EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

 Definition and Components:

 Combination of hardware and software designed for specific functions.
 Hardware types include electronic, electrical, or electro-mechanical elements.
 Based on microcontrollers, microprocessors, or system on chips (SoC) with varying configurations of
CPU, RAM, ROM, and peripherals.
 Functionality:
 Feedback-oriented systems with specific tasks.
 Comprised of user interfaces, analog/digital inputs, software, and outputs.
 Includes sensor inputs, mechanical components, actuators, and software.
 Input and Output:
 Data input manually or automatically (via sensors).
 Inputs can be analog (e.g., oxygen levels) or digital (e.g., fuel pressure).
 Outputs control relevant components based on input data.
 Programmability and Upgrades:
 Devices can be either programmable or non-programmable.
 Programmable devices allow upgrades via computer connections or automatic updates through various
networks (Wi-Fi, satellite, cellular).

Remote Control and Optimization:

 Remote control possible through smartphones or computers.
 Engineers optimize designs for reduced size and cost due to dedicated functionality.
 Applications and Distinction:
 Wide-ranging applications from single microcontrollers (e.g., MP3 players) to complex systems (e.g.,
medical imaging).
 Computers are not classified as embedded systems due to their multifunctionality.

Various examples illustrating the use of embedded systems:

Motor Vehicles:

 Modern cars rely heavily on embedded systems to control various components such as engine management,
brakes, airbags, and more.

Set-top Box:

 Embedded systems enable functionalities like recording, playback, and signal decoding in set-top boxes.

Security Systems:

 Security devices like alarms utilize embedded systems to manage inputs from sensors, set and check security
codes, and trigger appropriate responses (e.g., flashing lights, sending alerts).

Lighting Systems:

 From office lighting systems to architectural displays, embedded systems regulate lighting based on factors like
occupancy, natural light brightness, and time of day.
 Vending Machines:

 Embedded systems in vending machines control functions like item dispensing, coin counting, temperature
regulation, and sales data reporting.

Washing Machines:

 Appliances like washing machines utilize embedded systems to control wash cycles, temperatures, and
operational functionalities based on user input.

These examples showcase how embedded systems play a crucial role in automating and regulating various
devices, enhancing their functionality, and often allowing remote control or monitoring.

INPUT DEVICES

 Barcode Scanning Process:

 Scanned by a red laser or LED.
 Reflected light read by sensors (photoelectric cells).
 Laser/LED creates a pattern, converted to digital data for computer understanding.
 Barcode represents digits with varying line thicknesses and patterns.
 Barcode Usage at Checkout:
 Barcode number looked up in stock database to identify items.
 Item details and price retrieved for checkout.
 Stock levels updated upon each scan, automated reordering based on stock levels.
 New stock arrival updates database.

Advantages of Barcode Usage (Management):

 Ease and speed in price changes.

 Better, up-to-date sales information.
 Reduced time and cost in pricing items.
 Automatic stock control and monitoring.

Advantages of Barcode Usage (Customers):

 Faster checkout, reduced errors in pricing.

 Itemized billing for customers.
 Cost savings possibilities.
 Improved tracking of sell-by dates for fresher products.

Barcodes in Libraries:

 Barcodes used in books and borrower's library cards.

 Automatic linkage between borrower and borrowed book.
 Facilitates automatic due date checking.

This system streamlines processes, enhances efficiency, and offers benefits to both management and customers
across various sectors utilizing barcode technology.
 Quick Response (QR) codes:

Description of QR Codes:

 Matrix of dark squares on a light background.

 Holds more information than conventional barcodes, accommodating up to 4296 characters or 7089 digits.
 Allows encoding of internet addresses within the code.
 Utilizes alignment squares for proper scanning orientation.

Uses of QR Codes:

 Advertising products, providing access to websites or contact information.

 Storing boarding passes electronically for travel convenience.

Scanning QR Codes:

 Using smartphones or tablets with QR apps:

 Point the device's camera at the QR code.
 The app processes the image and converts squares into readable data.
 Browser software on the device automatically interprets the data, redirects to websites or performs other
actions as encoded.

Advantages of QR Codes Over Traditional Barcodes:

 Higher information capacity.

 Built-in error-checking systems reduce errors.
 Readable using smartphone/tablet cameras, eliminating the need for specialized scanners.
 Easy transmission via text messages or images.
 Encryption capability for enhanced security.

Disadvantages of QR Codes:

 Vulnerability to malicious codes or attacks due to free QR code generation apps.

 Possibility of granting unauthorized access to phone data or downloading viruses through malicious QR codes.

New Developments - Frame QR Codes:

 Newer QR codes, called frame QR codes, allow inclusion of advertising logos or graphics within the code itself.
 Software for creating frame QR codes usually isn't free.

QR codes offer enhanced data capacity and ease of access but come with security risks due to potential
malicious usage. Despite this, advancements like frame QR codes are being adopted for their marketing
potential and additional graphic incorporation capabilities.

Digital Cameras

 Old vs. New Cameras

 Old cameras used film and were expensive to operate.
 New digital cameras connect to computers and offer easy photo deletion.
 Functionality of New Cameras
 An internal computer controls focus, flash, and image size.
 Capturing images involves light hitting tiny sensors.
 Photo Capture Process
 Light passes through the lens and hits sensors.
 These sensors convert light into digital images.
 Comparison to Phone Cameras
 Mobile phones are catching up but may have poorer lenses and less storage.

Keyboards

 Keyboard Operations
 Each key has a specific code.
 Pressing keys sends signals the computer understands.
 Challenges and Solutions
 Keyboards are relatively slow and prone to errors.
  Ergonomic keyboards offer better comfort for extended use.

Microphones

 Connection Methods
 Microphones connect via plug-ins or Bluetooth.
 Sound Recording Process
 Vibrations transform into electrical signals.
 These signals are converted into digital format for computers.

Optical Mouse

 Mechanism
 Rapidly captures numerous images.
 Utilizes red light to detect its position.
 Advantages of Optical Mouse
 No moving parts make it more reliable.
 Operates without needing a special surface.
 Wired vs. Wireless
 Wired offers constant signal and cost-effectiveness.
 Wireless grants more flexibility but requires batteries.

2D and 3D Scanners
2D Scanners
 Purpose: Convert paper documents into electronic format for computer storage.
 Operation Steps:
1. Preparation: Raise cover, place document on glass panel, close cover.
2. Illumination: Bright light (xenon lamp or LED) illuminates the document.
3. Scanning: Scan head moves across the document to capture the image.
4. Conversion Process:
 Mirrors direct the image to a lens which focuses it.
 Lens projects the focused image onto a Charge Couple Device (CCD).
 CCD converts light into an electric current, creating an electronic image.
5. Digitalization: Software converts electronic image to a digital format.
 Additional Functionality:
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software: Converts scanned text to editable text files.
 For images/photos: Output file formats like JPEG.
3D Scanners
 Objective: Create three-dimensional images of solid objects using x, y, z coordinates.
 Operation: Captures images at multiple points along x, y, z coordinates.
 Applications:
 Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Utilizes scanned images for design purposes.
 3D Printing: Scans sent to a 3D printer to replicate the object.
Application Examples
 2D Scanners at Airports (Passport Scanners)
 Usage: Reads passport pages through OCR technology.
 Processing: OCR software extracts text and matches images for verification.
 Image Formats: Scanned passport pages stored as digital images (JPEG).
 Face Recognition: Compares the passport photo with the passenger's face for authentication using key
facial attributes.
 Computed Tomographic (CT) Scanners (3D Scanning)
 Purpose: Generates a 3D image of solid objects.
 Technology: Uses tomography to create 'slices' of the object.
 Process:
 Utilizes X-rays, radio frequencies, or gamma imaging to produce 'slices'.
 Each 'slice' represents a thin layer of the 3D object, digitally stored in computer memory.

This technology has various applications, including industrial design, medical imaging, and security systems.
 Touch Screens

Types of Touch Screen Technologies

1. Capacitive Touch Screens
 Structure: Glass protective layer, transparent electrode layer, glass substrate.
 Operation:
 Interaction: Bare fingers or a special stylus change the electrostatic field, enabling the
microcontroller to calculate touch coordinates.
 Types:
 Surface Capacitive: Sensors at screen corners detect decrease in capacitance when touched.
 Projective Capacitive: X-Y matrix pattern creates 3D electrostatic field for touch detection,
allowing multi-touch.
 Advantages:
 Better image clarity, especially in sunlight.
 High scratch resistance and durability.
 Projective capacitive screens allow multi-touch functionalities.
 Disadvantages:
 Surface capacitive screens only work with bare fingers or a special stylus.
 Sensitive to electromagnetic radiation.
2. Infrared Touch Screens
 Structure: Glass screen with sensor array and infrared transmitters.
 Operation: Infrared radiation detected by sensors; touching the screen reduces infrared reaching the
sensors, calculating touch coordinates.
 Advantages:
 Multi-touch capabilities.
 Durable, unaffected by scratches or cracks.
 Disadvantages:
 Sensitive to water, moisture, and light interference.
 Potential for accidental activation if infrared beams are disturbed.
3. Resistive Touch Screens
 Structure: Two layers of electrically resistive material separated by air or inert gas.
 Interaction: Touch creates contact between layers, completing a circuit and generating a flow of
electricity. Microcontroller detects voltage change for touch location.
 Advantages:
 Resistant to dust and water.
 Compatible with bare fingers, stylus, and gloved hand.
 Disadvantages:
 Low touch sensitivity, sometimes requiring harder presses.
 Lack of multi-touch support.
 Reduced visibility in strong sunlight.
 Prone to scratches, especially on the polymer screen layer.

These technologies cater to various needs but vary in their sensitivity, durability, and functionality.