COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND PROGRAMMING

COMPUTER HARDWARE

BSCE 1A

Group 3 Members:

Abuid, Charles Aizhy A.

Almacin, Jannah Paulene B.

Dollero, Mica Joy P.

Gayo, Oliver Terrence A.

Laad, Ace P.

Montuya, Janelle

Pabico, Judah C.

Ruiz, Princess Alyza Angelika D.

Salazar, Myka Andrea A.

Ubaldo, Rham Ezekiel O.

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Course:​ BES 2-T – COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND PROGRAMMING​ ​
Subject Instructor: ​ Engr. Aries S. Rodriguez ​ ​ Program and Year: BSCE 1A​
Report Title: ​ Computer Hardware​ ​ ​

COMPUTER HARDWARE

REPORT OUTLINE:
I.​ Definition
II.​ Category of Hardware
a.​ Internal Hardware
b.​ External Hardware
III.​ Components of Hardware
a.​ Motherboard
b.​ CPU
c.​ RAM
d.​ Storage
e.​ PSU
f.​ GPU
g.​ Cooling Systems
h.​ Peripheral Devices
i.​ Networking
j.​ Sound Card

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 I.​ DEFINITION

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical pieces that, when assembled, constitute a
computer system. The significance of computer hardware cannot be understated. It serves as the
platform on which software and applications operate, enabling us to execute many types of tasks on
our computers.

II.​ CATEGORY OF HARDWARE

a.​ Internal Hardware- Internal hardware is the hardware inside the computer or is a device
that is installed within the computer. Internal hardware includes components such as
memory, a video card, or a CPU.
b.​ External Hardware- External hardware components are attached to the computer to add or
enhance functionality. It includes input devices such as keyboards, a mouse, and image
scanners; and output devices such as printers, speakers, and monitors.

III.​ COMPONENTS OF HARDWARE

a.​ MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer. It's the central hub
that connects all the computer's components, including the CPU, memory, storage devices,
graphics cards, and peripherals.

Importance of a Motherboard
1.​ Enables component interaction: Without it, components would be isolated and
unable to work together.
2.​ Forms the foundation of the system: It's the base upon which the entire computer
is built.
3.​ Determines system capabilities: It dictates CPU compatibility, memory type/speed,
and expansion options.

Functions of a Motherboard
1.​ Manages Data Flow
2.​ Conserves Resources
3.​ Optimizes Power Distribution
4.​ Drives Communication

Different types of a Motherboard

1.​ Standard-ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) - This is the most common size for
desktop motherboards.
Size: 305 × 244 mm
Features: Offers multiple expansion slots, ample RAM slots, and extensive
connectivity options.
Use Case: Ideal for gaming rigs and high-performance desktops
2.​ Micro-ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) - A smaller version of ATX.

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 Size: 244 × 244 mm
Features: Slightly fewer expansion slots compared to ATX but maintains
sufficient functionality for most users.
Use Case: Suitable for budget-friendly and space-constrained builds.
3.​ Mini-ITX (Information Technology Extended) - Much smaller than ATX and Micro-ATX
Size: 170 × 170 mm
Features: Compact design with limited expansion slots, typically one PCIe
slot, and fewer RAM slots.
Use Case: Perfect for small form factor PCs and home theater setups.
4.​ Nano-ITX (Information Technology Extended) - Even smaller type of motherboard.
Size: 120 × 120 mm
Features: Even more compact, with integrated components and limited
expansion capabilities.
Use Case: Designed for embedded systems, compact devices, and
specialized applications.

Components of a Motherboard
1.​ Mouse and keyboard connectors - These connectors are responsible for sending
instructions and receiving responses from the computer. There are two keyboard and
mouse connectors, the PS/2 and the USB.
2.​ Universal serial bus (USB) - The USB port is a significant part of a motherboard
that allows users to connect external peripheral devices such as printers, scanners,
and pen drives to the computer.
3.​ CPU socket - The central processing unit (CPU) is commonly referred to as the
computer’s brain. The CPU controls all the functions of a computer.
The CPU socket or slot on the motherboard is basically flat in shape. It has several
rows and columns of holes (pins) arranged in the square.
4.​ RAM Memory Slots - RAM slots connect the random access memory (RAM) to the
motherboard. RAM allows the computer to temporarily store files and programs that
are being accessed by the CPU.
Memory slots are long and located very close to each other on the motherboard.
5.​ Basic Input/Output (BIOS) System - The BIOS contains the firmware of the
motherboard. It consists of instructions about what to do when the computer is turned
on. It is responsible for initializing the hardware components and loading the
computer’s operating system.
6.​ Chipsets - The chipsets of a computer control how the computer hardware and
buses interact with the CPU and other components. Chipsets also determine the
amount of memory users can add to a motherboard and the type of connectors that
the motherboard can have.
a.​ Northbridge communicates with processor and memory using FSB (Front
Side Bus) , which is a set of signal pathways between the CPU and main
memory.
b.​ Southbridge is a single semiconductor chipset that is responsible for
controlling all onboard Input/Output functions of a computer such as USB,

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 BIOS (FireWire), PS/2, Parallel, Series, wireless LAN ports, IDE, audio, and
so on.
7.​ Cooling Fans - Cooling fans increase the airflow, which helps to remove heat from
the computer. Some elements, such as video adapter cards, have dedicated cooling
fans.
8.​ Adapter Cards and Expansion Slots - Adapter cards are integrated into the
motherboard to enhance a computer’s functionality. The expansion slots allow users
to install compatible adapter cards.
9.​ CMOS Chip and Battery - The CMOS battery is a small round battery found on the
motherboard of every computer. It provides power to the complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) chip. The CMOS chip stores BIOS information and computer
settings, even when powered down. The CMOS battery allows users to skip resetting
BIOS configurations, such as boot order, date, and time settings, each time they
power on their computer.
10.​Storage Devices - Storage drives store data permanently or retrieve data from a
media disk.
11.​Front Panel Connectors - Front panel connectors connect the light-emitting diode
(LED) lights on the front of the case to the hard drive, the power button, the reset
button, and the internal speaker for testing.
12.​Power Connector - The power connector provides an electric supply to the
computer to function as intended.

b.​ CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is referred to as the brain of every computer that
processes and executes instructions and has a direct impact on the computer’s efficiency
and speed.

The architecture of the CPU is commonly part of Von Neumann Architecture and was based
on the stored-program concept.

CPU was invented by Marcian Edward “Ted” Hoff at Intel in the 1970s along with his
visionary colleagues.

CPU Cores - pathways that are consists of billions of microscopic transistors that are
helpful in processing data

1.​ Efficiency Core - used to handle small tasks like background processes.Have a
lower clock speed and smaller caches but highly efficient at handling less demanding
tasks.
2.​ Performance Core - works on a wider set of instructions, larger caches, and higher
clock speed. They are optimized for speed and responsiveness.

●​ Simultaneous Multithreading - process of the CPU splitting it’s physical core into
virtual core also known as threads. This is done to increase performance and allow
each core to run two instruction streams at once.

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 ●​ Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle

1.​ Fetch - instructions from the main memory will be fetched by the CPU and
then stored in the Instruction Register (RI).
2.​ Decode - CPU interprets the fetched instruction that is in the form of binary
values to determine what action is required.
3.​ Execute - CPU performs the action specified by the instruction, whether be
arithmetic or logical operations, moving data between registers, accessing
memory, or interacting with iInput and output devices

c.​ RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

Random access memory (RAM) is the hardware in a computing device that provides
temporary storage for the operating system (OS), software programs and any other data in
current use so they're quickly available to the device's processor.

Importance of RAM
RAM plays a crucial role in the performance of a computer because it allows for fast access
to data. The more RAM a system has, the more efficiently it can run multiple programs at the
same time without slowing down.

Types of RAM
1.​ DRAM (Dynamic RAM) - Commonly used in personal computers and laptops; it
constantly refreshes data to retain information.
2.​ SRAM (Static RAM) - Faster and more expensive than DRAM; often used in cache
memory for processors.
3.​ DDR RAM (Double Data Rate RAM) - Modern computers use DDR versions (DDR3,
DDR4, and DDR5), with each new generation offering faster speeds and better
efficiency.

d.​ STORAGE
Storage is a hardware component or device that retains digital data for short-term or
long-term use.

How is Data Stored?

Binary Representation - All data is stored in binary format (0s and 1s). Each binary digit is
called a bit, and groups of bits from bytes, which represent characters, numbers, or
instructions. Common encoding schemes include ASCII and UTF-8, which map characters
to specific byte sequences, enabling computers to represent and process textual data.

Types of Hardware Storage

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 1.​ Primary storage - often called memory, serves as temporary storage for active data
processing. RAM (Random Access Memory) and cache memory are key examples.
Here's what you need to keep in mind:
a.​ Speed - Primary storage is exceptionally fast, enabling quick data access and
processing.
b.​ Volatility - Data is lost when power is turned off, making it unsuitable for
long-term storage.
c.​ Active Use - It's primarily used for data actively being processed by the CPU.
2.​ Secondary storage - provides permanent storage for data not actively in use,
encompassing HDDs, SSDs, and USB flash drives. Let's explore the characteristics
that define it:
a.​ Non-Volatile - Data persists even when the power is off, ensuring long-term
data retention.
b.​ Higher Capacity - Offers larger storage capacities compared to primary
storage, suitable for extensive files.
c.​ Slower Access - While slower than primary storage, it provides reliable data
access for everyday needs.
Secondary storage is the backbone of data preservation, ensuring your files are safe
and accessible when you need them.
3.​ Tertiary Storage - designed for long-term backup and archival purposes, utilizing
technologies like magnetic tapes and optical discs. Here are its defining features:
a.​ High Capacity - Capable of storing vast amounts of data, perfect for extensive
archives.
b.​ Slow Access - Access times are slower, optimized for infrequent data
retrieval.
c.​ Cost-effective - Offers a cost-effective solution for long-term data storage
needs.
Tertiary storage acts as a vault, safeguarding your valuable data for future.

HDD vs. SSD

HDDs and SSDs represent two distinct storage technologies, each with its own set of
advantages and disadvantages. Here's a comparison:

Technology HDD (Hard Disk Drive) SSD (Solid State Drive)

Mechanism Spinning magnetic disks Flash memory (no moving parts)

Pros Affordable, high capacity Faster, durable, energy-efficient

Cons Slower, mechanical parts prone to failure More expensive per GB

The choice between HDD and SSD depends on your specific needs, balancing cost,
performance, and durability.​

Cloud Storage: Data in the Digital Sky

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 Cloud storage offers data storage on remote servers accessed via the internet, with
examples like Google Drive, Dropbox, and AWS S3. The benefits include:
1.​ Scalable - Easily adjust storage capacity as your data grows.
2.​ Accessible - Access your data from anywhere with an internet connection.
3.​ Cost-effective - Pay only for the storage you use, reducing upfront costs.
However, it requires internet connectivity and incurs ongoing costs, making it essential to
weigh the pros and cons carefully.

Key Metrics to Measure Storage Performance

Several key metrics help evaluate storage performance, including:
1.​ Capacity - The amount of data a storage device can hold (e.g., 1TB, 2TB).
2.​ Speed - How quickly data can be read/written (e.g., RPM for HDDs, IOPS for SSDs).
3.​ Durability - Lifespan and reliability of the storage medium.
4.​ Cost - Price per gigabyte (GB) of storage.
These metrics are crucial for selecting the right storage solution based on your specific
requirements and budget.

Applications of Storage
1.​ Personal Use - Securely storing photos, videos, and documents, ensuring precious
memories and important files are always accessible.
2.​ Business Use - Managing databases, creating reliable backups, and running
enterprise applications that drive efficiency and innovation.
3.​ Scientific Research - Handling large datasets in fields like genomics and climate
modeling, facilitating discoveries that advance our understanding of the world.

e.​ POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a hardware component that supplies power to an electrical device. It
receives power from an electrical outlet and converts the current from AC (alternating
current) to DC (direct current), which is what the computer requires. It also regulates the
voltage to an adequate amount, which allows the computer to run smoothly without
overheating. The power supply is an integral part of any computer and must function
correctly for the rest of the components to work.

History of power supply

The power supply industry dates back to the early 1920s, when crude devices were first
developed to serve as “B” battery eliminators to power radios in both the commercial and
consumer markets. The market for separate power supplies evaporated around 1929, when
most radios manufactured included a built-in power supply.

Who made the first power supply

Robert Boschert has worn some pretty crazy hats over the years, both literally and
figuratively. But this 73-year-old has worn them all proudly. Boschert is most widely honored
for wearing the electrical engineering “hat” that resulted in the invention of low-cost, volume-
usage switching-mode power supplies.

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 PSU use in computer
The development of PSUs has been a collective effort over decades, with major
contributions from various computer companies, especially during the era when personal
computers began to become mainstream.
However, for historical and technical context, the development of early computer power
systems can be found in sources related to the history of IBM and early personal computer
hardware.

Types of PSU

1.​ FULLY-MODULAR
●​ Every cable can be detached, allowing for full customization.
●​ Best for cable management and airflow, as you only use the necessary
cables.
●​ Usually more expensive but preferred for high-end builds and aesthetics.
2.​ SEMI-MODULAR
●​ Some cables (like the motherboard and CPU power cables) are permanently
attached, while others (like PCIe and SATA cables) can be detached.
●​ Offers a balance between convenience and cost.
●​ Reduces cable clutter compared to non-modular PSUs.
3.​ NON-MODULAR
●​ All cables are permanently attached to the PSU.
●​ Can result in cable clutter since unused cables cannot be removed.
●​ Usually more affordable and commonly found in budget builds.

f.​ GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT

A GPU is a specialized electronic circuit designed to accelerate the creation and
manipulation of images, videos, and other visual content. It's essentially a powerful
processor that handles the complex calculations needed to render graphics, making them
appear smooth and realistic.

How GPUs Work?

GPUs work by using parallel processing, where they divide a task into smaller parts and
process them simultaneously. This allows them to perform calculations much faster than a
traditional Central Processing Unit (CPU), which handles general computing tasks.

GPU vs. CPU

While both GPUs and CPUs are processors, they have different strengths. CPUs are
designed for general-purpose tasks, while GPUs are optimized for graphics-intensive
workloads. GPUs excel at parallel processing, making them ideal for tasks that involve many
calculations.

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 What's the difference between a GPU and a graphics card?

Graphics cards are an add-in board (AIB) that slots into a place on a computer’s
motherboard. Graphics cards are not built into the computer itself; they are interchangeable
cards. A graphics card comes complete with a GPU.

The GPU is the main component on graphics cards. It exists alongside other components
like video RAM (VRAM) for video memory, ports (such as HDMI or DisplayPort), and a
cooling component. However, a GPU can also be built directly into the motherboard or
integrated as an all-in-one chip together with other components.

Components of a GPU
1.​ Processing Units: These units are responsible for performing the complex
mathematical calculations needed to render images and graphics. The more
processing units a GPU has, the more powerful it is.
-​ CUDA Cores (Nvidia): Nvidia's processing units, designed for parallel
processing.
-​ Stream Processors (AMD): AMD's equivalent to CUDA cores.
2.​ Memory Controller: Manages the flow of data between the GPU and its dedicated
memory (VRAM). Ensures the GPU can access data quickly and efficiently.
3.​ Texture Units: Apply textures to 3D models. They filter and sample textures to
make them look realistic.
4.​ Rasterizer: Converts 3D models into 2D images for display. It performs operations
like clipping, culling, and anti-aliasing to improve image quality.
5.​ Display Controller: Sends the final image to the monitor or display device. It
handles tasks like scaling, color correction, and synchronization.

INTEGRATED GPU VS. DISCRETE GPU

a)​ Integrated GPU

-​ Integrated GPUs are built directly into the CPU, sharing the same chip and
memory.
-​ They offer lower performance but are more energy-efficient and cost-effective.
-​ They are commonly found in laptops and compact desktops where space and
battery life are crucial.
-​ Integrated GPUs are sufficient for basic tasks like web browsing, video
playback, and office productivity.

b)​ Discrete/ Dedicated GPU

-​ Discrete GPUs are separate components installed on a dedicated circuit
board, with their own memory and processing unit.
-​ They offer superior performance for demanding tasks like gaming, video
editing, and 3D modeling.
-​ Discrete GPUs are found in high-end desktops and gaming laptops, where
performance is prioritized.

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 -​ They require more power and generate more heat, but their performance
benefits outweigh these drawbacks for demanding users.

Samples of GPU Companies

a)​ Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)

AMD is one of the most trusted producers of graphic cards. The manufacturer began
as a startup in Silicon Valley in 1969 and develops high-performance computing and
visualization products. AMD entered the GPU market in 2006 when it acquired
leading video card maker ATI. It places its focus in the GPU market on PC gaming
and is a favorite among gamers worldwide.
b)​ NVIDIA
Nvidia was the very first company to bring GPUs into the world in 1999. The first
GPU in history was known as the Geforce 256. 1999 was also the year Nvidia
launched its initial public offering (IPO) at $12 per share.

What are the practical applications for a GPU?

1.​ Gaming
2.​ Professional Visualization
3.​ Machine Learning
4.​ Blockchain
5.​ Scientific Computing
6.​ Video Editing and Content Creation

g.​ COOLING SYSTEM

Case - A computer case safeguards all of the important and expensive parts of a PC or
other computing device. Internal components include things like the motherboard, chassis,
drives, CPU and more for small desktop units, all the way through whole networks.

​ ​ Types of cases
-​ Small Form Factor
-​ Mini Tower
-​ Mid Tower
-​ Full Tower

Case Cooling - Case cooling uses an air cooling system for the removal of heat from inside
the case of the system. Air cooling is a very common and cheap method of cooling. Air
cooling contains different kinds of air fans in order to pull the cool air in and push the hot air
out .

CPU Cooling - The CPU produces the heat most as compared to the other components and
there should be a proper measure for cooling the CPU in order to prevent it from damage.
The two most common method for CPU Cooling are: air cooling and liquid cooling.

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`​ ​ ​ Air cooling
-​ The heat sink with a fan fixed to it is attached to the flat area of the CPU in order to
cover maximum surface area. The heat sink basically consists of the Aluminum fins
spread in the rows and a fan is attached at the top or side of the metal fins. The fan
pushes the air to the heat sink and the hot air in the sink expands and comes out of
the sink and then it is pushed to outside of the case through the case cooling system.
As a result, the temperature of the CPU doesn’t exceed.

Liquid cooling
-​ Liquid cooling uses a special water block to conduct heat away from the processor
(as well as from the chipset). Water is circulated through this block to a radiator
through the pump, where it is cooled. The radiator is provided with a fan attached to
it.

​ ​ Pros and Cons

​ ​ ​ Pros: Air Cooling

1.​ Cost – Air cooling is much more affordable than liquid cooling due to its
straightforward operation. If you’re on a budget, it could be worth opting for air
cooling and using your excess budget to purchase more storage or faster
DRAM.
2.​ Installation – Air cooling systems are easier to install than liquid cooling and
are therefore the better choice for beginner PC builders. You also won’t need
to worry about water potentially leaking into your system!
3.​ Maintenance – There is a lot less maintenance required with air cooling, as
once you have set up your system you just need to clean dust out of your PC
every few months.

​ ​ ​ Cons: Air Cooling

1.​ Noise – The fans in an air-cooled system are generally noisier than in a liquid
cooling system, this can be quite distracting when gaming.
2.​ Performance – Air cooling is not as efficient as liquid cooling, but it is still a
good option for cooling your PC build.
3.​ Visuals – The heat sink from an air cooler is quite bulky, which can ruin the
aesthetics of a build. There is also no option to change the visual look of an
air cooler.

Pros: Liquid Cooling

1.​ Noise – Liquid cooling has quieter operation: the fans in a liquid-cooled
system tend to rotate more slowly and quietly than those in an air-cooling
system.
2.​ Performance – PC users who plan to game at maximum settings should
consider water cooling. Pushing your PC to its limit requires more power, and
therefore will potentially heat up your system to a dangerous level. Water

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 cooling can bring these temperatures down faster and more efficiently than air
cooling.
3.​ Visuals – Liquid cooling systems can be very visually impressive, as you can
include RGB elements to enhance your machine’s visual appeal. Custom loop
cooling can look very impressive as you can mix and match parts and have a
completely unique system.

Cons: Liquid Cooling

1.​ Cost – Custom liquid cooling will cost you a lot more than a standard
air-cooling system. You are paying for the more complicated operation and
the better performance. However, AIO cooling will have a price closer to air
cooling.
2.​ Installation – Custom liquid cooling can be laborious to set up, especially for
beginner PC builders. An AIO (all-in-one) liquid cooler is easier to install and
should take you around 30 minutes. However, either way it can also be quite
unnerving to ​
3.​ Maintenance – Custom liquid cooling systems require more maintenance
than air cooling, as you need to sustain proper fluid levels, and make sure the
components are clean and functional. Also, if any of the parts of a custom
cooling system fail it could be catastrophic for your computer. AIO requires
less maintenance and, as everything comes assembled, the risk of the
system leaking is reduced.

h.​ PERIPHERAL DEVICES

Peripheral devices act as the point of interaction between the user and the computer. They
allow us to input data, control the system, and get feedback in various forms. Peripherals
read information from or write in the memory unit on receiving a command from the CPU.
They are considered to be a part of the total computer system.

COMMON PERIPHERAL DEVICES

a.​ Input Devices
●​ Keyboard- a major input device used with computers and other electronic
devices. It takes input from the user in the form of text, numbers, and several
other commands.
●​ Mouse- an input device that is moved across the desk surface by the user so
as to interact with the computer. It basically interacts with the Graphical User
Interface of the computer. A mouse is used to perform actions such as
selection, double-clicking, dragging, scrolling etc.
●​ Stylus pen- a tool designed for use with touchscreen devices, allowing users
to interact with their screens with more precision than their fingers can
provide. The benefit of using a stylus pen is its precise control for writing,
drawing, and navigating on digital devices.

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 ●​ Game controller- a type of input device designed for use with video games.
It allows players to control game characters and actions through buttons,
joysticks, and triggers.
●​ Scanner- an electrical device can read and translate text, images, and other
materials into a digital signal. This transforms the documents into a format
that computer software programs can use to view and/or edit them.
b.​ Output Devices
●​ Monitor- a hardware device which is used to display output. The monitor can
display all the graphics and information to the user through the video card. In
traditional desktop computers, separate monitors are connected to the other
devices with the help of cables.
●​ Printer- a device that accepts text and graphics output from a computer, and
it transfers this information to paper sheets. Printers can print any information
that has been passed to it, whether it be Text, Numbers or Images.
●​ Speaker- It is one of the most important components of audio effects and
has become an indispensable part of the technology that we use today.
speakers are the type of transducers that convert electrical energy to sound
energy.
●​ Projector- a device that uses light and lenses to project an image or video
onto a surface, mostly a wall or screen.

IMPORTANCE OF PERIPHERAL DEVICE

i.​ User Experience - Quality peripherals can greatly enhance the comfort and
productivity of the user.
ii.​ Functionality - Specialised devices like graphic tablets or gaming mice can provide
tailored functionality for specific tasks.
iii.​ Professional Application - It can help professionals carry out specific tasks related
to their work by adding value to their work.

i.​ NETWORKING COMPONENTS

Networking components are hardware and software elements that serve as intermediaries
for communication between devices within a network. They enable devices to talk to each
other and share information seamlessly.

Types of Networking Devices

1.​ Access Point - extend wireless network coverage by creating network signals that
can reach a wider area. This device allows wireless devices, like smartphones and
laptops, to connect to a wired network and creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless
devices communicate with the internet or other devices on the network.
2.​ Modems - also known as modulator/demodulator, modem connects your network to
the internet by converting digital signals to analog signals of different frequencies and
transmits these signals to a modem at the receiving location and vice versa.

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 a.​ DSL Modem - Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is
slower compared to other types.
b.​ Cable Modem - Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than
DSL.
c.​ Wireless Modem - Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on
nearby Wi-Fi signals.
d.​ Cellular Modem - Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular
network not Wi-Fi or fixed cables.
3.​ Firewalls - a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data
between your computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking
unauthorized access while allowing trusted data to pass through.
4.​ Repeater - operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e.,
regenerate) the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same
network.
5.​ Hub - a multiport repeater, connecting multiple wires coming from different branches,
for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Types of Hub:
a.​ Active Hub - hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and
relay the signal along with the network.
b.​ Passive Hub - hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub.
c.​ Intelligent Hub - works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices.
6.​ Bridge - A bridge is a network device that connects multiple subnetworks to create a
single network.
Types of Bridges:
a.​ Transparent Bridges - These bridges are unnoticed by connected stations,
requiring no reconfiguration when added or removed from the network. They
use bridge forwarding and bridge learning processes.
b.​ Source Routing Bridges - In these bridges, the source station performs
routing, specifying the route for the frame. Hosts can discover frames by
sending a discovery frame that explores all potential paths to the destination.
7.​ Routers - The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers connect different
networks and direct data traffic between them. They provide access to the internet
and manage IP addresses.
8.​ Brouter - also known as the bridging router, a device that combines features of both
bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer.
9.​ Switch - A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its
efficiency (a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a
data link layer device.
10.​Gateway - a passage to connect two networks that may work upon different
networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system.

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 11.​Network Interface Card (NIC) - a circuit board or chip that enables the computer to
connect to a network; it’s also known as a network adapter or local area network
adapter. It usually supports connection to an Ethernet network.
12.​Cables - (such as Ethernet cables) facilitate wired connections, serving as the
physical medium for data transmission.

Functions/Roles
1.​ Communication - Networking components enable fast information exchange
between devices.
2.​ Data Management - They assist in managing and routing data across the network,
ensuring that the right information is sent to the correct device.
3.​ Network Security - Through routers and switches, these components implement
security measures and access controls to safeguard the network.
4.​ Scalability - Proper networking components allow the network to expand as demand
grows.

j.​ SOUND CARD

Sound cards act as the gateway to audios as it processes audio data and produces sounds
which allows us to hear music, sound effects, and communications from computers.
Two types of sound card
a.​ Integrated Sound Cards - refers to the built-in sound card in the motherboard on
most computer based systems.
b.​ Dedicated Sound Cards - to access a higher quality of sound, users may upgrade
to a separate sound card that uses better and more expensive components.

​ Functions/Uses
The sound card's primary function is to convert digital signals into analog output for speakers
and headphones. It also converts signals from microphones to digital input.

ANALOG DATA is represented in a physical sense. When the data is translated into coded
digital data which converts into a tangible experience. Users can experience it through
connecting speakers or headphones for sounds (ADC).

DIGITAL INPUT is a reverse function of a sound card that converts transmitted signals from
microphones, recording speech. Translating digital input to analog data (DAC).

Color Coded Audio Ports

There are different color indicated audio ports for different uses where jacks are inserted.
a.​ Pink- Microphone input.
b.​ Light blue- Line level input.
c.​ Lime green- Left and right stereo output or headphones.
d.​ Orange- Center and subwoofer output.
e.​ Black- Surround sound left and right output.
f.​ Grey- Surround sound rear left and right output.
g.​ Yellow- Digital output.

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND PROGRAMMING Page 16 of 18

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