BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION

genetic diversity i.e. at genetic level, b) species

WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY diversity i.e. at the level of species, and c)
• "Biological diversity" means the variability among ecosystem diversity i.e. at the level of ecosystem.
living organisms from all sources including, inter
alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
(I) GENETIC DIVERSITY:
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
• A single species might show high diversity at the
which they are part; this includes diversity within
genetic level over its distributional range. The
species, between species and of ecosystems.
genetic variation shown by the medicinal plant
• "Biological resources" includes genetic resources,
Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in different
organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any
Himalayan ranges might be in terms of the
other biotic component of ecosystems with
potency and concentration of the active
actual or potential use or value for humanity.
chemical (reserpine) that the plant produces.
India has more than 50,000 genetically different
strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango.
• If a species has more genetic variation, it can
adapt better to the changed environmental
conditions. Lower diversity in a species leads to
genetic uniformity of genetically similar crop
plants. This homogeneity is desirable in
producing uniform quality of grain. But genetic
uniformity restricts adaptability of a species to
environmental stress as all the plants have same
level of resistance.
• New genetic variation in individuals occurs by
gene and chromosomal mutation, and in
organisms with sexual reproduction may be
spread across the population by recombination.
For instance, two brothers differ in their structure,
although their parents are the same. The
differences could be in alleles (different variants
of the same gene), in entire gene (the traits
determining particular characteristics) or in
• Biological diversity resources are the pillars upon chromosomal structure. The amount of genetic
which we build civilizations. Fish provide 20 per variation (gene pool) present in an inter-
cent of animal protein to about 3 billion people. breeding population is shaped or decided by
Over 80 per cent of the human diet is provided the process of natural selection. Selection leads
by plants. As many as 80 per cent of people living to certain genetic attributes being preferred and
in rural areas in developing countries rely on results in changes in the frequency of genes
traditional plant-based medicines for basic within this pool. This forms the basis of adaptation
healthcare. among the living organisms.
• Sum total of all the variety of living organisms on
earth constitute biodiversity. Biological diversity is
usually considered at three different levels – a)

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

(II) SPECIES DIVERSITY: comprises a great variety of habitats and

The diversity at the species level. For example, the interactions between and within biotic and
Western Ghats have greater amphibian species abiotic components. The most diversity-rich are
diversity than the Eastern Ghats. Western-Ghats and the north-eastern region. A
Species diversity can be measured in terms of: very large number of species found in these
(a) Species richness – refers to the number of ecosystems are endemic or found in these areas
various species in a defined area. only in India i.e. they are found nowhere else
(b) Species abundance – refers to the relative except in India. The endemics are concentrated
numbers among species. For example, the mainly in north-east, Western-Ghats, north-west
number of species of plants, animals and Himalaya, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
microorganisms may be more in an area About 33% of the flowering plants recorded in
than that recorded in another area. India are endemic to our country. Indian region
(c) Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity – refers is also notable for endemic fauna. For example,
to the genetic relationships between out of recorded vertebrates, 53% freshwater fish,
different groups of species 60% amphibians, 36% reptiles and 10%
mammalian fauna are endemic.
• It has taken millions of years of evolution, to
accumulate this rich diversity in nature, but we
could lose all that wealth in less than two
centuries if the present rates of species losses
continue. Biodiversity and its conservation are
now vital environmental issues of international
concern as more and more people around the
world begin to realise the critical importance of
biodiversity for our survival and well- being on this
planet.

PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY

LATITUDINAL GRADIENTS:
(III) ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY: • The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform
• At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with throughout the world but shows a rather uneven
its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, distribution. For many group of animals or plants,
wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has there are interesting patterns in diversity, the
greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian most well- known being the latitudinal gradient in
country like Norway. diversity. In general, species diversity decreases
• Ecosystem diversity encompasses the broad as we move away from the equator towards the
differences between ecosystem, and the poles. With very few exceptions, tropics
diversity of the habitats and ecological (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour
processes occurring within each ecosystem more species than temperate or polar areas.
type. India has very diverse terrestrial and Colombia located near the equator has nearly
aquatic ecosystems ranging from ice-capped 1,400 species of birds while New York at 41° N has
Himalayas to deserts, from arid scrub to 105 species and Greenland at 71° N only 56
grassland to wetlands and tropical rainforests, species. India, with much of its land area in the
from coral reefs to the deep sea. Each of these tropical latitudes, has more than 1,200 species of
birds. A forest in a tropical region like Ecuador

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

has up to 10 times as many species of vascular THE VALUE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

plants as a forest of equal area in a temperate The various benefits of biological diversity can be
region like the Midwest of the USA. The largely grouped under three categories: a) ecosystem
tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America services, b) biological resources, and c) social
has the greatest biodiversity on earth- it is home benefits.
to more than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of
fishes, 1,300 of birds, 427 of mammals, 427 of ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
amphibians, 378 of reptiles and of more than Living organisms provide many ecological services
1,25,000 invertebrates. Scientists estimate that in free of cost that are responsible for maintaining
these rain forests there might be at least two ecosystem health. Thus biodiversity is essential for the
million insect species waiting to be discovered maintenance and sustainable utilization of goods
and named. and services from ecological system as well as from
What is so special about tropics that might account individual species.
for their greater biological diversity? i. Protection of water resources: Natural
Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have vegetation cover helps in maintaining
proposed various hypotheses; some important ones hydrological cycles, regulating and
are (a) Speciation is generally a function of time, stabilizing water run-off and acting as a
unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent buffer against extreme events such as floods
glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have and droughts. Vegetation removal results in
remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years siltation of dams and waterways. Wetlands
and thus, had a long evolutionary time for species and forests act as water purifying systems,
diversification, (b) Tropical environments, unlike while mangroves trap silt thereby reducing
temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more impacts on marine ecosystems.
constant and predictable. Such constant ii. Soil protection: Biological diversity helps in
environments promote niche specialisation and the conservation of soil and retention of
lead to a greater species diversity and (c) There is moisture and nutrients. Clearing large areas
more solar energy available in the tropics, which of vegetation cover has been often seen to
contributes to higher productivity; this in turn might accelerate soil erosion, reduce its
contribute indirectly to greater diversity productivity and often result in flash floods.
Root system allows penetration of water to
the sub soil layer. Root system also brings
mineral nutrients to the surface by nutrient
uptake.
iii. Nutrient storage and cycling: Ecosystem
performs the vital function of recycling
nutrients found in the atmosphere as well as
in the soil. Plants are able to take up nutrients,
and these nutrients then can form the basis
of food chains, to be used by a wide range
of life forms. Nutrients in the soil, in turn, is
replenished by dead or waste matter which
is transformed by micro-organisms; this may
then feed others such as earthworms which
also mix and aerate the soil and make
nutrients more readily available.

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

iv. Pollution reduction: Ecosystems and species are known to have been used as food
ecological processes play an important role by humans. Presently about 20 species feed
in maintenance of gaseous composition of the majority of the world’s population and just
the atmosphere, breakdown of wastes and 3 or 4 only are the major staple crops to
removal of pollutants. Some ecosystems, majority of population in the world. A large
especially wetlands have the ability to number of plants and animals materials are
breaking down and absorb pollutants. used for the treatment of various ailments. The
Natural and artificial wetlands are being usage of medicinal plants in India has an
used to filter effluents to remove nutrients, ancient history, dating back to the pre-vedic
heavy metals, suspended solids; reduce the culture, at least 4000 years B. C. The
BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) and therapeutic values of herbal medicines led to
destroy harmful micro-organisms. Excessive evolution of Ayurveda which means “science
quantities of pollutants, however, can be of life”. It is estimated that at least 70 % of the
detrimental to the integrity of ecosystems country’s population rely on herbal medicines
and their biota. and over 7000 species of plants are used for
v. Climate stability: Vegetation influences medicinal purposes. Wood is a basic
climate at macro as well as micro levels. commodity used worldwide for making
Growing evidence suggests that undisturbed furniture and for building purposes. Fire wood is
forests help to maintain the rainfall in the the primary source of fuel widely used in third
vicinity by recycling water vapor at a steady world countries. Wood and bamboo are used
rate back into the atmosphere. Vegetation for making paper. Plants are the traditional
also exerts moderating influence on micro source of fibre such as coir, hemp, flax, cotton,
climate. Cooling effect of vegetation is a jute.
common experience which makes living (ii) Breeding material for crop improvement: Wild
comfortable. Some organisms are relatives of cultivated crop plants contain
dependent on such microclimates for their valuable genes that are of immense genetic
existence. value in crop improvement programmes.
vi. Maintenance of ecological processes: Genetic material or genes of wild crop plants
Different species of birds and predators help are used to develop new varieties of
to control insect pests, thus reduce the need cultivated crop plants for restructuring of the
and cost of artificial control measures. Birds existing ones for improving yield or resistance
and nectar–loving insects which roost and of crops plants. For example: rice grown in Asia
breed in natural habitats are important is protected from four main diseases by genes
pollinating agents of crop and wild plants. contributed by a single wild rice variety.
Some habitats protect crucial life stages of (iii) Future resources: There is a clear relationship
wildlife populations such as spawning areas between the conservation of biological
in mangroves and wetlands. diversity and the discovery of new biological
Without ecological services provided by biodiversity resources. The relatively few developed plant
it would not be possible to get food, pure air to species currently cultivated have had a large
breathe and would be submerged in the waste amount of research and selective breeding
produced. applied to them. Many presently under-utilised
food crops have the potential to become
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF ECONOMIC important crops in the future. Knowledge of
IMPORTANCE the uses of wild plants by the local people is
(i) Food, fibre, medicines, fuel wood and often a source for ideas on developing new
ornamental plants: Five thousand plant plant products.

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

SOCIAL BENEFITS • Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the

(i) Recreation: Forests, wildlife, national parks and fact that more than 15,500 species world-wide
sanctuaries, garden and aquaria have high are facing the threat of extinction. Presently, 12
entertainment and recreation value. per cent of all bird species, 23 per cent of all
Ecotourism, photography, painting, film mammal species, 32 per cent of all amphibian
making and literary activities are closely species and 31 per cent of all gymnosperm
related. species in the world face the threat of extinction.
(ii) Cultural values: Plants and animals are • From a study of the history of life on earth through
important part of the cultural life of humans. fossil records, we learn that large-scale loss of
Human cultures have co-evolved with their species like the one we are currently witnessing
environment and biological diversity can be have also happened earlier, even before
imparting a distinct cultural identity to different humans appeared on the scene. During the long
communities. period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and
The natural environment serves the inspirational, diversification of life on earth there were five
aesthetic, spiritual and educational needs of the episodes of mass extinction of species.
people, of all cultures. In a majority of Indian villages
SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION
and towns, plants like Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum),
The scientists say that the on-going sixth mass
Peepal (Ficus religiosa), Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) are
extinction may be the most serious environmental
planted and considered sacred and worshipped.
threat to the persistence of civilisation, because it is
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY irreversible. They say that it is caused by an ever-
• While it is doubtful if any new species are being increasing population and consumption rates.
added (through speciation) into the earth’s Further, species are links in ecosystems and, as they
treasury of species, there is no doubt about their disappear, the species they interact with are likely to
continuing losses. disappear as well.
• The biological wealth of our planet has been When a species dies out, the Earth’s ability to
declining rapidly and the accusing finger is maintain ecosystem services is eroded to a degree.
clearly pointing to human activities. The Humanity needs a relatively stable climate, flows of
colonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by humans fresh water, agricultural pest and disease-vector
is said to have led to the extinction of more than control and pollination for crops, all services that will
2,000 species of native birds. The IUCN Red List be impacted as the sixth mass extinction
(2004) documents the extinction of 784 species accelerates.
(including 338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress
87 plants) in the last 500 years. Some examples of different from the previous episodes? The difference
recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), is in the rates; the current species extinction rates are
quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the
Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, pre-human times and our activities are responsible
Javan, Caspian) of tiger. The last twenty years for the faster rates. Ecologists warn that if the present
alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27 trends continue, nearly half of all the species on
species. earth might be wiped out within the next 100 years.

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

rain forest would have been lost. The Amazon rain

In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the
(a) decline in plant production, (b) lowered planet’) harbouring probably millions of species is
resistance to environmental perturbations such as being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or
drought and (c) increased variability in certain for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle.
ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats
water use, and pest and disease cycles. by pollution also threatens the survival of many
Causes of biodiversity losses species. When large habitats are broken up into
The accelerated rates of species extinctions that the small fragments due to various human activities,
world is facing now are largely due to human mammals and birds requiring large territories and
activities. There are four major causes (‘The Evil certain animals with migratory habits are badly
Quartet’ is the sobriquet used to describe them). affected, leading to population declines.
(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most (ii) Over-exploitation: Humans have always
important cause driving animals and plants to depended on nature for food and shelter, but when
extinction. The most dramatic examples of habitat ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’; it leads to over -exploitation
loss come from tropical rain forests. Once covering of natural resources. Many species extinctions in the
more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon)
these rain forests now cover no more than 6 per were due to overexploitation by humans. Presently
cent. They are being destroyed fast. By the time you many marine fish populations around the world are
finish reading this chapter, 1000 more hectares of

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

over harvested, endangering the continued for aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the
existence of some commercially important species. indigenous catfishes in our rivers. Parthenium
(iii) Alien species invasions: When alien species are hysterophorus (Congress grass- a tropical American
introduced unintentionally or deliberately for weed) has invaded many of the vacant areas in
whatever purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cities, towns and villages in India leading to removal
cause decline or extinction of indigenous species. of the local plants and the dependent animals.
The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east (iv) Co-extinctions: When a species becomes
Africa led eventually to the extinction of an extinct, the plant and animal species associated
ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 with it in an obligatory way also become extinct.
species of cichlid fish in the lake. You must be familiar When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique
with the environmental damage caused and threat assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate.
posed to our native species by invasive weed Another example is the case of a coevolved plant-
species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and pollinator mutualism where extinction of one
water hyacinth (Eicchornia). The recent illegal invariably leads to the extinction of the other.
introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
When we conserve and protect the whole
ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected -
we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This
approach is called in-situ (on site) conservation.
However, when there are situations where an animal
or plant is endangered or threatened and needs In situ conservation: Faced with the conflict between
urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex-situ (off development and conservation, many nations find it
site) conservation is the desirable approach. unrealistic and economically not feasible to
conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably, the

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

number of species waiting to be saved from Now gametes of threatened species can be
extinction far exceeds the conservation resources preserved in viable and fertile condition for long
available. On a global basis, this problem has been periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs
addressed by eminent conservationists. They can be fertilised in vitro, and plants can be
identified for maximum protection certain propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds of
‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of different genetic strains of commercially important
species richness and high degree of endemism (that plants can be kept for long periods in seed banks.
is, species confined to that region and not found
anywhere else). Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA
identified but subsequently nine more have been Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international
added to the list, bringing the total number of designation by UNESCO for representative parts of
biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34. These natural and cultural landscapes extending over
hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine
Four of these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, ecosystems or a combination thereof. BRs are
Indo-Burma, Sundaland (Andaman & Nicobar designated to deal with one of the most important
islands) and Himalaya – cover our country’s questions of reconciling the conservation of
exceptionally high biodiversity regions. Although all biodiversity, the quest for economic and social
the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than development and maintenance of associated
2 per cent of the earth’s land area, the number of cultural values. BRs are thus special environments for
species they collectively harbour is extremely high both people and the nature and are living examples
and strict protection of these hotspots could reduce of how human beings and nature can co-exist while
the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent. respecting each other’s needs.
In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich
regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves, CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATION OF BR
national parks and sanctuaries. India has also a • A site that must contain an effectively protected
history of religious and cultural traditions that and minimally disturbed core area of value of
emphasised protection of nature. In many cultures, nature conservation.
tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and • The core area should be typical of a bio-
wildlife within were venerated and given total geographical unit and large enough to sustain
protection. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi viable populations representing all trophic levels
and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of in the ecosystem.
Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and • The management authority to ensure the
Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar involvement/cooperation of local communities
areas of Madhya Pradesh. In Meghalaya, the sacred to bring variety of knowledge and experiences
groves are the last refuges for a large number of rare to link biodiversity conservation and socio-
and threatened plants. economic development while managing and
Ex situ Conservation: In this approach, threatened containing the conflicts.
animals and plants are taken out from their natural • Areas potential for preservation of traditional
habitat and placed in special setting where they tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use
can be protected and given special care. of environment.
Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife
safari parks serve this purpose. There are many STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF BR
animals that have become extinct in the wild but Biosphere reserves are demarcated into following 3
continue to be maintained in zoological parks. In inter-related zones:
recent years ex situ conservation has advanced • Core Zone: Core zone must contain suitable
beyond keeping threatened species in enclosures. habitat for numerous plant and animal species,

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 Biodiversity & Conservation

including higher order predators and may usually not delimited one and is a zone of
contain centres of endemism. Core areas often cooperation where conservation knowledge
conserve the wild relatives of economic species and management skills are applied and uses are
and also represent important genetic reservoirs managed in harmony with the purpose of the
having exceptional scientific interest. A core biosphere reserve. This includes settlements, crop
zone being National Park or lands, managed forests and area for intensive
Sanctuary/protected/regulated mostly under recreation and other economic uses
the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Whilst realizing characteristics of the region.
that perturbation is an ingredient of ecosystem India has 12 internationally recognised Biosphere
functioning, the core zone is to be kept free from Reserves (As of June 2021). They are as follows.
l human pressures external to the system. 1. Nilgiri
• Buffer Zone: The buffer zone, adjoins or surrounds 2. Gulf of Mannar
core zone, uses and activities are managed in 3. Sunderban
this area in the ways that help in protection of 4. Nanda Devi
core zone in its natural condition. These uses and 5. Nokrek
activities include restoration, demonstration sites 6. Pachmarhi
for enhancing value addition to the resources, 7. Similipal
limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, etc; 8. Achanakmar-Amarkantak
which are permitted to reduce its effect on core 9. Great Nicobar
zone. Research and educational activities are to 10. Agasthyamala
be encouraged. Human activities, if natural 11. Khangchendzonga
within BR, are likely to continue if these do not 12. Panna
adversely affect the ecological diversity.
• Transition Zone: The transition area is the
outermost part of a biosphere reserve. This is

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