Plant Kingdom

Division Algae

Classification within Angiosperms

• Artificial system of classification

• Given by Linnaeus

• Based on vegetative characters or androecium structure

• Gave equal importance to vegetative and sexual characteristics

• Natural system of classification

• Based on morphology, anatomy, embryology, and phytochemistry

• Given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker

• Phylogenetic system of classification - based on evolutionary relationship

• Numerical Taxonomy

• Based on all observable characteristics

• Numbers and codes assigned to all characters

• Easily carried out using computers

• Cytotaxonomy − Based on cytological information such as chromosome number,

structure, behaviour

• Chemotaxonomy − Based on chemical constituents of plant to resolve doubts and

confusions

Division Algae

• Includes chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic, and largely aquatic

(freshwater and marine) organisms

• Some occur in association with fungi (lichens) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
• Size ranges from microscopic unicellular forms such as Chlamydomonas to colonial
forms such as Volvox and to filamentous forms such as Ulothrix and Spirogyra.

• Some marine forms (such as kelps) form massive plant-like bodies.

Economic Importance

• Carbon dioxide fixation on earth is majorly carried out by algae.

• Important as primary producers of energy-rich compounds

Example − Sargassum, Laminaria, and Porphyra used as food

• Some brown and red algae species produce water-holding hydrocolloids.

Example − Algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae)

• Agar produced by Gelidium and Gracilaria is used to grow microbes and in preparation
of ice creams and jellies.

• Chlorella and Spirulina are protein-rich unicellular algae, used as food supplements.
They are also known as space food.

• Major classes of algae:

 Chlorophyceae

• Commonly called green algae

• May be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous

• Grass green in colour due to abundance of chlorophyll a and b

• Chloroplast of most of the Chlorophyceae contains pyrenoids.

• Pyrenoids − Storage bodies containing proteins in addition to starch

• Food storage occurs in the form of oil droplets in some algae.

• Cells have rigid cell wall: inner layer made of cellulose, outer layer made of pectose

• Examples include Volvox, Chara, Chlamydomonas.

Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)

• Primarily marine forms

• Show great variation in size and form

• Range from simple-branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched

forms such as kelps (may reach a height of 100 m)
• Possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids, and xanthophylls

• Vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown (depending on amount of
xanthophyll and fucoxanthin)

• Food stored as complex carbohydrates such as laminarin or mannitol

• Vegetative cells have cellulosic wall covered on the outside by gelatinous coating of
algin.

• Cell contains a centrally located vacuole and nucleus in addition to plastids.

• Union of gametes takes place in water or within oogonium (oogamous species).

• Gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped).
Example − Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, and Fucus

Rhodophyceae (Red algae)

• Commonly called red algae due to the presence of red pigment, r-phycoerythrin

• Mainly marine forms with bulk mass inhabiting warmer areas

• Occur in well-lighted regions i.e., close to the surface of water and also in deeper areas

• Red thalli of most of these species are multicellular. Some have complex body
organization.

• Food is stored as Floridian starch similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure.

Example − Polysiphonia, Gelidium, Gracilaria, Porphyra

Division Bryophyta
• Known as amphibians of plant kingdom since they live on land, but depend on water for
sexual reproduction

• Usually occur in cool, damp, and shady areas

• Play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soils

• Plant body more differentiated than algae

• Thallus-like plant body is attached to substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids.

• Lack true roots, stem and leaves; may possesses root-like, stem-like, and leaf-like
structures

• Sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte for food. Hence, it remains attached to the

gametophyte.
• Few cells of sporophyte undergo meiosis to produce spores (haploid).

• Spores germinate to form gametophyte.

Economic Importance

• Provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds, and insects

• Peat provided by Sphagnum is used as fuel.

• Sphagnum is also used as packing material in trans-shipment of living material because

of its water-holding capacity.

• They form dense mats on the soil and hence prevent soil erosion.

• Mosses along with lichens form the pioneer community in land and desert succession.

Classes of bryophytes

Liverworts

• Grow in moist, shady habitats

• Plant body is thalloid.

• Thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate.

• Leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages on stem-like structures

Mosses

Gametophyte

• Predominant stage
 Sporophyte

• More elaborate than liverworts

• Consists of foot, seta, and capsule

• Capsule contains spores.

• Spores are formed by meiosis.

• Elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal

Example − Funaria, Polytrichum, and Sphagnum

Division Pteridophyta

General Characteristics

• The dominant plant body is sporophyte.

• First terrestrial plants to possess xylem and phloem

• Found in cool, damp, shady places

• Have well-differentiated true stem, leaves, and roots

• Leaves may be microphylls as in Selaginella or macrophylls as in ferns.

• Sporophytes bear sporangia, which develop in association with leaves called

sporophylls.

• In some pteridophytes, sporophylls form distinct, compact structures called strobili or

cones (Selaginella, Equisetum).

• Sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells.

• Spores germinate to form small, multicellular, free-living, mostly photosynthetic thalloid

gametophytes called prothallus.

• Major classes:

Gametophyte

• Require cool, damp, shady places to grow

• Also require water for sexual reproduction

• Zygote produces well-differentiated, multicellular sporophyte.

 Sporophyte

• Example of heterospory − Selaginella and Salvinia

Division Gymnospermae
• Word gymnosperms, gymnos − naked, sperma − seeds

• Ovules not enclosed by any ovary wall

• Seeds formed after fertilization are not covered (i.e., naked).

• Include medium-sized trees, shrubs, and tall trees

• Contains the world’s tallest tree Sequoia - the giant redwood tree

• Plants have tap roots. Roots in some genera show symbiotic associations.

• Mycorrhiza shows association of fungi with Pinus roots.

• Coralloid roots of Cycas show association with N2-fixing Cyanobacteria.

• Leaves are well-adapted to withstand extreme conditions. In conifers, needle-like leaves

with thick cuticle and sunken stomata reduce surface area and water loss.
• Spores produced within sporangia, borne on sporophylls, which form strobili or cones

• Male and female strobili may be borne on same tree (Pinus) or on different trees
(Cycas).

• Megaspore mother cell divides mieotically to form four megaspores.

• Megaspore mother cell is a differentiated cell of nucellus. Nucellus protected by

envelopes is known as an ovule.

• Male and female gametophytes do not have independent existence, hence remain
within sporangia.

• Steps in fertilization:
• For Example − Pinus and Cycas

The lifecycle of a gymnosperm can be depicted as follows;

 Division Angiosperms

• Large group of plants inhabiting a wide range of habitats

• The pollen grains and ovules are developed in structures called flowers.

• Seeds enclosed by fruits

• Range from tiny, almost microscopic Wolfia to tall trees like Eucalyptus

• Two main groups are:

• Monocotyledons − having one cotyledon in their seeds

• Dicotyledons − having two cotyledons in their seeds

• The male sex organ in a flower is a stamen.

• Each stamen consists of:

• a slender filament

• an anther at the tip

• The anther produces pollen grains by meiosis.

• The female sex organ is a pistil or carpel

• Each pistil consists of:

• an ovary

• a style

• a stigma

• The ovary encloses one or more ovules.

• Within the ovule (the highly reduced female gametophyte) embryo sacs are present.

• Embryo sac is a seven-celled, eight-nucleated structure. Embryo sac contains

• One egg cell

• Two synergids

• Three antipodal cells

• One central cell

• The polar nuclei fuse to form a secondary nucleus (diploid).

• Pollen grains, after dispersal from anthers are carried by the wind or other agents to the
stigma of the pistil; termed as pollination
• Fertilisation in angiosperms is termed as double fertilisation.

• The synergids and antipodals degenerate after fertilisation.

• The ovules develop to form seeds, and the ovaries develop into fruits.

LIFE CYCLE OF AN ANGIOSPERM

 Plant Life Cycles

• There is alternation of generations between haploid gametophyte and diploid

sporophyte in the life cycle of a plant.

• In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can divide by mitosis.

• Hence, there are two different plant bodies − haploid and diploid.

• The haploid plant body produces gametes by mitosis and represents a gametophyte.

• Mitotic division is encountered in diploid cells when zygote divides by mitosis to produce
sporophytic plant body after fertilization.

• This sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis.

• Spores in turn undergo mitosis to form haploid plant body.

Types of Life Cycles in Plants

Haplontic Life cycle

• In this, sporophyte is represented by one-celled zygote.

• There is no free living sporophyte.

• Zygote undergoes meiotic division to produce spores, which divide mitotically and form
gametophyte.

• Gametophyte is the dominant phase in this life cycle as it is dominant, free living, and
photosynthetic.

• Algae such as Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas have this type of life
cycle.

Diplontic Life Cycle

• In this case, diploid sporophyte is the dominant phase as it is free living and
photosynthetic.

• Gametophyte is single to few-celled.

• Example − All seed-bearing plants, gymnosperms, and angiosperms, some algae-
like Fucus

Haplodiplontic Life Cycle

• Intermediate condition

• Both gametophyte and sporophyte are free-living and multicellular, but have different
dominant phases.

• In bryophytes, haploid gametophyte is dominant, independent, and photosynthetic. It

alternates with short-lived multicellular sporophyte totally or partially dependent on
gametophyte for nutrition and anchorage.

• In pteridophytes, diploid sporophyte is dominant, independent, and photosynthetic. It

alternates with short-lived haploid gametophyte, which is independent of sporophyte.