nests are identified and some eggs taken for artificial incubation

39
 Advantages Disadvantages
(i) It has low feeding costs (i) Birds not fully protected from
(ii) It requires less labour predators
(iii) It has a higher productivity than (ii) It is difficult to control diseases and
extensive method parasites
(iv) It has lower mortality rate (iii) It is difficult to control breeding

3. Intensive method
 This is a zero grazing system with all feeds supplied to the birds
 Birds are kept in small paddocks. Matting pairs can be kept in smaller
pens or paddocks of 0.2 – 0.4ha
 All eggs are collected daily
 Farmers hatch the eggs artificially using incubators

Advantages Disadvantages
(i) It has high productivity and (i) It has high feeding costs
hatchability (ii) It is very expensive to operate
(ii) Birds are protected from predators (iii) It requires highly skilled manpower
(iii) It is easier to control diseases and
parasites
(iv) It is easier to control breeding
(v) It has lowest mortality rate

Incubation of Ostrich eggs

Incubation is the process of caring for the egg in a way to will facilitate its
hatching. There are two types of incubation: natural and artificial.

1. Natural incubation
• Basically done by the male and female ostriches
• Both male and female ostriches take turns at incubating the eggs
• The Male sits on the eggs mostly at night and female during the day.

2. Artificial incubation
• Incubation done using an incubating machine / incubator
• The following conditions should be met for artificial incubation:-
– Incubation period: the egg needs 6 weeks (42 days) for chick to
mature.
– Turning the eggs: eggs must be turned at least twice a day to
ensure even heating and to avoid chick deformities.
– Suitable temperature: ostrich eggs require a constant temperature
of 36-36.5˚C.
– Humidity: the eggs require a relative humidity of 40-42% to prevent
them from drying out and dying.
– Ventilation: the chick requires oxygen to develop. Therefore waste
gases must be removed from the incubator to avoid their build-up.

40
Marking birds in captivity with micro chips

 It is very important for ostrich farmers to identify their birds and distinguish
them from wild birds. This shall avoid theft of captive birds. It also prevents
the illegal harvesting of wild birds.
 In Botswana the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) assist
ostrich farmers with this marking process by providing equipment and
technical support in the use of micro-chips and other equipment to the
farmers.
 Microchips are very small, metal pellet-like apparatuses that can store
large amounts of information like a computer.
 Microchips are inserted beneath the skin on the neck of the ostrich using a
special tool that acts like a syringe.
 The chip remains in the skin for the entire life of the ostrich.
 New information can be entered whereas the stored information can be
retrieved using a microchip reader.

Advantages of marking birds Disadvantages of marking birds

1. Chips are able to store large 1. Chips require high technical skills to
volumes of information. use/insert
2. Chips are not easily removed by 2. Equipment used is very expensive
thieves
3. Chips are not easily obtained
4. Chips are harmless to the bird‟s
hide

Advantages of ostrich meat over beef

 Ostrich meat has less fat than beef

 Ostrich meat has less cholesterol than beef
 Ostrich meat has more protein than beef
 Ostrich meat is tastier than
 Ostrich meat is more tender than beef
 Ostrich meat has more iron than beef

41
GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT OF GAME FARMING
IN BOTSWANA

The government of Botswana has put in place a number of initiatives to

encourage farmers to venture into game farming as a means of diversifying the
economy. These are:-
1. It provides farmers with a market
• Government constructed an ostrich abattoir at Sebele for farmers to
sell their wildlife products.
• It also assists with marketing game farming internationally.
2. It provides technical assistance
Extension workers provide equipment and technical skills in game
farming, e.g.
• The use of microchips & associated equipment to the farmers.
• The capture of game animals.
3. It provides funding of aspiring farmers
• Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency and Young Farmers
Fund offer financial assistance to people interested in starting or
expanding their game farms.
4. It provides educating and training of game farmers
• Game farmers are trained on wildlife production and management

5. It provides disease control assistance

• This can be done by controlling import/export/movement of game
and game products
6. It provides breeding stock and game infrastructure
• Beginning farmers are assisted with breeding stock and
infrastructure development

LEGISLATIVE MEASURES ENSURING SUSTAINABLE USE OF GAME,

ESPECIALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES

• Botswana government values wildlife so dearly that she has made efforts
to ensure that game animals are conserved and used wisely.
• There following are some domestic legislative measures and international
treaties that Botswana upholds:-

(i) Wildlife conservation policy of 1986 – outlines the importance of wildlife

and rules for sustainable use.
(ii) Elephant management plan of 1991 – guides DWNP in the conservation
and management of elephants
(iii) Ostrich management plan of 1994 – guides the use and monitoring of wild
ostriches for research and other uses such as hunting and collection
(iv) Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) –
controls and monitors trade in endangered plant and animal life (e.g.
elephant, rhino) worldwide.

42
 RANGE AND PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Learning objectives / Revision questions

1. Explain the concepts of:-
a. range,
b. pasture,
c. rangeland, and
d. Range/pasture management.
2. State factors affecting range management in Botswana
3. Describe the types of natural vegetation found in Botswana with ref to grass
and woody plant species
4. Describe the composition of rangelands
5. Identify at least five range plants
6. Explain the concepts of:-
a. forage,
b. stocking rate,
c. carrying capacity,
d. overstocking,
e. overgrazing,
f. mixed species grazing,
g. grazing,
h. decreasers,
i. increasers and
j. invaders;

7. Calculate the stocking rate and carrying capacity of a given rangeland.

Explanation of concepts

Range – this is natural vegetation suitable for grazing or browsing animals

Rangeland – an open area of land covered with natural vegetation (such as
grasses, shrubs and trees)

Pasture – a fenced area with planted grassland and maintained by the farmer for
grazing livestock

Range/Pasture management – the care and maintenance of the grazing land to

provide the highest yields and better for livestock.

43
Factors affecting range management in Botswana

1) Rainfall – the growth of vegetation is largely influenced by the amount of

rainfall, such that the lower the rainfall for a certain area, the less the plant
material will be produced. This will lead to lower carrying capacity.
2) Soils – most of the country has sandy soils which are deficient in phosphorus
and less organic matter. This results in low fertility and water holding capacity.
Therefore plant growth will be poor and hence carrying capacity will be low.
3) High temperatures – due to excessive heat in summer, plants wilt and die or
grow poorly resulting in low carrying capacity.
4) Human activities:-
a. Communal grazing system – this type of grazing results in severe
overstocking and overgrazing, causing long term deterioration
(destruction) of the range.
b. Veld fires – this indiscriminate burning of the veld destroys the
vegetation that could otherwise be grazed by livestock. Coupled with
low/erratic rainfall and high temperatures, the regrowth of vegetation is
also low.

Composition of rangelands in Botswana

All rangelands in Botswana have varying amounts of the following:-

 Grasses – these provide the main food for grazing animals. There are many
species found in each rangeland and each has its own grazing value.
examples are:-
o guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
o buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)
o couch grass (Cynadon dactylon)
 Forbs/herbs – these are broad-leaved and non-woody plants. They are
usually of low value and poisonous to grazing animals. Examples:-
o devil‟s thorn (Terristris tribulus) - mosetlho
o thorn apple (Datura ferox) – mokhure/motitinti
o Mexican poppy (Argemone Mexicana) - lepero
 Browse – this includes all woody plants, trees, shrubs and bushes. They
have woody stems and are perennial. Many are source of food as they
provide leaves, twigs and pods for browsing animals. Examples:-
o umbrella tree (Acacia tortilis) – mosu/nsu
o
 Standing water – this is water that does not flow. Animals often drink this
water. It may contain parasites and disease causing organisms
 Bare ground – this is an area where no plants grow. These areas may be a
result of overgrazing, veld fires, foot paths or insect damage. They are prone
to erosion.

44
 TYPES OF NATURAL VEGETATION IN BOTSWANA

 The vegetation cover of Botswana consists of ground layer of a mixture of

grasses and other small plants with an upper layer of scattered trees and
shrubs.
 The density of trees or shrubs in any one area will vary from place to place
depending on rainfall, temperature, soil and drainage.
 Main types of vegetation in Botswana are (see the map below):-
o woodland
o forest
o grassland savannah
o shrub savannah

(a) Woodland (found in Central)

– these are mostly trees and shrubs with a ground cover of a mixture of
grasses
– some of these offer valuable browse for animals, examples
o Bush willow tree (Combretum apiculatum) (mohudiri)
o Grewia flava (moretlwa)
o Shepherds trees (Boscia albitrunca) (motlopi)
o Mopane tree (Colosphospermum mopani (mophane)
(b) Grassland savannah (found in Ngamiland)
– this consist of mostly grasses, sedges and herbs
– this grassland can cover large areas, e.g. Makgadikgadi pans
– a few trees or woody plants may be scattered among the grasses
– they make the most important feed for livestock in the rangelands

45
(c) Forests (found in Chobe District)
– this consists of mainly the tallest trees
– there is little grass cover at the ground level
– these areas receive the highest rainfalls and
– have good fertile and heavy soils
(d) Shrub savannah (found in Kalahari)
– there are a few trees and many scattered shrubs
– vegetation consists mostly of Acacia trees

EXPLANATIONS OF SOME RANGE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

Forage – any vegetative material fed to livestock (e.g. hay, silage, crop residues,
range/pasture grass, etc.)

Livestock unit (LSU) – any equivalence of a mature animal weighing 500kg.

The table below shows equivalents of 1 LSU:-
Livestock Number of animals Number of LSU in
species making a LSU one animal
Goat/sheep 6 0.17LSU
Suckling calves 0 0LSU
Donkey/horse/cow 1 1LSU
Bull 1.5 1.5LSU

Stocking rate (SR) (can be defined in two ways)

– The number of livestock units kept in a hectare at a particular time
(LSU/ha). or
– The amount of grazing land available to one livestock unit (ha/LSU).

Carrying capacity (CC) (can be defined in two ways):-

– This is the correct stocking rate of a given area. or
– the area of grazing land which should be given to one LSU without
damaging the grazing area

Note: If SR < CC = the area is understocked

If SR = CC = the area is correctly stocked (balance)
If SR > CC = the area is overstocked

Exercise: Calculations of stocking rates

1. Calculate the stocking rate of the following farms:-
a. 250ha grazing land with 160LSU
b. 1500LSU grazing on a 1 000ha
c. 200 sheep, 200 goats, 20 donkeys, 3 bulls, 200 cows and 5
horses all grazing on a 3200ha pasture
2. If the carrying capacity of the farm is 22ha/LSU, comment on the
condition likely to occur on each farm.

46
Overstocking – this is when the stocking rate exceeds (is more than) the
carrying capacity. Or when there are more LSU than the rangeland/pasture can
support.

Overgrazing – this is when the grass is grazed to such an extent that it cannot
re-grow and it dies. This is usually a result of stocking rate.

Under stocking – this is when the stocking rate is lower than the carrying
capacity. Or when there are fewer LSUs than the range/pasture can support.

Grazing – this is feeding on growing grass and pasture. Example cattle and
sheep are predominantly grazing animals.

Mixed species grazing – when two or more different animal species are allowed
to graze an area together, e.g. mixing cattle and goats.

Advantages - the species feed differently

- The species do not compete for the same plants
- The range/pasture plants are fully utilized

Decreasers - These are grasses that decrease with increased grazing pressure
- They are the most desirable and palatable grass species
- They are usually taller and highly nutritious
- E.g. Buffalo grass, couch grass, guinea grass

Increasers - These grass species increase with initial grazing pressure (while
decreasers are still there)
- They are less desirable grass species
- They are shorter and less palatable
- They replace decreasers when grazing pressure increases

Invaders – These are the most undesirable plant species

- They are the most unpalatable and less nutritious plants
- They are mostly poisonous annual plants
- They take over when decreasers and increasers are finished
- E.g. bottle rush grass, sward grass, poison leaf, Mexican poopy

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 EXTENSIVE RANGE MANAGEMENT

Learning objectives / revision questions

1. Outline the characteristics of extensive range management including the

advantages and disadvantages
2. Explain the use of indigenous plants to increase range productivity.
3. Explain ways in which man can destroy range lands.
4. Suggest ways by which destruction of range and range lands can be
avoided.

Characteristics of extensive range management

 Animals are allowed to roam and graze in open and unfenced areas
 Oldest traditional method of keeping livestock in many parts of
Botswana
 Herd boys/men/women/girls stay with the herds and guide them to the
grazing fields at daytime and then kraal them at night.

Advantages and disadvantages of extensive range management

Advantages Disadvantages
(a) It is cheap to practise (free grazing) (a) It„s difficult to control livestock
(b) Animals move freely in search of diseases and parasites
food (b) It‟s difficult to protect livestock from
(c) Farmers can keep as many animals predators
as they want (c) It‟s difficult to control breeding
(d) Anyone is free to have livestock (d) It‟s difficult to control livestock
movement
(e) Overgrazing is very common

Explain ways in which man can destroy range lands and how to avoid it

Rangelands destroyed by:- Avoided by:-

Uncontrolled burning – destroys range  Making fire brakes control veld fires
or plants eaten by livestock  Avoid unnecessary burning of the
veld
Deforestation – destroys vegetation  Avoid excessive cutting of trees
eaten by livestock  Planting more trees (afforestation)
Overstocking – leads to overgrazing  Practise the correct stocking rates
and soil erosion  Fence the rangelands
Bush encroachment – woody plants  Removal of undesirable plant
(bushes & shrubs) take up the space species
for grasses  Seeding desirable plant species

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Use of indigenous plants to increase range productivity

 Sometimes the vegetation in the rangeland is depleted or is not very good for
feeding livestock. The range or pasture can be improved:-
Sowing plant species of high grazing value as they are more adapted to the
climatic conditions of the country.
- They are over-sown i.e. the original grass layer is left intact and seeds of
the new species are broadcasted on the surface and left to germinate
when the rains begin.
- Examples of some useful indigenous grasses: buffel grass, guinea grass,
star/couch grass, weeping love grass
 Use of local plants can decrease the risk of exotic plant invasions that can
negatively affect biodiversity. This reduces the effects of invasive species.
 This promotes genetic diversity which in turn promotes resistance to adverse
environmental conditions.
 Indigenous plants reduce soil erosion and conserve local plant-microbe-soil
interactions.

INTENSIVE PASTURE MANAGEMENT

- This refers to the condition where the pastures are fenced to control the
movement of livestock.
- The pastures are maintained in a good condition to ensure that they provide
quality feed to the livestock throughout the year.
- An improved pasture provides food for the animals hence the livestock will
grow and reproduce well.

Lesson objectives / revision questions

1. Explain at least four ways of improving range and pasture utilization

2. State advantages and disadvantages of creep, rotational, strip and grazing
3. Describe ways in which fodder crops can be preserved for future use
4. Describe pasture improvement practices
5. Outline the causes of pasture deterioration
6. Name at least two poisonous plants found in Botswana
7. Describe one grass and one legume species from a given list

Ways of improving range and pasture utilization

To get the most out of a pasture/rangeland and reduce wastage farmers can
practise any of the following:-

1. Practise mixed species grazing

2. Practise rotational/strip/zero grazing
3. Store excess forage as hay or silage
4. Distribute watering points in the rangeland

49
Describe pasture improvement practices

(i) Fencing
- Fences confine livestock within the grazing area and also prevent
unwanted animals from entering and feeding inside.
- Fences control movement of livestock to give certain areas in the pasture
some time to regrow.
(ii) Fertilizing
- This replaces nutrients removed by grazing and improves the quality of
the pasture plants.
- Livestock will feed on a nutritious pasture plants to improve their live
weight
- Limestone Ammonium Nitrate (LAN) and urea can be used for leaf growth
and superphosphate for root development.
(iii) Irrigation
- This can be done during the dry season if water is available
- Irrigation will increase the pasture yield hence more food for the livestock
(iv) Re-seeding
- The pasture area may be cultivated and planted with new better varieties
of grasses/pasture legumes
- This will make the pasture more nutritious, faster growing and palatable
(v) Bush control
- This can be done by removing invaders that compete (for moisture,
nutrients, light and space) with fodder crops.
- These invaders prevent the pasture plants from covering the ground.
(vi) Distribution of watering points
- The places for drinking water should be enough and evenly distributed
around the pasture
- Then animals will not graze in only one area near the source of water.

INTENSIVE GRAZING SYSTEMS

1. Rotational grazing system – a large area of grazing land is divided into

paddocks. The livestock then graze one paddock at a time while the others are
given time to recover.
Advantages Disadvantages
 A pasture is given time to regrow  High costs of fencing and providing
 Diseases and parasites are easily watering points
controlled  Requires larger areas of land
 Irrigation, fertilization and other
maintenance practices can be
easily done
 Reduces the danger of selective
grazing
 Allows the grass to set seeds

50
2. Zero grazing – where fresh feed/fodder is cut and brought to the animals in a
pen. Livestock do not graze at all. A pasture may be needed to grow a fodder
crop.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Animals gain weight quicker  Very high initial costs
 Only a small area is needed (kraals/shelter, watering points,
 Animals are highly protected from feeding troughs)
predators  Requires too much labour
 Large numbers of animals can be  Animals do not get enough exercise
raised in a smaller area  Requires highly skilled labour
 Prevents selective grazing and
overgrazing

3. Strip grazing – here paddocks are divided into narrow strips of the pasture
using an electric fence. The fence is moved every day for daily grazing. Any
animal that makes contact with the electric fence gets a slight electric shock and
therefore moves away from the electric wire.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Fencing controls movement of  Expensive to install/maintain the
animals electric fence
 Animals gain weight faster  Requires high levels of
 Grass is eaten at its highest grazing management
value
 Animals are highly protected from
predators
 Selective grazing and overgrazing
are prevented

4. Creep grazing - a system of allowing young / productive stock access to good

nutritious pasture ahead of others.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Improves weaning weights  High input costs for fencing or
 Improves growth rate of young supplementary feeds
stock  Requires highly skilled labour
 Minimizes weaning stress on young
animals
 Quality feed is given to animals that
need it most
 Reduces dependence of young
stock on the dam (mother)

51
METHODS OF PRESERVING FODDER CROPS FOR FUTURE USE

 A fodder crop is a plant grown for livestock feeding. Such plants may include
grasses, cereals and legumes.
 Characteristics of a good fodder crop:-
o It should have very high yields
o It should be of a higher nutritive value
o It should be able to grow quickly and persistently
o It should be easy to remove to grow other crops
 There are two main methods of fodder preservation and they are:-
o Hay making
o Silage making

1. HAY and HAY MAKING

Hay – this includes grass, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been
cut and dried to be stored for use as animal fodder.
Examples of suitable for making hay: lucerne, Rhodes grass, Napier
grass, oats, maize, sorghum,

Hay making - the process of turning green, perishable forage into a product that
can be safely stored and easily transported without spoilage, while keeping
nutrient toss to a minimum.

How to make hay?

 The fodder crop is cut when it is still green and fresh, before it flowers or
producing seeds (after flowering it becomes less nutritious).
 Reduce its moisture content by leaving it to dry in the sun for 2 to 3 days
 Ideally the moisture content should be lowered to less than 15%
 It should be turned so that it dries faster on both sides
 It is then windrowed /gathered using hay rakes
 Then it is baled into round/rectangular bales using a baler machine
 The bales are then stored in a cool dry place under a shade/shelter

Characteristics of good quality hay

o Has a high proportion of leaves in the bale, with few or no coarse stem or
seed heads
o High quality hay will contain little dust or mould
o High quality hay has a bright green colour
o It has a sweet fresh odour
o It is free of foreign materials (sticks, trash, tree leaves) and weeds

Note: if the hay has not dried correctly (when too wet) it will rot or be unpalatable
and less nutritious. If made and stored well, it will remain good, nutritious feed for
livestock for up to 5 years. As it is dry, water must always be made available
when feeding hay.

52
2. SILAGE AND SILAGE MAKING

Silage - is the end product of fermenting a high moisture fodder crop.

The fodder crop usually contains 40–80% water.

Ensiling is storing the product.

How to make silage?

 This is preserving a fodder crop by fermentation
 Select forage material of high nutritive value e.g. succulent maize
 The crop is cut at its flowering stage before the stem hardens
o With a moisture content of 65-70%
 Then chop the fodder crop into smaller pieces.
 Place the chopped fodder crop into an air tight silo/silage pit or heap.
 Remove the amount of air/oxygen by:-
o Compressing/compacting the material and
o Covering the silage with an air tight plastic sheet.
 Leave the material for 3-4 weeks to allow it to ferment. The bacteria found
naturally on the crop will ferment the crop by changing the complex
carbohydrates (cellulose) into simpler sugars and producing acids and
alcohols which will preserve the fodder crop.
 Silage activators may be added to speed up the fermentation process
 Keep checking the silage. After a few weeks/months the silage should be
ready for livestock consumption.

Characteristics of good silage

o No mould growth (mouta)
o Pleasant fruity odour or an acceptable sweet smell
o A mild acidic taste of pH 4.0 - 4.5
o Yellowish brown in colour
o Increased nutritive value
o Has more lactic acid than other acids
o Has 3-4% increased palatability
o It is free flowing with a non-sticky texture

Note: it is advisable to feed silage in winter as it is moist and warm.

The silage may last for a few months before it begins to spoil and become
unsuitable for feeding livestock.

53
CAUSES OF PASTURE DETERIORATION
 Overgrazing / overstocking – this leaves the soil bare leading to increased
soil erosion
 Weed infestation – weeds lower the grazing value of the pasture
 Invaders – if herbaceous species dominate they reduce the quality of the
pasture
 Selective grazing – this leads to less amount of decreasers leaving
increasers and invaders on the pasture that are less nutritious and
unpalatable.
 Periodic droughts – prolonged periods of dryness result in little fodder and
poor quality pasture.
 Continuous grazing – this does not give pastures enough rest which leads
to overgrazing and bare soils
 Under stocking /under grazing – this results in a lot of standing hay which
prevents re-growth of new fodder
 Uncontrolled burning – this results in burnt grasses which makes it difficult
for regrowth of the new fodder (due to burnt roots, stolons and rhizomes.
 Uneven distribution of water points – this leads to localized overgrazing
around the watering point leading to underutilization of the pastures far away
from the water points.

Poisonous plants found in Botswana

A poisonous plant is the one when eaten or consumed in such quantities by
livestock produces harmful effects on the system, which may lead to death.

English name Scientific name Setswana name

Poison leaf Dichapetulum cymosum Mogau
Thorn apple Datura stramonium Mokhure
Mexican poppy Argemone Mexican Lepero
Sodium apple Solanum incanum Tholwana
Rubber hedge plant Euphoria mauritanica Motsetse
Wild striped cucumber Cucumis myriocarpus Monyaku

54
 DETAILS OF A PASTURE GRASS AND LEGUME SPECIES
Grass species: Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum)
Form and habit of  It is tufted (many stems emerging from one point like a
growth paint brush) and
 It has fibrous roots with underground stems (rhizomes)
and stolons
 It has a deep root system (up to 3m)
Soil requirements  Fertile soils with good water holding capacity
 Well drained, light to medium textured soils
 Tolerant to water logging conditions
 Performs best on moderately acidic soil (pH 5.5-7.0)
Climatic requirements  Grows best between 15 – 25˚C temperatures but can
tolerate 40˚C
 Growth stops when exposed to heavy frost
 Requires 700-1000mm of annual rainfall and it responds
well to irrigation
Persistence (length of  It is a perennial grass plant
growth)
Fertilizer treatment  Basal dressing with 2: 3: 2(22) or Super phosphate at
150kg/ha to establish a new pasture
 Top dress every year with urea/muriate of potash/LAN at
100kg/ha to stimulate new growth
Planting time & method  Generally sown in autumn. It does not grow in the heat of
summer or the cold of winter.
 Broadcast seed over a well prepared soil at the beginning
of the rainy season at a seed rate of 2.5kg/ha
Nutritive value  It is very high nutritious before flowering stage but after
flowering the value decreases
 It has a high protein content (10 – 23% crude protein)
 It is highly palatable before flowering but when older it is
not readily eaten.

Strengths Limitations
 High quality forage if managed  Requires good management to
correctly maintain feed quality
 Has a long growing season  Becomes rank and unpalatable if
 Highly persistent ungrazed
 Survives long dry periods  Requires high fertility for sustained
 Responds well to nitrogen fertilizer in production
warm season  Requires high fertility for sustained
 Tolerant of heavy grazing production
 Better frost tolerant than some warm  Tops killed by heavy frost
season grasses  Poor winter growth
 Very effective for erosion control  Difficult to maintain a legume in pasture
 Rapid summer growth with high yield  May become a weed of cultivation
potential
 Very competitive; it suppresses weeds

55
Legume species – Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
Form and habit of  it is deep rooted and bushy with an erect growth
growth habit (50-70cm high)
 it has many trifoliate leaves and purple flowers
 new stems emerge from the crown after grazing
Soil requirements  grows well on a wide range of well drained soils including
deep loams, loamy sands, clay soils
 requires soils with moderate to high fertility
 Requires a soil pH of 4.8-8.0 (optimum pH > 5.5)
 It has low tolerance to waterlogging
Climatic requirements  Requires a 325-450mm of annual rainfall
 Has a moderate to high tolerance to frost
 Has a high drought tolerance
Persistence (length of  It is a perennial plant
growth)
Fertilizer treatment  Basal dressing with Super phosphate at 4000kg/ha
 Apply lime if the soil is acidic
Planting time & method  Generally sown in autumn at the beginning of the rainy
season or under-sow with a cereal crop.
 Under irrigation sow seeds at a seed rate of 8-10kg/ha to
get 100 plants/m2
Nutritive value  It is very high nutritious before flowering stage but after
flowering the value decreases
 It has a high protein content (12 – 24% crude protein)
 It is highly palatable before flowering but when older it is
not readily eaten.
 It is source of Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, and
vitamins A and D
 Has a high digestibility (65-72%)

Strengths Limitations
 Provides a high quality feed for  The cost and slow rate of
livestock and improves animal health establishment (6-12months)
 Reduces groundwater recharge and  Low winter production
help to alleviate the effects of salinity  Requirement for rotational grazing for
 Evens out livestock seasonal feed and long-term persistence
produces fodder out of season  Greater monitoring for insects and
 Improves soil fertility and structure susceptibility to being overgrazed
 Reduces weed burden and manage  Variable out-of-season production
herbicide resistance to cropping  Can be difficult/costly to remove if
going into a crop phase
 Can reduce crop yields in the year
following lucerne phase due to a dry
soil

56