PVE. (PLP)LQ1 0) —P 1-9 CPV OV PAQ.NOR is Commutative: Let P and Q be any two statement formulas. (PLO (PV O) (QVP) “(QLP) + NOR is commutative. NOR isnot Associative: Let P, Q and R be any three statement formulas. Consider PLOLR > “PV OLR) --PV COVE) --PA(QV RAPID RS WO IR (PV QV RS (PVQ)A-R Therefore the connective | isnot associative (Geethanjali College of Engineering and TechnologyEvidently, P t Q and P| Q are duals ofeach other. Since -PAQ)<-PV-9 (PV Q) <> -PA-@. Example: Express P | interms of f only. Solution: Lo -PVQ) SPV OTPVO SP TPITOTONMeETP)TOTO) Example: Express P 7 Q interms of | only. Solution: 10<>-P AQ) (PA Q)L(PAQ) SPL PYLOLONIIPLP)L@LO) Truth Tables Example: Show that (4 ® B) V (A | B) © (A 1B). Solution: We prove this by constructing truth able [4 | da@s is la@pvaip iF F As columns (4 ® B) V (A | B) and (A 1 B) are identical. (A BBV (A B) > (AT B). Normal Forms Ifa given statement formula A(p1, p2, ps) involves n atomic variables, we have 2” possible combinations of truth values of statements replacing the variables, The formula A is a tautology if 4 has the truth value T for all possible assignments of the truth values to the variables pr, p2, ..Px and A is called a contradiction if has the truth value F for all possible assignments of the truth values of the 1 variables. A is said to be satisable if A has the truth value T for at least one combination of truth values assigned to Ph. Pann The problem of determining whether a given statement formula is a Tautology, or @ Contradiction is called a decision problem. The construction of truth table involves a finite number of steps, but the construction may (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technologynot be practical. We therefore reduce the given statement formula to normal form and find whether a given statement formula is a Tautology or Contradiction or at least satisfiable, twill be convenient to use the word Iproduct! in place of Iconjunction! and Isum| in place of Idisjunction! in our current discussion. A product of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary product. Similarly, a sum of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary sum. Let P and Q be any atomic variables. Then P, ~PAQ, “QAP ~P , P~P,, and Q A~P are some examples of elementary products. On the other hand, P , ~P VQ, -Q V PV PPV ~P, and QV ~Pare some examples of elementary sums. Any part of an elementary sum or product which is itself an elementary sum or product is called a factor of the original elementary sum or product. Thus ~Q, ~P , and ~Q A P are some of the factors of QA P A~P Disjuneti Normal Form (DNF) A formula wi ich is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a sum of elementary produets is called a disjunctive normal form of the given formula. Example: Obtain disjunctive normal forms of @PAC+0;0) “PVC A 0), Solution: (a) We have PA(P— 0) PA(-PVQ) -(PA-P)V(PAQ) (b) (PV Q) +P AQ) (PV OVA (PAQ)V (PV Q) A (PA Q)) (using R&S (RAS)V (ORAS) @((-P- A -Q) A(PAQ)) V (PV Q) A(-PV -Q)) (PA -OAPAQ)V (PV OVA “PIV (PV OVA ~Q) @(-PA-QAPAQ)V (PA-P) V(QA-P)V (PA-O) V(QA-Q) which is the required disjunctive normal form, Note: The DNF ofa given formula is not unique. Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a product of ementary sums is called a conjunctive normal form of the given formula. The method for obtaining conjunctive normal form of a given formula is similar to the one given for disjunctive normal form. Again, the conjunctive normal form is not unique. (Geethanjali College of Engineering and TechnologyExample: Obtain conjunctive normal forms of (a) PA(P O):(b) “(PV Oe (PA Q). Solution: (a). PA(P > Q) @ PACP VO) (6) “(PV Oe (PAQ) CPV Q) (PA Q)A(PAQ) > “(PV ON) (PV QV PAD) ACPA QV “(PV 9) @lPV OV P)A(PV OV OA [PV -Q) V (“PA -Q)) (PV OV P)APV OV OACPV “OV “P)ACPV “OV ~Q) Note: A given formula is tautology if every elementary sum in CNF is tautology. Example: Show that the formula Q V (P A ~Q) V (~P AQ) is a tautology. Solution: First we obtain a CNF of the given formula. OV (PAO) V (OPA) & OV (PV ~P)A-Q) -(QV(PV ~P))A(QV ~Q) - QV PV-P)A@V~O) Since each of the elementary sum is a tautology, hence the given formula is tautology Principal Disjunctive Normal Form Inthis section, we will discuss the concept of principal disjunctive normal form (PDNF). Minterm: For a given number of variables, the minterm consists of conjunctions in which each statement variable or its negation, but not both, appears only once. Let P and Q be the two statement variables. Then there are 2° minterms given by PAQ,PA-Q,-PAQ, and -P A -9. Minterms for three variables P, Q and R are PA QAR, PAQA-R, PA-QAR, PA =QA-R, -PAQ AR, -PAQA-R, ~PA-Q A Rand ~P AQ AR. From the truth tables of these minterms of Pand Q, itis clear that ploleag |pa-o [rao [rao | tlrfr fr IF F TIF IF iT F iF F|T IF F iT IF | FF IF F F Ir | (0) no two minterms are equivalent Gi. each minterm has the truth value T for exactly one combination of the truth values of the variables P and Q. Definition: Fora given formula, an equivalent formula consisting of disjunctions of minterms only is called the Principal disjunctive normal form of the formula. The prineiple disjunctive normal formula is also called the sum-of-products canonical Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 39form, Methods to obtain PDNF of a given formula (@. By Truth table: () Construct a truth table of the given formula, (ii) For every truth value 7’in the truth table of the given formula, select the minterm which also has the value T for the same combination of the truth values of P and 0. (ii) The disjunction of these minterms will then be equivalent to the given formula, Example: Obtain the PDNF of P — 0. Solution: From the truth table of P—+ Q PB PQ | Minterm ° tit| 1 | Pag F T F | pA-g rir] PAQ PA-Q Fle| fo The PDNF of P + Q is(PA Q)V (~-PA Q)V (-PA ~Q). + P+ 0 (PAQ)V CPAQ)V CPA -Q), Example: Obtain the PDNF for (PA Q) V (>PAR)V (QAR). Solution: P [QR [Minterm PAg | -PAR [QAR |PAQVCPARVOAR) PAQAR T F T Tt | T|F\PAQA-R T Ff IT v |F| T\pa-gar F Fr fF F t [r[F \pa-ga-r F FF IF F | t|T|-Pagar F Tt |r IT “PAQA-R F |Tt|F F FoF IF F |F | T|-pa-gar F vi iv F [F[Fl-pa-oa-r | F F iF IF The PDNF of (PA Q) V (“PA R)V (QAR) is (PAQAR)V (PAQA-R)V PAQAR)V (PA QAR), |Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 40(b). Without constructing the truth table: In order to obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of a given formula is con-structed as follows: () First replace —», by their equivalent formula containing only A, Vand @) Next, negations are applied to the variables by De Morgan‘s laws followed by the application of distributive laws. @) Any elementarily product which is a contradiction is dropped. Minterms are obtained in the disjunctions by introducing the missing factors. Identical minterms appearing in the disjunctions are deleted, Example: Obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of (a) ~PVQ; (5) (PAQ) V (PAR) V (QAR). Sotution: @ PV QO @(-PAT)V(QAT) [x AAT A] CPA (QV -Q)) V(QA(PV —P)[e PV “P&T ] @C-PAQ)VCPA-OV@AP)VQA-P) [= PA(OV RB) (PAQ)V (PAR) = (CPA Q)V CP A-O)V PAQ)[* PVP PJ(6)(PAQ)V CPAR)V (QAR) @(PAQAT)V OPARAT)V QARAT) (PA QA(RV ~R)V (HPA RA (QV -O) V(QARA(PV -P)) (PA QAR)V (PAQA-R)V (-PARA Q\-PARA ~0) V@ARAP)VQARA-P) (PA QAR)V (PAQA-R)V OPAQAR)V (“PA -QAR) PV(PAQ)>P PV(CPAQ) > PVO Solution: We write the principal disjunctive normal form of cach formula and com-pare these normal forms. @PVPAQ)OPAT)VPAQ) [»PAQ <> P] -(PA(QV ~Q)) V(PAQ) [vy PVP =T] =(PAQ)V (PA-O)) V (PAO) [by distributive laws] -(PAQ)V(PA-Q)[+ PVP <=Pwhich is the required PDNF. <=> PAT -PA(QV~Q) -(PAQ)V(P A-Q) which is the required PDNE Hence, PV (PA Q) >P. ‘Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology Now a() PV OP AQ) & (PAT)V (“PAQ) (PAV -O)VCPAQ) (P AQ) V (PA-Q) V (-PAQ) which is the required PDNF Now, PVQS(PAT)V(QAT) @(PA (QV -Q) V(QA(PV -P)) (PA QV (PA-O)V(QAP)V(QA-P) (P AQ) V (PA~Q)V (-P AQ) which is the required PDNF Hence, PV(“>PAQ) > PVO. Example: Obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of Po (P>OQ)ACOV >P)). Solution; Using P > Q € “PV Q and De Morgan's law, we obtain (PQ) A-COV-P) = -P V(CPV O)A(AP)) - PV (CPAQAP)V(QAQAP)) & PV FV(PAQ) --PV(PAQ) -CPAT)VPAQ) -CPAQV-Q)V(PAQ) -CPAQV COPAO)V(PAQ) Hence (P AQ) V (“PA Q) V (-P AQ) is the required PDNF. Principal Conjunetive Normal Form The dual of a minterm is called 2 Maxterm. For a given number of variables, the maxterm consists of disjunctions in which each variable or its negation, but not both, appears only once. Each of the maxterm has the truth value F for exactly one combination of the truth values of the variables. Now we define the principal conjunctive normal form. (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology a2For a given formula, an equivalent formula consisting of conjunctions of the max-terms only is known as its principle conjunctive normal form. This normal form is also called the product-of-sums canonical form. The method for obtaining the PCNF for a given formula is similar to the one described previously for PDNF. Example; Obtain the prinpal conjunctive normal form ofthe formula CPSR)AQHP) Solution: CP R)A(QP) SCP) RIATO > PAP OL SPV RALCOVP)ACPY O)) SPV RV F)ALCOV PV F)ACPV OV F)] STP VR) V (QA “OVA [OV PY V (RA MRA [OPV O)V (RA OR) (PV RV Q)A(PV RV “O)A(PV “OV R)A(PV “OV R) A(CPV OV R)A(PV OV -R) PV OVR)AWPV -OVR)A(PV “OV -RACPVOVRA (CPV QV=R) which is required principal conjunctive normal form. Note: If the principal disjunctive (conjunctive) normal form of a given formula containing 7 variables is known, then the principal disjunctive (conjunctive) normal form of “A will consist of the disjunction (conjunction) of the remaining minterms (maxterms) which do not appear in the principal disjunctive (conjunctive) normal form of 4, From A @ ——4 one can obtain bxprincipal conjunctive (disjunctive) normal form of A by repeated applications of De Morgan's laws to the principal disjunctive (conjunctive) normal form of ~A. Example: Find the PDNF form PCNF of §: PV (~P - (QV (~O >). Solution: PV OP (QV OR) SPV OCP)V OV -CO)VR) PV (PV OV(OVR)) PV (PVOVR) @PVOVR which is the PCNF. Now PCNF of »S is the conjunction of remaining maxterms, so PONE ofS: (PV OV -R)A(PV ~OV R)A(PV-OV ~R) ACPV OV R) APY OV -R)ACPV “OV RAP V--Q VR) Hence the PDNF ofS is (PCNF of “S) : “PA “OA R)V (-PAQA-R)V(-PAQAR)V. (PA-QA-R)V (PA-QAR)V (PAQA-R)V (PAQAR) Theory of Inference for Statement Calculus (Geethanjali College of Engineering and ‘TechnologyDefinition: The main aim of logic is to provide rules of inference to infer a conclusion from certain premises. The theory associated with rules of inference is, known as inference theory Definition: If a conclusion is derived from a set of premises by using the accepted rules of reasoning, then such a process of derivation is called a deduction or a formal proof and the argument is called a valid argument or conclusion is called a valid conclusion. Note: Premises means set of assumptions, axioms, and hypothesis. Definition: Let 4 and B be two statement formulas. We say that ‘B logically follows from A’ or °B is a valid conclusion (consequence) of the premise A’ iff A —> B isa tautology, that is A= B. We say that from a set of premises (HI, H2, +++, Hm}, a conclusion C follows logically iff M1 A 12... A Hm => C ‘Note: To determine whether the conclusion logically follows from the given premises, we use the following methods [ Truth table method [ Without constructing truth table method. Validity Using Truth Tables Given a set of premises and a conclusion, it is possible to determine whether the conclusion logically follows from the given premises by constructing truth tables as follows. Let Pi, P+ ++, Py be all the atomic variables appearing in the premises Hs, Hz, ++, Hm and in the conclusion C. If all possible combinations of truth values are assigned to Pi, Pa, «++, Pyand if the truth values of fh, He, ... Hm and C are entered in a table. We look for the rows in which all Hi, Ho, «+, Hm have the value T. If, for every such row, € also has the value T, then (1) holds, That is, the conclusion follows logically Altematively, we look for the rows on which C has the value F. If, in every such row, at least one of the values of Hs, Ha, Hn is F, then (1) also holds. We call such a method a ‘truth table technique’ for the determination of the validity of a conclusion. Example: Determine whether the conclusion C follows logically from the premises Hyand Hh, @Hi:P>O Ha: PC: @)H:P>O Hh: PC:0 ()H:P+9 Hz: ~(PAQ)C:-P (ou: ~P My: PQC:~(PAQ) (mrso— moc:P Solution: We first construct the appropriate truth table, as shown in table. (Geethanjali College of Engineering and TechnologyP lelpso |e |wao po T [tir Ir fF T 1 |e le eft l F itr Ir ir Flr lr fr Ir (a) We observe that the first row is the only row in which both the premises have the value T. The conclusion also has the value Tin that row. Hence it is valid, In (b) the third and fourth rows, the conclusion Q is true only in the third row, but not in the fourth, and hence the conclusion is not valid, Similarly, we can show that the conclusions are valid in (c) and (d) but not in (¢). Rules of Inference The following are two important rules of inferences, Rule P: A premise may be introduced at any point in the derivation. Rule T: A formula S may be introduced in a derivation if S is tautologically implied by one or more of the preceding formulas in the derivation. Implication Formulas kh :PAQ=>P (simplification) bh :PAQ>0 bh: P=PVQ ik :Q=>PVO bh s-PsPo0 bk :Q9P50 hh: (PQ) =P B:-P +0) 9-0 b : P.Q>PAQ Iw: -P, PVQ>Q (disjunctive syllogism) InsP, P2039 In 0, P>O>-P Is. P>0,Q>R> POR lis: PVO, P+R,O>R>R (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 45Example: Demonstrate that 2 is a valid inference from the premises P+ 0,0 Rand P . Solution: ay @ Q @ 2B) a @ (2,4) 6) Hence the result PsQ — RuleP P Rule ° Rule O+R — Rule R Rule P, T, (1), 2), and P T, (3), (4), and fis Example: Show that RVS follows logically from the premises C VD, (CVD) ~H, ~H >A ‘B), and (A AB) Solution: ay a (1,2 (ay 24) (5) 11.2,4,6) (RV S) ay (CV D) > -H Rule P Q) -H- AB) Rule P GB) (CVD) >UA-B) Rule T, (1), (2), and lis @ (AA>B) > (RV) Rule P © (€vd-+Rvs Rule T, (3), 4), and fs © cvD Rule P RVs Rule T, (5), (6), and Hence the result. Example: Show that 5 VR is tautologically implied by (P VO)A(P —» RVA(Q — 5), Solution: a a) ay Q) By GB) {3} @) 13 6) {6} © 113.6 (1.3,64 (@) Hence the result PvO -P>@ Qos PS “SP POR “SOR SVR Rule P Rule T, ()P-> Q@>-PVQ Rule P Rule T, (2), (3), and is Rule T, (4), P +9 <> -Q—> P Rule P Rule T, (5), (6), and fis Rule T, (7) and P+ 0 —P- vo Example: Show that RA (P V Q) isa valid conclusion from the premises P VO, (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 46OR, P > M, and -M. Solution: mw @ PoM Rule P 2 Q —™ Rule P {1,2} B) P Rule T, (1), (2), and hz PVO ia} @ Rule P. (124) (5) oO Rule T, (3), (4), and ho (6) (6) QR Rule P 11.2.4,6) (7) R Rule T, (5), (6), and Jur (1, 2, 4, 6} (8) RA(PVQ) Rule T, (4), (7) and Jo Hence the result, Example: Show I: -Q, PQ -P Solution: mW) P=@ Rule P MQ -Q>-P Rule T, (1), and P+ 9 @-9 > Pp 8G) ° Rule P {13} a Pe Rule T, (2), (3), and fu Hence the result Example: Test the validity of the following argument: “Ifyou work hard, you will pass the exam, You did not pass. Therefore, you did noi work hard’ Example: Test the validity of the following statements: “If Sachin hits a century, then he gets a free ear. Sachin does not get a free car. Therefore, Sachin has not hit a century’, Rules of Conditional Proof or Deduction Theorem We shall now introduce a third inference rule, known as CP or rule of conditional proof Rule CP: If'we can derive S from R and a set of premises, then we can derive R > S from the set of premises alone. Rule CP is not new for our purpose her because it follows from the equivalence PAR >S@P>(R>S) Let P denote the conjunction of the set of premises and let R be any formula, The above equivalence states that if R is included as an additional premise and S is derived from P (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 47AR, then R + S can be derived from the premises P alone. Rule CP is also called the deduction theorem and is generally used if the conclusion of the form R — 5, In such cases, R is taken as an additional premise and S is derived from the given premises and R Example: Show that R P>(Q>S),-RV P, and 0. » Scan be derived from the premises Solution: Instead of deriving R — S, we shall include R as an additional premise and show S first ay o7RVP 2) QR {1,2} @G) P “a @ P+@-5 24 6) eas (5) © 2 1.246 = @ Ss 24.6) @) RS Rule P Rule P (assumed premise) Rule T, (1), (2), and io Rule P Rule T, (3), (4), and fi Rule P Rule T, (5), (6), and iy Rule CP Example: Show that P — § can be derived from the premises “PV Q, ~@ V R, and Rule P Rule P (assumed premise) Rule T, (1), (2), and fo Rule P Rule T, (3), (4), and fo Rule P Rule T, (5), (6), and fy RoS. Solution: We include P as an additional premise and derive S. ay w7P VO a Q) P fp eB) @ ‘4 @ -over 24 OR (6) @ Ros 1.246) 7) 11.246) (8) PS Rule CP Example: “If there was a ball game, then traveling was difficult. If they arrived on time, then traveling was not difficult. They arrived on time. Therefore, there was no ball game’, Show that these statements constitute a valid argument, Solution: Let us indicate the statements as follows: P There was a ball g Traveling was dif R: They arrived on time, Hence, the given premises are P —+ Q, R—+ ~Q, and R. The conclusion is -P ay ()k>-9 (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology Rule P 482) @R Rule P na @)-0 Rule T, (1), (2), and A ia @P>QO Rule P a (5) "QP Rule T, (4), and P—» 9 2-9 P 12,4) (6) -P Rule T, (3), (5), and iy Example: By using the method of derivation, show that following statements constitute a valid argument: ‘If A works hard, then either B or C will enjoy. If B enjoys, then 4 will not work hard. If D enjoys, then C will not, Therefore, if A works hard, D will not enjoy’ Solution: Let us indicate statements as follows: Given premises are P+ (QVR), Q > ~P, and S—+ “R. The conclusion is P » >S, We include P as an additional premise and derive ~S. a ae Rule P (additional premise) a @P— (QVR) Rule P 11.2} GOQVR Rule T, (1), 2), and fi Rule T, (1), 2), and Jv Rule T, (3) and P—» 9 PVO 1.2) QR f.2) GRO Rule T, (4), and P+ Q 2-9 P (6) 6 o--P Rule P 11.2.6) 0) 7RomP Rule T, (5), (6), and fs 11.2.6) @) PaR Rule T, (7)and P+ 9 -Q—# iy 9) SOR Rule P 9) (10) R-5 Rule T, (9) and P+ 9 @ -Q > P {12,693 (11) P+ oS Rule T, (8), (10) and is 11,2, 6,9) (12) 8 Rule, (1), (11) and Example: Determine the validity of the following arguments using propositional logic: “Smoking is healthy. If smoking is healthy, then cigarettes are prescribed by physicians” Therefore, cigarettes are prescribed by physiciansl. Solution: Let us indicate the statements as follows: P: Smoking is healthy. Q: Cigarettes are prescribed by physicians. Hence, the given premises are P, P—> Q. The conclusion is Q. (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 49ay a Poo Rule P 2 @) P Rule P f1, 2} GB) Q Hence, the given statements constitute a valid argument. Consistency of Premises A set of formulas Hj, Hz, *-, Hy is said to be consistent if their conjunction hhas the truth value 7 for some assignment of the truth values (o the atomic Variables appearing in Hi, Ho, +++, Hy: If, for every assignment of the truth values to the atomic variables, at least one of the formulas ffi, Hz," , Hm is false, so that their conjunction is identically false, then the formulas Hi, Ha, “+, Hy are called inconsistent, Alternatively, a set of formulas /, Hs, ---, His inconsistent if their conjunction implies a contradiction, that is, IAILA-**A Hn RA-R where & is any formula Example: Show that the following premises are inconsistent (1). IfJack misses many classes through illness, then he fails high school. (2). IfJack fails high school, then he is uneducated. (3). IfJack reads a lot of books, then he is not uneducated. (4), Jack misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books. Solution: Let us indicate the statements as follows: E: Jack misses many classes through illness. S: Jack fails high school. A: Jack reads a lot of books. Ii: Jack is uneducated. The premises are E+ S,$— H,A— Hand EAA ay () Es Rule P 2} Q) Sou Rule P 11,2 @ Eon Rule T, (1), (2), and fis ‘ay () ASH Rule P ‘4 () Ho-4 Rule T, (4), and P+ 9-9 > P #12, 4) (6) E>-A Rule T, (3), (5), and fis 1.24) ) -Ev—~4 Rule T, (6) and P > 9 —PV 11.2.4) 8) EAA) Rule T, (7), and (PA Q) @-P VO 0} 0) EAA Rule P 11,2,4,9} (10) “EAA)AEAA) Rule, (8),(9) and Jo Thus, the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is inconsistent. Example: Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent: IIf the contract is valid, (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 50then John is liable for penalty. If John is liable for penalty, he will go bankrupt. If the bank will loan him money, he will not go bankrupt. As a matter of fact, the contract is valid, and the bank will loan him money.l Solution: Let us indicate the statements as follows: V: The contract is valid. L: John is liable for penalty. ‘M: Bank will loan him money. B: John will go bankrupt. a @) Vou Rule P 2 QLoB Rule P A @ Vo8 Rule T, (1), (2), and Tis a 4) M>-B Rule P Rule T, (4), and P—> Q <> -Q— -P ay (5) M+ >M (1,2, 4) (6) VooM Rule T, (3), (5), and is 1.24) @) -VV-M Rule T, (6) and P+ 0 “PV Q 1.2.4 8) WAM Rule T, (7), and -(P AQ) -P-V-O (9 () VAM Rule P 11,2,4,9} (10) (VAM) A (AM) Rule T, (8), (9) and Thus, the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is inconsistent. Indirect Method of Proof ‘The method of using the rule of conditional proof and the notion of an inconsistent set of premises is called the indirect method of proof or proof by contradiction. In order to show that a conclusion C follows logically from the premises FH, Hy, *~ Hm, we assume that C is false and consider >C as an additional premise. If the new set of premises is inconsistent, so that they imply a contradiction Therefore, the assump-tion that ~C is true does not hold. Hence, C is true whenever Hy, Ha, °-~, Hm are true. Thus, C follows logically from the premises Hi, Hs, --~, Hm. Example: Show that ~(P A Q) follows from “PA ~@. Solution: We introduce ~(P AQ) as additional premise and show that this additional premise leads to a contradiction, a @ PA) Rule P (assumed) (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology slap 2 PAG ay BP a @ PAO a (5) P 4) ©) PAP Hence, our assumption is wrong. Thus, ~(P A Q) follows from “P A ~Q. Rule T, (1), and --P P Rule T, (2), and f, Rule P Rule T, (4), and ft Rule T, (3), (5), and o Example; Using the indirect method of proof, show that P+0,Q>R, (PAR), PVR>R. Solution: We include ~R as an additional premise. Then we show that this, leads to a contradiction. fy (Po a QO-R (2p GPR “ay @>R (124 (5) -P (6) (PVR 1.246 OR #1, 2,4, 6 (8)RA-R Hence, our assumption is wrong, Rule P Rule P Rule T, (1), (2), and is Rule P (assumed) Rule T, (4), and hy Rule P Rule T, (5), (6) and ho Rule T, (4), (7), and fo Example: Show that the following set of premises are inconsistent, using proof by contradiction P+ (QVR),Q—>-P,S—>-R, P= PS. Solution: We include “(P + ~S) as an additional premise. Then we show that this leads to a contradiction, Po ye a () P+(@VR) 2 QP 1.2% @) OVR a @ PAS 1.24) () {6} © S>-R 11,.2.4,6) (1) -R (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology (OPV 7S) => PAS. Rule P Rule P Rule T, (1), (2), and Modus Ponens Rule P (assumed) Rule T, (4), and PA Q =P Rule P Rule T, (5), (6) and Modus Ponens 211.2.4,6 @) O Rule T, (3), (7), and PA Q, -Q > P iF (0) O--P Rule P 11,2,4,6) (10) -P Rule T, (8), (9),and PAQ, -O=>P 11,.2.4,6) (I) PA-P Rule T, (2), (10), and P,. 9 => PAQ 11,.2,4,6) (12) F Rule T, (11), and PA-P & F Hence, it is proved that the given premises are inconsistent. The Predicate Calculus Predicate A part of a declarative sentence describing the properties of an object is called a predicate. The logic based upon the analysis of predicate in any statement is called predicate logic. Consider two statements: John is a bachelor Smith is a bachelor. In each statement, ‘is a bachelor’ is a predicate. Both John and Smith have the same property of being a bachelor. In the statement logic, we require two different symbols to express them and these symbols do not reveal the common property of these statements, In predicate calculus these statements can be replaced by a single statement lr is a bachelorl. A predicate is symbolized by a capital letters which is followed by the list of variables. The list of variables is enclosed in parenthesis. If P stands for the predicate lis a bachelori, then P (x) stands for ‘x is a bachelor’, where x is a predicate variable. ‘The domain for P (x): isa bachelor, can be taken as the set of all human names. Note that P (x) is not a statement, but just an expression. Once a value is assigned to x, P (x) becomes a statement and has the truth value. If.x is Ram, then P (x) is a statement and its truth value is true Quantifiers Quantifiers: Quantifiers are words that are refer to quantities such as ‘some‘or ‘all*. Universal Quantifier: The phrase ‘for all‘(denoted by W) is called the universal quantifier. For example, consider thesentence [All humanbeings are mortall, Let P (x) denote ‘x is a mortal" Then, the above sentence can be written as (Vx ES)P (x) or WxP (x) where $ denote the set of all human beings. Vx represents cach of the following phrases, since they have essentially the same for all x For every x, For each x Existential Quantifier: The phrase ‘there exists’ (denoted by 3) is called the existential quantifier. For example, consider the sentence “There exists x such that x? = This sentence can be written as (Geethanjali College of Engineering and TechnologyGr € RP (or (AxP (2), where P (x) :x°=5. x represents each ofthe following phrases There exists an x Thereisax For somex There is atleast one x Example: Write the following statements in symbolic form: (, Something is ood (ii). Everything is good (iii). Nothing is good (iv). Something is not good. tatement (i) means “There is atleast one.x such that, x is good!’ Statement (ii) means ‘Forall x, x is good Statement (iii) means, ‘Forall x, xis not good’ Statement (iv) means, “There is atleast one x such that, x is not good’ Thus, if G(x) : x is good, then statement (i) can be denoted by (3x}G(x) statement (ii) can be denoted by (Wx)G(x) statement (iii) can be denoted by (Vx)-G(x) statement (iv) can be denoted by (3x)-G(x). Example: Let K(x) : x is a man L(x) :x is mortal M(x) : is an integer N(x) :x either positive or negative Solutior Express the following using quantifiers: 1. All men are mortal 2. Any integer is either positive or negative. Solution: (a) The given statement can be written as, forall x, ifx isa man, then x is mortal and this can be expressed as (x)(K(x) > L(x). (b) The given statement can be written as for all x, if.x is an integer, then x is either positive or negative and this can be expressed as (x)(M(x) —+ Nx). Free and Bound Variables Given a formula containing a part of the form (x)P (x) or (3x)P (x), such a part is, called an x-bound part of the formula. Any occurrence of x in an x-bound part of the formula is called a bound occurrence of x, while any occurrence of x or of any variable that is not a bound occurrence is called a free occurrence. The smallest formula immediately following (Vx) or (3x) is called the scope of the quantifier. Consider the following formulas: 1. @P Oy) 2. MP) > OG) 3. (MP) > GYRO») 4. CMP (x) > RE) V REX) > OC) 5. NP @) A OG) 6. AP @) A QO». In(1), PG y) is the scope of the quantifier, and occurrence of x is bound (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology s4occurrence, while the occurrence of y is free occurrence. In QQ), the scope of the universal quantifier is P (x) —+ Q(x), and all concrescences of x are bound. In (3), the scope of (x) is P (x) —+ (Ay)R(, »), while the scope of (By) is R(x, y). All occurrences of both x and y are bound occurrences, In (4), the scope of the first quantifier is P (x) —> R(x) and the scope of the second is R(x) —> Q(x). All occurrences of x are bound occurrences, In (5), the scope (3x) is P(x) A QC. In (6), the scope of (3x) is P (x) and the last of occurrence of x in Q(x) is free. ‘Negations of Quantified Statements @-@IP (&) > (AX)~P @) (i) SDP @) GOP @). Example: Let P (x) denote the statement bx is a professional athletel and let (x) denote the statement Ix plays soccerl. The domain is the set of all people: (@). Write each of the following proposition in English, 1. PG) > OG) 2. (Pa) A Oe) 3. (MP (&®) V OG) (0). Write the negation of each of the above propositions, both in symbols and in words. Solution: (). @. For all, if is an professional athlete then x plays soccer, “All professional athletes plays soccer’ ot “Every professional athlete plays soccer’. (i). There exists an. such that x is a professional athlete and x plays soccer. ‘Some professional athletes play soccer’ (ii) For all x, x is a professional athlete or x plays soccer. “Every person is either professional athlete or plays soccer’ (0). (@.1n symbol: We know that CMP (2X) > OO) > BNP () > OOD) & (BA O(P &) V BOO) - GNP @) A-O@) ‘There exists an.x such that, x is a professional athlete and x does not play In words: “Some professional athletes do not play soccer’ Gi). SBP 0) A QOD) & COP &) V -E) In words: ‘Every people is neither a professional athlete nor plays soccer’ or All people either not a professional athlete or do not play soccer'. Gil). “GP ©) V OE) GNOP (x) A OO). In words: ‘Some people are not professional athlete or do not play soccer’. (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 55Inference Theory of the Predicate Calculus To understand the inference theory of predicate calculus, itis important to be familiar with the following rules: Rule US: Universal specification or instantiation (0)A(x) => AQ) From (x)4(3), one ean conclude AG) :xistential specification (4c) > 40) Rule ES: From (3x)4(x), one ean conclude AQ). Rule EG: Existential generalization AG) > G40) From A(x), one can conclude (3y)AQ). Rule UG: Universal generalization AG) (AW) From A(x), one can conclude (y)A(). Equivalence formulas: Ex: (301A) V BO)] (ANA) V (NBO) Esx: COLAC) A BOY] & (40) A BO), S@A@) & &)~AO) Ese @)A() > Ax)-AC®) Eas: (x)(A V B(x)) & AV (x)B(X) Esq: (Ax)(A A B(x) & A A (Ax)B(x) Exy: (A(x) —> B & (ACO) > BY Fu: GOA) >» B-& (NAW) > B) E39: A — (x)B(x) © (x)(A > B(x) Eq: A — (Ax)B(x) (3x4 > BG) Ea: (AxX)(AG) > BOD) (A) > (ANBO) Ex: NAG) + (BO) (HAG) BCD). Example: Verify the validity of the following arguments: “All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal’ Show that (2)[H(x) + Mix)] A H(s) > Ms) Solution: Let us represent the statements as follows (x): isa man M(x) :x is a mortal Socrates Thus, we have to show that (x)[J(x) + M(x)] A His) => M(s). (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 56‘ap (GTA) > MO] Ap (2) His) > Mis) a 8) Ms) 11, 3} 4) Mos) Rule P Rule US, (I) Rule P Rule T, (2), (3), and i Example: Establish the validity of the following argument:’All integers are rational numbers. Some integers are powers of 2, Therefore, some rational numbers are powers of?” Solution: Let P (x) :x isan integer R(x): xis rational number S(x) :xis a power of2 Hence, the given statements becomes IP @)— RO), GHP @)A Se) > GV{RE) A Se) Solution: (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 31a () ANP MASH) a 2) PO)AS) Aap GB) PO) ap (4) SO) 65} S) GPG) RO) sh 6) PO) ROD (1.5) (DRO) A, 5} (8) RO) A SO) {1 5} 9) AIRE) A Se) Hence, the given statement is valid, Example: Show that (x)(P (x) > Q(2)) A (OG) —> ROD) => (IP) > ROD). Solution: a () EP @) + B60) a QP) 00) 8) CHOW) + RE) 8) (4) 20) > 20) {1,3} () PQ) > RO) (13) OEP &) > RO) Rule P Rule US, (1) Rule P Rule US, (3) Rule T, (2), (4), and Js Rule UG, (5) Example: Show that (3x)M(x) follows logically from the premises (OKC) > MQ) and ANH, Solution: a @@0He) a 2) HO) B @) EI) Me) 8) @ HQ) > Moy fl, 3} (5) My) {1.37 @@)Me) Hence, the result. Rule P Rule BS, (1) Rule P Rule US, (3) Rule T, (2), (4), and fi Rule BG, (5) Example: Show that (2? («) A Q@)] > oP (o) A Gngw). Solution: ae] () Ax? (&) A QO) a PQ) A Oo) a @Po) ay (4)A0P &) (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology Rule P Rule BS, (1) Rule T, (2), and A, Rule EG, 3)a 620) Rule T, (2), and /e a now Rule EG, (5) ay ENP a) A GN~) Rule T, (4), (5) and fy Hence, the result. Note: Is the converse true? ay MnP @ A Gow Rule P ay @ avr a Rule T, (1) and / a @ ayaa) Rule T, (1), and “ OPO) Rule BS, (2) wy 6) oO) Rule ES, (3) Here in step (4), y is fixed, and it is not possible to use that variable again in step (5). Hence, the converse is not true. Example: Show that from (3x)[F° (x) AS(x)] —» Q[M() ~» HQ] and (y\[MO) A “1” ()] the conclusion (x)[F (x) ~» ~S(3)] follows. MG) @ILMO) A “69 Rule P @ @ IM@A-We] Rule ES, (1) MB) “IM +7) AFG HMO) > 09] AP 8) “OIIMO) > WON] Rule T, (4), and “(x)4(x) € x)-A@) A © ANIFEHASE)] > OME) —> WOIRuleP 6) 0) ~@N[FQ) A SCO] 11,6) (8) (LF @)AS)] 11, 6} (9) >[F @) A Sz)] {1.6} (10) -F@V-se) f,6) (1) F@>-Se) Rule T, (2), and WP > Q) > PA-Q Rule EG, (3) Rule T, (5), (6) and Jz Rule T, (7), and “@)A(x) @x)-AC) Rule US, (8) Rule T, (9), and De Morgans laws Rule T, (10), and P> 9 “PVQ {1,6 (12) @F@) > -Se) Rule UG, (11) Hence, the result Example: Show that (®XP (x) V Ox) > (IP @) V ANGE) (May. 2012) Solution: We shall use the indirect method of proof by assuming —((x)P ()V(3x)Q(0) as an additional premise ag (1) OP) V (N00) Rule P (assumed) A} Q) “GP @) A-ANE) Rule T, (1) “(PV 9) & -PA-Q (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 9mG) -@Pe Rule T, (2), and h a @) @x-P@ Rule T, (3), and ~@)AG) € (Bx)-Ale) a () -@nge) Rule T, (2), and /> (yp (6) (Ol) Rule T, (5), and “(x)A(x) € (4) Mp) PO) Rule ES, (5), (6) and fiz fl} 8) 20) Rule US, (6) ay 9) ~PQ)A >O0) Rule T, (7), (8)and /s M1) ~~) V GO) Rule T, (9), and “(P VQ) @-P Ao AY) (Pe VO) Rule P fly (12) (P.O) V 0) Rule US {1.1 3) (20) V QO) A PO) V QO) Rule T, (10), (11), and fe (iy (4) F Rule T, and (13) which is a contradiction Hence, the statement is valid. Example: Using predicate logic, prove the validity of the following argument: [Every husband argues with his wife, x is a husband, Therefore, x argues with his wife! Solution: Let P(x):x isa husband, Q(x):x argues with his wife. Thus, we have to show that (x)[P (2) + O(x)] A P&) 390). fy) @PO) > Oe) Rule P ft 2) PO) 90) Rule US, (1) 1 @) Po) Rule P 1 @) a) Rule T, Q), 3), and fy Example: Prove using rules of inference Duke is a Labrador retriever. All Labrador retriever like to swim, Therefore Duke likes to swim. Solution: We denote L(x): x isa Labrador retriever. S(x): x likes to swim, d: Duke. We need to show that L(d) A (x)(L(x) > S(x)) > S(d). M () @L@)> Se) Rule P (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 60MQ) Ld Say Rule US, (1) 2 GB) Ld) Rule P 1,23 (4) Sta) Rule T, (2), (3), and fi Set: A set is collection of well defined objects. Inthe above definition the words set and collections for all practical purposes are Synonymous. We have really used the word set to define itself. Each of the objects in the set is called a member of an element of the set, The objects themselves can be almost anything. Books, cities, numbers, animals, flowers, etc. Elements ofa set are usually denoted by lower-case letters, while sets are denoted by capital letters of English language. The symbol € indicates the membership in a set. Ifa is an element of the set AI, then we write a € A. The symbol € is read —is a member of “or —is an element of. The symbol € isused 9 indicate that an object is not in the given set, The symbole is read —is not a member of or is not an element of Ifxis not an element of the set 4 then we write x€ 4 Subset: ‘A set 4 isa subset of the set B if and only if every element of A is also an element of B. Wealso say that is contained in B, and use the notation A © B. Proper Subset: A set d is called proper subset of the set B. If (i) 4 is subset of B and (ii) B is not a subset A ic. A is said to be a proper subset of B if every element of 4 belongs to the set B, but there is atl east one element of B, which is not in 4. If A is a proper subset of B, then we denote it by 4 cB. Super set: If is subset of B, then B is called a superset of A, Null set: The set with no elements is called an empty set or null set. A Null set is designated by the symbol ®. The null set is a subset of every set, Le., If is any set then DA Universal set: In many discussions all the sets are considered to be subsets of one particular set. This set is called the universal set for that discussion. The Universal set is often designated by the script letter U. Universal set is not unique and it may change from one discussion to another. Power set: The set ofall subsets ofa set 4 is called the power set of A. ‘The power set of 4 is denoted by P (4). If 4 has n elements in it, then P (A) has 2" elements: Disjoint sets: Two sets are said to be disjoint if they have no element in common. (Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology 6