NLP REVISED NOTES

Unit 1

Explain any six features of NLP

1. Ans: Morphological Analysis: Morphological analysis involves breaking down
words into their smallest meaningful units, called morphemes, and understanding how
these units contribute to the overall meaning of words. For example, in the word
"unhappily," "un-" is a prefix indicating negation, "happy" is the root word, and "-ly"
is a suffix indicating manner. Morphological analysis helps understand how the
meaning of the word is formed from these individual units.
2. Syntactic Analysis: Syntactic analysis, also known as parsing, involves analyzing the
structure of sentences to understand the relationships between words and phrases. It
focuses on grammar rules and syntax to determine how words are combined to form
meaningful sentences. For example, in the sentence "The cat chased the mouse,"
syntactic analysis helps identify that "the cat" is the subject, "chased" is the verb, and
"the mouse" is the object.
3. Semantic Analysis: Semantic analysis involves understanding the meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences in context. It goes beyond the literal definitions of words to
consider their intended meanings and how they relate to each other. For example, in
the sentence "He bought a new book," semantic analysis helps determine that
"bought" means purchasing, and "book" refers to a physical or digital publication.
4. Pragmatic Analysis: Pragmatic analysis involves understanding language use in
context, including implied meanings, speaker intentions, and conversational
implicatures. It considers factors like tone, context, and cultural norms to interpret the
meaning of utterances accurately. For example, in the sentence "Could you pass the
salt?" the speaker may be making a polite request rather than asking a question about
ability.
5. Text Classification: Text classification involves categorizing text data into
predefined categories or labels based on its content. This can be used for tasks like
sentiment analysis, spam detection, and topic categorization. For example, a sentiment
analysis system might classify customer reviews as positive, negative, or neutral
based on the sentiment expressed in the text.
 6. Named Entity Recognition (NER): Named Entity Recognition is a task in NLP that
involves identifying and classifying named entities mentioned in text into predefined
categories such as person names, organization names, locations, dates, etc. For
example, in the sentence "Apple is headquartered in Cupertino," NER would identify
"Apple" as an organization and "Cupertino" as a location.

1.1 Searching text:

Ans: Searching text in natural language processing (NLP) involves finding specific words,
phrases, or patterns within a body of text. This process is essential for various NLP tasks,
such as information retrieval, text analysis, and question answering. Here's an explanation of
searching text in easy words:

1. Basic Text Search:

 The simplest way to search text is by looking for exact matches of words or
phrases within the text. For example, if you're searching for the word "apple"
in a sentence, you'll look for instances where the word "apple" appears exactly
as it is.
2. Pattern Matching:
 Pattern matching involves searching for specific patterns or sequences of
characters within the text. This can include regular expressions, which are
patterns that define a set of strings to be matched. For example, if you're
searching for all words that start with the letter "a", you can use a regular
expression like "a\w+".
3. Named Entity Recognition (NER):
 NER is a more advanced form of text search that involves identifying and
extracting named entities, such as person names, locations, organizations, etc.,
from the text. This requires analyzing the context of words and identifying
patterns that indicate named entities.
4. Semantic Search:
 Semantic search goes beyond simple text matching and takes into account the
meaning of words and their relationships within the text. It involves
understanding the semantics of the query and the text to find relevant
 information. For example, if you're searching for "books about cats", semantic
search would not only look for the words "books" and "cats" but also
understand that you're interested in books that are related to cats.
5. Search Algorithms:
 Various algorithms can be used to efficiently search through large bodies of
text. These algorithms may include techniques like indexing, which involves
creating a data structure that maps words or phrases to their locations in the
text, making searches faster.
 Unit – II Processing Raw Text

2.1 Accessing Text from Disk

ANS: Accessing text from disk in natural language processing (NLP) involves reading textual
data stored on your computer's hard drive or other storage devices. Here's a detailed
explanation in simple terms:

1. Understanding Text Files:

Textual data is often stored in files on your computer, much like how you save
documents in a word processor. These files can have various formats like ".txt", ".csv"
(comma-separated values), ".json" (JavaScript Object Notation), or ".xml" (eXtensible
Markup Language).
2. Using File I/O Operations:
File Input/Output (I/O) operations are actions performed by a program to read from or
write to files. In programming languages like Python or Java, there are functions or
libraries specifically designed for handling file I/O operations.
3. Opening a Text File:
To access text from a file on disk, you first need to open the file using programming
commands. This involves specifying the file's location (known as its "path") and
indicating whether you want to read the file, write to it, or do both.
4. Reading Text from the File:
Once the file is opened, you can read its contents into your program's memory.
Depending on the programming language and the specific task you're performing, you
may read the entire file at once or read it line by line.
5. Processing the Text:
After reading the text from the file, you can process it as needed for your NLP task.
This might involve tasks like tokenization (breaking the text into words or sentences),
cleaning (removing unwanted characters or formatting), or analyzing its linguistic
features.
6. Closing the File:
It's important to close the file after you've finished accessing it. This releases any
system resources associated with the file and ensures that other programs can access it
if needed.
Program:

# Open the file in read mode

with open('example.txt', 'r') as file:
# Read the entire contents of the file
text = file.read()

# For simplicity, let's just print the text

print(text)

Electronic Books
1. Ans: What are Electronic Books (E-books)?
Electronic books, or e-books, are digital versions of printed books that can be read on
electronic devices such as e-readers, tablets, smartphones, and computers. E-books
typically come in various file formats like EPUB, PDF, MOBI, and others.
2. Why are E-books Important in NLP?
E-books provide a rich source of textual data for NLP tasks. Since e-books cover a
wide range of topics, genres, and languages, they offer diverse content for training
language models, conducting research, and developing NLP applications.
3. Accessing Text from E-books:
Accessing text from e-books involves extracting textual content from the digital files in
which e-books are stored. Here's an easy-to-understand explanation of how text is accessed
from e-books:

4. Understanding E-book File Formats:

E-books are typically stored in specific file formats designed for digital reading.
Common e-book formats include EPUB, PDF, MOBI, AZW, and others. Each format
has its own structure and characteristics.
5. Text Extraction Techniques:
Text extraction from e-book files can be done using various techniques:
  EPUB and MOBI Files: EPUB and MOBI files are designed to be easily
accessible for reading on e-readers and other devices. Text extraction from
these formats usually involves unzipping the file (since EPUB is essentially a
collection of HTML, CSS, and other files), then parsing and extracting text
content from the HTML files.
 PDF Files: PDF files can contain text, images, and other elements. Extracting
text from PDFs can be more complex, especially if the text is embedded
within images or if the PDF has complex formatting. Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) technology may be used to extract text from PDFs, where
images of text are converted into actual text.
6. Preprocessing E-book Text:
Before using e-book text for NLP tasks, it's often necessary to preprocess the text.
Preprocessing steps may include:
 Text Cleaning: Removing unwanted characters, formatting, or metadata from
the extracted text.
 Tokenization: Breaking the text into smaller units such as words or sentences
for further analysis.
 Normalization: Standardizing text by converting uppercase letters to
lowercase, removing accents, or expanding contractions.
 Stopword Removal: Filtering out common words like "the," "and," or "is"
that may not carry significant meaning for certain NLP tasks.
 Unit – V Analyzing the Meaning of Sentences

5.1 Natural Language Understanding: Querying a Database

Ans:

5. query generation:
6. Execute the query:
Ex: Imagine you have a database containing information about books, including their titles,
authors, publication years, and genres. You want to find all the books written by a specific
author.

Here's how you would query the database step by step:

1. Formulating the Query:

 You start by formulating your query, which is basically a question you want to
ask the database. In this case, your query might be: "Which books were
written by J.K. Rowling?"

Query generation: SELECT * FROM BOOKS WHERE author = ‘J.k. Rowling’

5.2 Natural Language, Semantics, and Logic

Semantics

Ans: Semantics in NLP is like deciphering the meaning behind words, phrases, and sentences
in a way that a computer can understand. It's about understanding not just the literal
definitions of words, but also their context and how they relate to each other to convey
specific meanings.

Here's how semantics works in NLP:

1. Word Meaning: Words have meanings, but those meanings can change depending on
how they're used. Semantics helps NLP models understand the different meanings of
words in different contexts. For example, "bank" can mean a financial institution or
the side of a river.
2. Phrase and Sentence Meaning: Just like individual words, phrases and sentences
also carry meaning. Semantics helps NLP models understand the meaning of phrases
and sentences by considering the meanings of the individual words and how they're
arranged. This includes understanding idioms, metaphors, and other figurative
language.
 3. Context: The meaning of a word or phrase can be heavily influenced by the context
in which it's used. Semantics in NLP involves analyzing the surrounding words and
sentences to determine the intended meaning. For example, in the sentence "She saw
the bat," the meaning of "bat" depends on whether it's referring to the flying mammal
or a piece of sports equipment.
4. Semantic Relationships: Words are not isolated entities; they're connected to other
words through various relationships. Semantics in NLP helps identify these
relationships, such as synonyms (words with similar meanings), antonyms (words
with opposite meanings), hypernyms (words that are more general), and hyponyms
(words that are more specific).
5. Pragmatics: Beyond the literal meaning of words and sentences, semantics in NLP
also considers pragmatic aspects, such as implied meanings, speaker intentions, and
conversational implicatures. This involves understanding the nuances of language use
in different contexts and situations.

Logic

Ans: Logic is like a set of rules or guidelines that help us make sense of things and draw
conclusions in a sensible way. In everyday life, we use logic all the time without even
realizing it.

Here's how logic works:

1. Statements: Logic deals with statements, which are basically sentences that can be
either true or false. For example, "The sky is blue" is a statement that can be true or
false depending on whether the sky is actually blue or not.
2. Logical Operators: Logic uses special words called logical operators to connect
statements and form more complex statements. The three main logical operators are:
 AND: This connects two statements and is true only if both statements are
true. For example, "It is raining AND the ground is wet."
 OR: This connects two statements and is true if at least one of the statements
is true. For example, "I will have pizza OR pasta for dinner."
  NOT: This negates a statement, so if a statement is true, its negation is false,
and vice versa. For example, "It is NOT sunny today."
3. 2 types of logic: propositional and predicate or first order logic (inko bhi thoda
explain krdo depending upon marks)

Propositional logic : same as AI

Propositional logic, also known as sentential logic, is a branch of logic that deals with
propositions—statements that are either true or false—and their interconnections through
logical connectives. In the context of Natural Language Processing (NLP), propositional
logic provides a formal framework to represent and reason about the meanings of sentences.

Key Components of Propositional Logic:

1. Propositional Symbols: These are atomic statements that can be either true or false.
For example, "It is raining" can be represented as a propositional symbol, say P.
2. Logical Connectives: These operators combine propositional symbols to form more
complex expressions. The primary connectives include:
o Negation (¬): Represents "not." If P is true, then ¬P is false.
o Conjunction (∧): Represents "and." The expression P ∧ Q is true only if both
P and Q are true.
o Disjunction (∨): Represents "or." The expression P ∨ Q is true if at least one
of P or Q is true.
o Implication (→): Represents "if... then." The expression P → Q is false only
if P is true and Q is false.
o Equivalence (↔): Represents "if and only if." The expression P ↔ Q is true if
both P and Q have the same truth value.

Application in NLP:

In NLP, propositional logic is utilized to formalize the semantics of natural language

sentences, enabling machines to process and reason about human language. For instance:

 The sentence "If it rains, the ground will be wet" can be represented as P → Q, where
P is "It rains" and Q is "The ground will be wet."
 The statement "It is not the case that the ground is dry" can be formalized as ¬Q,
where Q is "The ground is dry."
By translating natural language statements into propositional logic, NLP systems can perform
logical operations such as inference and consistency checking, which are essential for tasks
like automated reasoning, question answering, and knowledge representation.

Limitations:

While propositional logic is powerful, it has limitations in capturing the full complexity of
natural language, especially when dealing with quantifiers and relationships between entities.
To address these limitations, First-Order Logic (FOL) extends propositional logic by
introducing quantifiers and predicates, allowing for a more nuanced representation of
sentences.

In summary, propositional logic serves as a foundational tool in NLP for representing and
reasoning about the meanings of sentences, facilitating various language processing tasks.

First Order Logic:

First-Order Logic (FOL), also known as predicate logic, extends propositional logic by
introducing quantifiers and predicates, allowing for a more nuanced and expressive
representation of statements. In the realm of Natural Language Processing (NLP), FOL plays
a pivotal role in modeling the complexities of human language, enabling machines to
interpret and reason about linguistic constructs with greater sophistication.

Key Components of First-Order Logic:

1. Constants: Specific, unchanging entities representing objects in the domain (e.g.,

"John," "Paris").
2. Variables: Symbols that stand for arbitrary elements within the domain (e.g., "x,"
"y").
3. Predicates: Functions that express properties of objects or relationships between
objects (e.g., "isHuman(x)," "loves(x, y)").
4. Functions: Mappings from objects to objects, providing a means to construct terms
(e.g., "fatherOf(x)").
5. Quantifiers:
o Universal Quantifier (∀): Indicates that a statement applies to all elements in
the domain (e.g., "∀x isHuman(x) → mortal(x)").
o Existential Quantifier (∃): Denotes that there exists at least one element in
the domain for which the statement is true (e.g., "∃x isHuman(x) ∧ loves(x,
y)").
6. Logical Connectives: Operators that combine statements to form more complex
expressions (e.g., AND [∧], OR [∨], NOT [¬], IMPLIES [→], EQUIVALENT [↔]).

Application of FOL in NLP:

In NLP, FOL is employed to bridge the gap between human language and machine
understanding by providing a structured framework for semantic representation. This enables
machines to perform logical reasoning over textual data, facilitating tasks such as:
  Semantic Parsing: Translating natural language sentences into FOL expressions to
capture their meaning.
 Information Extraction: Identifying and extracting structured information from
unstructured text by recognizing entities and their relationships.
 Question Answering: Utilizing FOL representations to reason over knowledge bases
and retrieve accurate answers to user queries.

Example in NLP:

Consider the natural language statement: "All humans are mortal." In FOL, this can be
represented as:

∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))

This formalization allows NLP systems to apply logical inference, such as deducing that
"Socrates is human" implies "Socrates is mortal."

Challenges and Considerations:

While FOL enhances the expressiveness of logical representations, it also introduces

complexities:

 Computational Complexity: Reasoning within FOL can be computationally

intensive, especially as the knowledge base expands.
 Expressiveness vs. Decidability: FOL's rich expressiveness comes with the trade-off
of undecidability, meaning that there is no general algorithm to determine the truth of
all FOL statements.
 Handling Uncertainty: FOL does not inherently accommodate uncertainty or
probabilistic reasoning, which are often present in natural language.

To address some of these challenges, researchers have developed extensions and alternative
logical frameworks, such as probabilistic logic and description logics, aiming to balance
expressiveness with computational feasibility and the ability to model uncertainty.

In summary, First-Order Logic serves as a foundational tool in NLP, providing a formalized

approach to understanding and processing the semantics of natural language, thereby
enabling machines to perform complex reasoning tasks.

FOR SYNTAX THEORY IS :

First-Order Logic (FOL) provides a formal framework for representing statements about
objects and their relationships within a domain. Its syntax defines the rules for constructing
valid expressions, known as well-formed formulas (WFFs). The primary components of FOL
syntax include terms, atomic formulas, and complex formulas.

1. Terms: Terms refer to objects in the domain of discourse and can be categorized as:

 Constants: Specific, unchanging entities (e.g., "John," "3," "Earth").

 Variables: Symbols that can represent any object in the domain (e.g., "x," "y," "z").
  Functions: Expressions that denote objects based on other objects (e.g.,
"FatherOf(John)" or "Plus(x, y)").

2. Atomic Formulas: Atomic formulas are the simplest expressions in FOL, representing
basic facts about objects. They consist of:

 Predicate Symbols: Functions that express properties or relations (e.g.,

"IsHuman(x)").
 Terms: Objects or entities involved in the relation (e.g., "John," "Mary"). An
atomic formula combines a predicate symbol with a tuple of terms, forming
expressions like "IsHuman(John)" or "Loves(John, Mary)".

3. Complex Formulas: Complex formulas are constructed by combining atomic formulas

using logical connectives and quantifiers. The components include:

 Logical Connectives:
o Negation (¬): Indicates the opposite of a statement (e.g.,
"¬IsHuman(John)").
o Conjunction (∧): Denotes "and" between statements (e.g., "IsHuman(John) ∧
IsMortal(John)").
o Disjunction (∨): Denotes "or" between statements (e.g., "IsHuman(John) ∨
IsAlien(John)").
o Implication (→): Represents "if... then" relationships (e.g., "IsHuman(John)
→ IsMortal(John)").
o Equivalence (↔): Indicates "if and only if" relationships (e.g.,
"IsHuman(John) ↔ IsMortal(John)").
 Quantifiers:
o Universal Quantifier (∀): Expresses that a statement applies to all objects in
the domain (e.g., "∀x IsHuman(x) → IsMortal(x)").
o Existential Quantifier (∃): Indicates that there exists at least one object for
which the statement is true (e.g., "∃x IsHuman(x) ∧ Loves(x, Mary)").
Complex formulas are built by applying these connectives and quantifiers to
atomic formulas, allowing for the expression of intricate logical statements.

The formal syntax of FOL ensures that expressions are structured consistently, facilitating
precise reasoning and inference. For a more detailed exploration of FOL syntax, including
formal definitions and examples, you may refer to the following resource:

 First-Order Logic in Artificial Intelligence

5.5 The Semantics of English Sentences: Principle of Compositionality
Ans: The principle of compositionality in natural language processing (NLP) is like a rule
that tells us how the meaning of a sentence is related to the meanings of its individual parts,
like words or phrases.

Here's a simple way to understand it:

1. Breaking Down Sentences: When we look at a sentence, we can break it down into
smaller parts, like words or phrases. For example, in the sentence "The cat sat on the
mat," we have the words "the," "cat," "sat," "on," "the," and "mat."
2. Meaning of Parts: Each part of the sentence has its own meaning. For instance, "cat"
refers to a furry animal, "sat" means being in a seated position, and "mat" is
something you might put on the floor.
3. Combining Meanings: The principle of compositionality tells us that the meaning of
the whole sentence comes from combining the meanings of its parts in a certain way.
So, in our example sentence, we understand that there's a specific cat, doing a specific
action (sitting), on a specific object (the mat).
4. Rules for Combining: There are rules or patterns that govern how we combine the
meanings of individual parts to get the meaning of the whole sentence. These rules
can include things like grammar rules, word order, and the meanings of connecting
words like "and," "or," "but," etc.
5. Flexibility: The principle of compositionality explains why language is so flexible
and allows us to convey many different meanings using a relatively small set of words
and rules. By combining words and phrases in different ways, we can express an
endless variety of thoughts and ideas.