‭ ere are 2-mark questions and answers based on the Database Management‬

H
‭Systems syllabus you provided:‬

‭UNIT I: Introduction and Entity Relationship Model‬

‭1.‬ ‭Define a database.‬
‭○‬ ‭A database is an organized collection of related data stored in a computer‬
s‭ ystem.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Differentiate between a database system and a file system.‬
‭○‬ ‭A database system is designed to manage large amounts of data, providing‬
‭data integrity, security, and controlled redundancy. A file system is a method‬
‭for storing and organizing computer files, lacking these advanced features.‬
‭3.‬ ‭List the characteristics of a database.‬
‭○‬ ‭Characteristics include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Organized data‬
‭■‬ ‭Data integrity‬
‭■‬ ‭Data independence‬
‭■‬ ‭Controlled redundancy‬
‭■‬ ‭Data security‬
‭■‬ ‭Multiple user access‬
‭4.‬ ‭Who are database users?‬
‭○‬ ‭Database users are individuals who interact with the database, including:‬
‭■‬ ‭End-users‬
‭■‬ ‭Database administrators (DBAs)‬
‭■‬ ‭Application programmers‬
‭5.‬ ‭What are the advantages of a database system?‬
‭○‬ ‭Advantages include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Improved data sharing‬
‭■‬ ‭Data consistency‬
‭■‬ ‭Data integration‬
‭■‬ ‭Reduced data redundancy‬
‭■‬ ‭Improved data access‬
‭■‬ ‭Enhanced data security‬
‭6.‬ ‭List some database applications.‬
‭○‬ ‭Database applications include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Banking systems‬
‭■‬ ‭Airline reservation systems‬
‭■‬ ‭Library management systems‬
‭■‬ ‭Student information systems‬
‭7.‬ ‭What is a data model?‬
 ‭○‬ ‭A data model is a conceptual representation of the structure of a database.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Name different types of data models.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types of data models include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Hierarchical model‬
‭■‬ ‭Network model‬
‭■‬ ‭Relational model‬
‭■‬ ‭Entity-relationship (ER) model‬
‭9.‬ ‭Define schema.‬
‭○‬ ‭A database schema is the structure of a database, including the tables,‬
‭ olumns, and relationships.‬
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‭10.‬‭Define instance.‬
‭○‬ ‭A database instance is the data stored in the database at a particular‬
‭moment.‬
‭11.‬ ‭What is data independence?‬
‭○‬ ‭Data independence is the ability to modify the schema at one level without‬
‭affecting the schema at a higher level.‬
‭12.‬‭What is a three-tier schema architecture?‬
‭○‬ ‭The three-tier schema architecture separates the database into three levels:‬
‭■‬ ‭Internal level (physical schema)‬
‭■‬ ‭Conceptual level (logical schema)‬
‭■‬ ‭External level (view schema)‬
‭13.‬‭What are the components of a database system structure?‬
‭○‬ ‭Components include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Hardware‬
‭■‬ ‭Software‬
‭■‬ ‭Data‬
‭■‬ ‭Users‬
‭■‬ ‭Procedures‬
‭14.‬‭What is a database environment?‬
‭○‬ ‭The database environment includes all the components that make up the‬
‭database system.‬
‭15.‬‭What is a centralized database architecture?‬
‭○‬ ‭In a centralized database architecture, all database components are located‬
‭at a single site.‬
‭16.‬‭What is a client-server database architecture?‬
‭○‬ ‭In a client-server architecture, the database server provides database‬
‭services to client processes.‬
‭17.‬‭What is an entity in the ER model?‬
‭○‬ ‭An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable from‬
 ‭ ther objects.‬
o
‭18.‬‭What is an attribute in the ER model?‬
‭○‬ ‭An attribute is a property or characteristic of an entity.‬
‭19.‬‭What is an entity set?‬
‭○‬ ‭An entity set is a collection of entities of the same type.‬
‭20.‬‭What is a relationship in the ER model?‬
‭○‬ ‭A relationship is an association among several entities.‬
‭21.‬‭What is a relationship set?‬
‭○‬ ‭A relationship set is a collection of relationships of the same type.‬
‭22.‬‭What are constraints in the ER model?‬
‭○‬ ‭Constraints are restrictions on the data that can be stored in the database.‬
‭23.‬‭What are subclasses and superclasses?‬
‭○‬ ‭A subclass is a specialized entity type derived from another entity type‬
‭(superclass).‬
‭24.‬‭What is inheritance in the ER model?‬
‭○‬ ‭Inheritance is the process by which subclasses inherit attributes and‬
‭relationships from their superclass.‬
‭25.‬‭What are specialization and generalization?‬
‭○‬ ‭Specialization is the top-down process of defining subclasses from a‬
‭superclass. Generalization is the bottom-up process of defining a superclass‬
‭from several subclasses.‬
‭26.‬‭What is ER Diagram?‬
‭* ER Diagram is a visual representation of entities, attributes, and relationships.‬
‭UNIT II: Relational Model and Basic SQL‬
‭1.‬ ‭What is the relational model?‬
‭○‬ ‭The relational model is a data model that represents data as a collection of‬
r‭ elations (tables).‬
‭2.‬ ‭Define domain.‬
‭○‬ ‭A domain is the set of permissible values for an attribute.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Define attribute.‬
‭○‬ ‭An attribute is a column in a relation.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Define tuple.‬
‭○‬ ‭A tuple is a row in a relation.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Define relation.‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is a set of tuples. (In simple terms, a table)‬
‭6.‬ ‭What is the importance of null values?‬
‭○‬ ‭Null values represent missing or unknown data.‬
‭7.‬ ‭What are domain constraints?‬
 ‭○‬ ‭Domain constraints specify the permissible values for a given attribute.‬
‭8.‬ ‭What are key constraints?‬
‭○‬ ‭Key constraints define the uniqueness of data in a relation.‬
‭9.‬ ‭What are integrity constraints?‬
‭○‬ ‭Integrity constraints ensure data consistency and accuracy in the database.‬
‭10.‬‭Name different types of integrity constraints.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types of integrity constraints include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Entity integrity constraint‬
‭■‬ ‭Referential integrity constraint‬
‭11.‬ ‭What is Relational Algebra?‬
‭○‬ ‭Relational algebra is a procedural query language that uses operators to‬
‭ anipulate relations.‬
m
‭12.‬‭What is Relational Calculus?‬
‭○‬ ‭Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language that uses declarative‬
‭statements to define queries.‬
‭13.‬‭What is SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language for managing‬
‭relational databases.‬
‭14.‬‭What is a database schema in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭A database schema in SQL is a collection of database objects, such as tables,‬
‭views, and indexes.‬
‭15.‬‭List some SQL data types.‬
‭○‬ ‭SQL data types include:‬
‭■‬ ‭INT‬
‭■‬ ‭VARCHAR‬
‭■‬ ‭DATE‬
‭■‬ ‭DECIMAL‬
‭16.‬‭Write the SQL statement to create a table.‬
‭○‬ ‭CREATE TABLE table_name (‬
‭column1 datatype1,‬
‭column2 datatype2,‬
‭...‬
‭);‬

‭17.‬‭Write the SQL statement to alter a table.‬

‭○‬ ‭ LTER TABLE table_name‬
A
‭ADD column_name datatype;‬

‭or‬
 ‭ LTER TABLE table_name‬
A
‭MODIFY column_name datatype;‬

‭18.‬‭What are DML operations?‬

‭○‬ ‭DML (Data Manipulation Language) operations are used to manipulate data‬
‭ ithin database objects.‬
w
‭19.‬‭Name different DML operations.‬
‭○‬ ‭DML operations include:‬
‭■‬ ‭INSERT‬
‭■‬ ‭DELETE‬
‭■‬ ‭UPDATE‬
‭20.‬‭Write the SQL statement to insert a new record into a table.‬
‭○‬ ‭INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...)‬
‭VALUES (value1, value2, ...);‬

‭21.‬‭Write the SQL statement to delete a record from a table.‬

‭○‬ ‭ ELETE FROM table_name‬
D
‭WHERE condition;‬

‭22.‬‭Write the SQL statement to update a record in a table.‬

‭○‬ ‭ PDATE table_name‬
U
‭SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...‬
‭WHERE condition;‬

‭UNIT III: SQL‬

‭1.‬ ‭Write a basic SQL query to select all columns from a table.‬
‭○‬ ‭ ELECT *‬
S
‭FROM table_name;‬

‭2.‬ ‭Write a basic SQL query to select specific columns from a table.‬
‭○‬ ‭ ELECT column1, column2, ...‬
S
‭FROM table_name;‬

‭3.‬ ‭Write a SQL query using the WHERE clause.‬

‭○‬ ‭ ELECT column1, column2, ...‬
S
‭FROM table_name‬
‭WHERE condition;‬
‭4.‬ ‭What are arithmetic operators in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭Arithmetic operators in SQL include:‬
‭■‬ ‭+ (addition)‬
‭■‬ ‭- (subtraction)‬
‭■‬ ‭* (multiplication)‬
‭■‬ ‭/ (division)‬
‭5.‬ ‭What are logical operators in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭Logical operators in SQL include:‬
‭■‬ ‭AND‬
‭■‬ ‭OR‬
‭■‬ ‭NOT‬
‭6.‬ ‭List some SQL date and time functions.‬
‭○‬ ‭SQL date and time functions include:‬
‭■‬ ‭NOW()‬
‭■‬ ‭DATE()‬
‭■‬ ‭TIME()‬
‭7.‬ ‭List some SQL numeric functions.‬
‭○‬ ‭SQL numeric functions include:‬
‭■‬ ‭ABS()‬
‭■‬ ‭ROUND()‬
‭■‬ ‭SQRT()‬
‭8.‬ ‭List some SQL string conversion functions.‬
‭○‬ ‭SQL string conversion functions include:‬
‭■‬ ‭CAST()‬
‭■‬ ‭CONVERT()‬
‭9.‬ ‭How do you create a table with a relationship in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭Using FOREIGN KEY constraint.‬
‭○‬ ‭CREATE TABLE table1 (‬
‭column1 datatype PRIMARY KEY,‬
‭...‬
‭);‬
‭CREATE TABLE table2 (‬
‭column1 datatype,‬
‭column2 datatype,‬
‭...,‬
‭FOREIGN KEY (column1) REFERENCES table1(column1)‬
‭);‬

‭10.‬‭How do you implement key constraints in SQL?‬

 ‭○‬ ‭Using PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraints.‬
‭11.‬ ‭How do you implement integrity constraints in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭Using PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, UNIQUE, CHECK, and NOT NULL‬
‭ onstraints.‬
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‭12.‬‭What is a nested query?‬
‭○‬ ‭A nested query (or subquery) is a query within another query.‬
‭13.‬‭What is a subquery?‬
‭○‬ ‭See "nested query".‬
‭14.‬‭What is grouping in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭Grouping in SQL is used to group rows that have the same values in specified‬
‭columns into summary rows, like finding the number of customers in each‬
‭country.‬
‭15.‬‭What is aggregation in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭Aggregation in SQL is used to perform calculations on sets of rows to return a‬
‭single value.‬
‭16.‬‭List some SQL aggregation functions.‬
‭○‬ ‭SQL aggregation functions include:‬
‭■‬ ‭COUNT()‬
‭■‬ ‭SUM()‬
‭■‬ ‭AVG()‬
‭■‬ ‭MAX()‬
‭■‬ ‭MIN()‬
‭17.‬‭How do you order the result set of a SQL query?‬
‭○‬ ‭Using the ORDER BY clause.‬
‭○‬ ‭SELECT column1, column2, ...‬
‭FROM table_name‬
‭ORDER BY column1 ASC|DESC;‬

‭18.‬‭What is a join in SQL?‬

‭○‬ ‭A join is used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related‬
‭ olumn between them.‬
c
‭19.‬‭Name different types of joins in SQL.‬
‭○‬ ‭Types of joins include:‬
‭■‬ ‭INNER JOIN‬
‭■‬ ‭LEFT JOIN‬
‭■‬ ‭RIGHT JOIN‬
‭■‬ ‭FULL OUTER JOIN‬
‭20.‬‭What is a view in SQL?‬
‭○‬ ‭A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.‬
 ‭21.‬‭What is an updatable view?‬
‭○‬ ‭An updatable view is a view that can be used to update the underlying base‬
t‭ ables.‬
‭22.‬‭What is a non-updatable view?‬
‭○‬ ‭A non-updatable view is a view that cannot be used to update the underlying‬
‭base tables.‬
‭23.‬‭What are relational set operations?‬
‭○‬ ‭Relational set operations are used to combine the results of two or more‬
‭SELECT statements.‬
‭24.‬‭Name different relational set operations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Relational set operations include:‬
‭■‬ ‭UNION‬
‭■‬ ‭INTERSECT‬
‭■‬ ‭EXCEPT (or MINUS)‬

‭UNIT IV: Schema Refinement (Normalization)‬

‭1.‬ ‭What is normalization?‬
‭○‬ ‭Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce data‬
r‭ edundancy and improve data integrity.‬
‭2.‬ ‭What is the purpose of normalization?‬
‭○‬ ‭The purposes of normalization are to:‬
‭■‬ ‭Minimize data redundancy‬
‭■‬ ‭Eliminate data anomalies‬
‭■‬ ‭Simplify data management‬
‭■‬ ‭Improve data integrity‬
‭3.‬ ‭What is a functional dependency?‬
‭○‬ ‭A functional dependency (FD) is a constraint between two sets of attributes in‬
‭a relation.‬
‭4.‬ ‭What are normal forms?‬
‭○‬ ‭Normal forms (NFs) are a series of guidelines that help to ensure that‬
‭databases are structured in a way that reduces redundancy and improves‬
‭data integrity.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Define 1NF (First Normal Form).‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is in 1NF if every attribute in that relation is atomic (indivisible).‬
‭6.‬ ‭Define 2NF (Second Normal Form).‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute is fully‬
‭functionally dependent on the primary key.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Define 3NF (Third Normal Form).‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no non-prime attribute is transitively‬
 ‭ ependent on the primary key.‬
d
‭8.‬ ‭What is Lossless join decomposition?‬
‭○‬ ‭Lossless-join decomposition means that when a relation is decomposed into‬
‭smaller relations, the original relation can be reconstructed through a join‬
‭operation without losing any data.‬
‭9.‬ ‭What is Dependency preserving decomposition?‬
‭○‬ ‭Dependency-preserving decomposition means that when a relation is‬
‭decomposed into smaller relations, all the functional dependencies of the‬
‭original relation are preserved.‬
‭10.‬‭What is a surrogate key?‬
‭○‬ ‭A surrogate key is an artificially created key used to uniquely identify each‬
‭row in a table.‬
‭11.‬ ‭Define BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form).‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and every determinant is a candidate key.‬
‭12.‬‭What is Multi-Valued Dependency (MVD)?‬
‭* A multi-valued dependency occurs when the presence of one attribute in a‬
‭relation implies the presence of a set of other attributes.‬
‭13.‬‭Define 4NF (Fourth Normal Form).‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is in 4NF if it is in BCNF and contains no multi-valued dependencies.‬
‭14.‬‭Define 5NF (Fifth Normal Form).‬
‭○‬ ‭A relation is in 5NF if it is in 4NF and cannot be decomposed into smaller‬
‭tables without loss of data.‬
‭UNIT V: Transaction Concept and Introduction to Indexing Techniques‬
‭1.‬ ‭What is a transaction?‬
‭○‬ ‭A transaction is a logical unit of work that accesses and possibly modifies the‬
‭ ontents of a database.‬
c
‭ .‬ ‭What are transaction states?‬
2
‭○‬ ‭Transaction states include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Active‬
‭■‬ ‭Partially committed‬
‭■‬ ‭Committed‬
‭■‬ ‭Failed‬
‭■‬ ‭Aborted‬
‭3.‬ ‭What are ACID properties?‬
‭○‬ ‭ACID properties are:‬
‭■‬ ‭Atomicity‬
‭■‬ ‭Consistency‬
‭■‬ ‭Isolation‬
 ‭■‬ ‭Durability‬
‭4.‬ ‭What is concurrent execution?‬
‭○‬ ‭Concurrent execution is the ability of a database management system to‬
‭ xecute multiple transactions simultaneously.‬
e
‭5.‬ ‭What is serializability?‬
‭○‬ ‭Serializability is a property of a transaction schedule that ensures that the‬
‭effect of executing multiple transactions concurrently is the same as‬
‭executing them in some serial order.‬
‭6.‬ ‭What is recoverability?‬
‭○‬ ‭Recoverability deals with ensuring that if a transaction commits, all its‬
‭changes persist, and if it aborts, all its changes are undone.‬
‭7.‬ ‭What is Isolation?‬
‭○‬ ‭Isolation ensures that concurrent execution of transactions results in a system‬
‭state that would be obtained if transactions were executed serially‬
‭8.‬ ‭How is Isolation implemented?‬
‭○‬ ‭Isolation is implemented using concurrency control techniques.‬
‭9.‬ ‭How do you test for serializability?‬
‭○‬ ‭Serializability can be tested using techniques like:‬
‭■‬ ‭Precedence graphs‬
‭10.‬‭Name different concurrency control protocols.‬
‭○‬ ‭Concurrency control protocols include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Lock-based protocols‬
‭■‬ ‭Timestamp-based protocols‬
‭■‬ ‭Optimistic protocols‬
‭11.‬ ‭What is a deadlock in the context of transactions?‬
‭○‬ ‭A deadlock is a situation where two or more transactions are blocked‬
‭indefinitely, each waiting for the other to release a lock.‬
‭12.‬‭What are the types of failures in a database system?‬
‭○‬ ‭Failures can be classified as:‬
‭■‬ ‭Transaction failure‬
‭■‬ ‭System failure‬
‭■‬ ‭Disk failure‬
‭13.‬‭What is storage in database systems?‬
‭○‬ ‭Storage in database systems refers to the mechanisms used to store‬
‭database data persistently.‬
‭14.‬‭What is Recovery and Atomicity?‬
‭○‬ ‭Recovery ensures that the database can be restored to a consistent state‬
‭after a failure, maintaining atomicity.‬
‭15.‬‭What is a Recovery algorithm?‬
 ‭○‬ ‭A recovery algorithm is a procedure for restoring a database to a consistent‬
s‭ tate after a failure.‬
‭16.‬‭What is Indexing?‬
‭○‬ ‭Indexing is a database technique used to improve the performance of data‬
‭retrieval operations.‬
‭17.‬‭What are B+ trees?‬
‭○‬ ‭B+ trees are a tree-based indexing structure that is commonly used in‬
‭database systems.‬
‭18.‬‭What are the operations on B+ trees?‬
‭○‬ ‭Operations on B+ trees include:‬
‭■‬ ‭Search‬
‭■‬ ‭Insert‬
‭■‬ ‭Delete‬
‭19.‬‭What is Hash-based indexing?‬
‭○‬ ‭Hash-based indexing uses a hash function to map keys to their corresponding‬
‭data locations.‬
‭20.‬‭What is order in B+ tree?‬
‭○‬ ‭Order of B+ tree defines the maximum number of children a node can have.‬
‭21.‬‭What is Collision in Hashing?‬
‭* Collision in hashing occurs when two different keys are mapped to the same‬
‭location in the hash table.‬