Chemical Coordination & Integration

Introduction to Human Endocrine System

Hormones are the organic chemicals produced by the body, which are released into the
blood.

The key feature of the hormones is that they are secreted by the ductless glands. The
glands that secrete hormones do not have ducts. Hormones are released directly into
the blood stream and reach the target organ.

Differences between Hormonal Control and Nervous Control

Hormonal Control Nervous Control

Transmitted electro-chemically through

Transmitted chemically through blood
nerve fibres

Transmitted slowly Transmitted rapidly

Affects different organs Affects specific organs

Is not affected by previous experience Is affected by previous experience

Has both long lasting and short lasting

Has short lasting effect
effects

The endocrine system works in association with nervous system to control and
coordinate our bodies. They contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in our
bodies.

Homeostasis is the capacity of an organism to adjust itself and cope up with external
stress to maintain a steady state.

Glands

A cell, tissue, or an organ that secretes chemical messengers required for coordinating
a specific function is called a gland.

Glands are mainly divided into two broad categories - endocrine and exocrine.

Exocrine gland Endocrine gland

 These glands do not discharge their
These glands possess ducts for
secretions through ducts. Hence, they
discharging their secretions on the body
are also known as ductless glands.
surface. The sebaceous glands present in
They discharge their secretions directly
the skin, salivary glands present in the
into the bloodstream. Their secretions
buccal cavity, and gastric glands present
are known as hormones. The pituitary
in the walls of the stomach etc. are a few
gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland etc.
examples of exocrine glands.
are a few examples endocrine glands.

Characteristics of Hormones

• Hormones are the organic chemicals that are secreted in response to environmental
changes in or outside the body.

• Hormones are secreted by ductless glands and transported along with the blood stream
to the site of their action. The site of their production and the organ of their influence are
different.

• They can be amino-acid derivatives, proteins, or steroids.

• Being low molecular weight substances, they can easily diffuse through the cell
membrane.

• They are produced in small quantities and are effective in extremely lower
concentrations.

• Abnormal production of hormones (be it less or more) affects the body in a negative
manner.

Some of the ductless glands that secrete hormones are thyroid gland, adrenal gland,
pituitary gland, parathyroid gland, gonads, etc.

Human Endocrine System

• Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus, and gonads are the
organised endocrine glands in our body.

• In addition, GI tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hormones.

Human Endocrine System and Hypothalamus, Pineal, Thyroid, Parathyroid

Hypothalamus
• Basal part of diencephalon in forebrain

• It has several groups of neurosecretory cells (known as nuclei) that produce hormones.
The synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones is regulated by these hormones.

• Hormones originate from hypothalamic neurons, pass through axons, and are released
from their nerve endings.

• Reach pituitary gland through a portal circulatory system and regulate the functioning of
anterior pituitary

• Hormones from hypothalamus are of two types:

Releasing Hormones Inhibiting Hormones

Stimulate secretion of pituitary hormones Inhibit secretion of pituitary hormones

Example − Gonadotropin Releasing Example − Somatostatin
Hormone (GnRH)

Pineal Gland

• Location − Dorsal side of forebrain

• Secretes melatonin that regulates 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm of the body such as sleep-
wake cycle, body temperature, etc.

• Melatonin also regulates metabolism, pigmentation, and menstrual cycle.

Thyroid Gland

• Location − Two lobes of thyroid gland are located on either side of trachea.

• Isthmus − Thin flap of connective tissue interconnecting the thyroid glands

• Composition − Follicles + Stromal tissues

• Follicular cells synthesize two hormones:

• Tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4)

• Triiodothyronine (T3)

• Importance of thyroid hormones:

• Regulates BMR (Basal Metabolism Rate)

• Supports the process of RBC synthesis

• Maintains water-electrolyte balance

• Insufficient secretion of thyroxine results in

• goitre (enlargement of thyroid gland due to deficiency of iodine)

• cretinism (dwarfism and mental retardation in children)

• myxoedema (swelling in hands and face of an adult)

• Excessive secretion of thyroid hormone leads to hyperthyroidism. This may occur due to
cancer of thyroid gland or development of nodules of thyroid glands. A person suffering
from hyperthyroidism show following symptoms:

• Goitre in neck (exophthalmic goitre)

• Protruded eyes

• Increased heart beat

• Increased metabolic rate

Parathyroid Gland

• Location − Four parathyroid glands are present on back side of thyroid glands.

• Secretes − Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

• Secretion of PTH is regulated by circulating level of calcium ions.

• PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone. It increases blood calcium levels by

• dissolution/demineralization from bones

• reabsorption of Ca2+ by renal tubules

• Ca2+ absorption from digested food

Human Endocrine System & Pituitary Gland and Thymus Gland

Pituitary Gland
• Location: In the bony cavity called sella tursica; attached to the hypothalamus via a stalk

Pituitary Hormone Functions

GH Over secretion in children − Gigantism

Over secretion in adults − Acromegaly (extra
growth of bones in jaws, hands or feet)

Under secretion − Dwarfism

Prolactin Growth of mammary glands and formation of

milk in them

TSH Synthesis and release of thyroid hormones

Adrenocorticotrophic Stimulates synthesis and secretion of steroid

hormone (ACTH) hormones called glucocorticoids from the adrenal
cortex
 LH In males − Stimulates synthesis and secretion of
androgens from the testis

In females − Induces ovulation and maintenance

of the corpus luteum

FSH In males − Along with androgens, regulate

spermatogenesis

In females − Stimulates growth and

development of ovarian follicles

MSH Acts on melanocytes and regulates pigmentation

of the skin

Oxytocin Helps in the contraction of the smooth muscles

of the uterus during child birth, and milk ejection
from mammary glands

Vasopressin Stimulates re-absorption of water from the distal

tubules, and hence, prevents loss of water
through urine (diuresis); therefore, also called
anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
Deficiency of vasopressin causes diabetes
insipidus (frequent urination, leading to
excessive water loss and increased thirst; no
sugar is found in the urine).

Thymus

• Location: Dorsal side of the heart and the aorta

• Importance: Development of the immune system

• Secretion: Peptide hormone called thymosins

• Role of thymosins:

• Differentiation of T-lymphocytes (Cell Mediated Immunity)

• Promotes production of antibodies (Humoral Immunity)

• Thymus is degenerated in old people. Hence, their immune response becomes weak.

Human Endocrine System and Adrenal, Pancreas and Gonads

Adrenal Gland

Location: 1 pair − 1 gland at the anterior part of each kidney

• Catecholamine:

• Emergency hormones or hormones of fight or flight

• Increases alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of hair)
• Increases heart beat, respiration rate
• Stimulates the breakdown of glucose, lipids and proteins

• Glucocorticoid:
• Stimulates gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis
• Inhibits uptake and utilisation of amino acids
• Suppresses immune response by producing anti-inflammatory reaction (Example −
Cortisol)
• Stimulates RBC production (Example − Cortisol)

• Mineralocorticoid: Example − Aldosterone

• Acts on renal tubule and stimulates re-absorption of Na+ and water

• Stimulates excretion of K+
• Maintains electrolysis, osmotic pressure and blood pressure
• Androgenic steroids plays a role in the growth of axial, facial and pubic hair during
puberty

Hyposecretion of hormones from adrenal cortex results in Addison's disease.

Symptoms:

• Loss of energy and weight

• Skin pigmentation
• Hypoglycemia
• Sensitivity to cold
• Increased susceptibility to infections, etc

Hypersecretion of hormones from adrenal cortex causes Cushing's Syndrome.

Symptoms:

• Obesity
• Hyperglycemia
• Osteoporosis
• Weakness, etc

Pancreas
• Glucagon: Hyperglycemic hormone

• A peptide hormone
• Maintains the normal blood glucose level
• Acts on liver cells and stimulates glycogenolysis, resulting in hyperglycemia
• Stimulates gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose from sources like fats)

• Insulin: Hypoglycemic hormone

• A peptide hormone
• Stimulates liver cells to enhance the cellular glucose uptake and utilisation
• Moves the glucose from the blood to hepatocytes and adipocytes
• Converts glucose into glycogen

• Glucagon + Insulin = Maintain glucose homeostasis

Insufficient secretion of insulin causes Diabetes mellitus

Symptoms:

• High sugar concentration in blood

• Excretion of glucose with urine
• Increased thirst
• Loss of weight

Over secretion of insulin causes hypoglycemia. It results in low glucose level in blood.
Under extreme cases, brain may enter in a state of coma.

An overdose of insulin to a diabetic patient may also result in hypoglycemic conditions.

As a result, the patient may become unconscious. This phenomena is called insulin
shock. It can be reversed by instant intake of sweet biscuits or candies.

Testis

• Location: scrotal sac, in males

• Testis is composed of seminiferous tubules, and stromal or interstitial tissues.
• In the intertubular spaces, Leydig cells (interstitial cells) are present that secrete
androgens, mainly testosterone.

• Functions of androgens:

• Development, maturation and functioning of the male accessory sex organs like vas
deferens and seminal vesicles
• Stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial hair, low pitch voice, etc.
• Stimulatory role in spermatogenesis
• Act on the CNS and influence male sexual behaviour (libido)
• Anabolism of proteins and carbohydrates
 Ovary

• Location: inside abdomen, in females

• Hormones produced: Oestrogen and progesterone
• Ovary is composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues
• Ovarian follicles: Secrete oestrogen

• Functions of oestrogen:

• Growth and functioning of the female secondary sex organs

• Development of growing follicles and mammary glands
• Regulates female secondary sex characters (Examples − high pitch voice)

• Functions of progesterone:

• Acts on mammary glands and stimulates formation of alveoli-like structures storing milk
• Milk secretion

Non-Endocrine Hormones & Hormones of Heart, Kidney and GI Tract

Non-Endocrine Hormones

Organs such as the heart, the kidney and the GI (gastro intestinal) tract also secrete
hormones.

Growth factors are secreted by some non-endocrine tissues, which are essential for
normal growth/repair/regeneration of tissues.

Heart

• Walls of the heart secretes peptide hormone ANF (Atrial Natriuretic Factor)

• When blood pressure increases, ANF is secreted and causes vasodilation, which
reduces blood pressure.

Kidney

• Juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney produce erythropoietin that stimulates erythropoiesis

(RBC formation).

GI Tract
 Hormone Function

Gastrin Acts on the gastric glands; stimulates secretion of HCl

and pepsinogen

Secretin Acts on the exocrine pancreas; stimulates secretion of

water and bicarbonate ions

Cholecystokinin (CCK) Acts on the pancreas and the gall bladder; stimulates
secretion of pancreatic enzyme and bile juice

Gastric inhibitory Inhibits gastric secretion and mobility

peptide (GIP)

Mechanism of Hormone Action

• Hormones exhibit their effects only after binding to their specific receptors located in the
target tissues to form hormone-receptor complex.

• Membrane-bound receptors: Present on the cell membrane of the target cell

• Intracellular receptors: Present inside the target cell

• This specific reaction leads to biochemical changes in the target tissue, and regulates
its metabolism and physiological changes.

• On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones are of 4 types.

Peptide/protein hormone E.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary and hypothalamic hormones

 Steroids E.g., cortisol, testosterone, progesterone

Iodothyronines E.g., thyroid hormones

Amino acid derivatives E.g., epinephrine

• Hormones interacting with the membrane-bound receptors do not enter the cells, but
generate secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP, IP3). These secondary messengers
regulate cellular metabolism.

• Hormones interacting with the intracellular receptors (e.g., steroid hormones,

iodothyronines) regulate gene expression by the interaction of the hormone−receptor
complex with the genome.