WTW 115

Unit 2.3: Mathematical induction and the

well-ordering principle for the integers, part 1

University of Pretoria
Mathematical induction

To prove statements of the form

“. . . is true for all integers larger than a particular number”,

we can use a technique called mathematical induction.

The idea of mathematical induction: Toppling dominoes
Imagine an infinite chain of dominoes, starting with a first domino.
If (1) the first domino topples, and (2) each toppling domino
topples the next domino in the chain, then all the dominoes topple.
(The first domino topples, so the second domino topples, so the
third domino topples, and so on.)

-- -- -- -- --

Suppose we want to prove some claim for all integers n ≥ a.

“Toppling a domino” corresponds to proving the claim for a
particular value of n. (The first domino corresponds to the claim
for n = a, the second domino corresponds to the claim for
n = a + 1, and so on.) It’s enough to prove statements (1) and (2).
The Principle of Mathematical Induction

Consider a fixed integer a. Let D be the set of all integers that are
greater than or equal to a. Consider a claim about integers n in D.
Suppose that
▶ The claim is true in the case where n = a; and
▶ For each k in D (that is, each integer k such that k ≥ a),
if the claim is true in the case where n = k, then
it is true in the case where n = k + 1.
It follows that for every n in D, the claim is true.
Proofs by mathematical induction: Template
Suppose we want to prove that some claim is true for all integers
n ≥ a. A proof by mathematical induction follows the template
below.
▶ Basis step: We show that [the claim is true in the case where
n = a].
[Show it. This is often a simple calculation.]
▶ Inductive hypothesis: Suppose that k is an arbitrary fixed
integer such that k ≥ a and [the claim is true in the case
where n = k].
▶ Inductive step: Assuming the inductive hypothesis, we show
that [the claim is true in the case where n = k + 1].
[Show it. This is often the longest part.]
This establishes the inductive step.
▶ Conclusion: By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, it
follows that for all integers n ≥ a, [the claim is true].
Mean what you say
Make sure that what you write down means what it should mean.
▶ In the basis step, we are not “showing that n = a”; we are
showing that the claim holds in the case where n = a.
▶ In the inductive hypothesis, we are not “assuming that
n = k”; we are assuming that the claim holds in the case
where n = k.
▶ In the inductive step, we are not “showing that n = k + 1”;
we are showing that the claim holds in the case where
n = k + 1.
▶ In the basis step, we are showing (not assuming) that the
claim holds in the case where n = a.
▶ In the inductive hypothesis, we are assuming (not showing)
that the claim holds in the case where n is some fixed
arbitrary integer k such that k ≥ a (not “for every integer k
such that k ≥ a”).
▶ In the inductive step, we are showing (not assuming) that the
claim holds in the case where n = k + 1.
Strategies for the inductive step

▶ Start with one side of what you want to prove (the claim in
the case where n = k + 1).
▶ Express it in terms of that side of the inductive hypothesis
(the claim in the case where n = k).
▶ Use the inductive hypothesis. At this point, give your reason:
“by the inductive hypothesis”.
(If you don’t use the inductive hypothesis, “it’s not really
mathematical induction”: you might as well do a direct proof.)
▶ Carry on, and try to get to the other side of what you want to
prove (the claim in the case where n = k + 1).
It may help to work forwards (from just after using the
inductive hypothesis) as well as backwards (from the other
side of what you want to prove), and try to make the
“forward” and “backward” parts link up.
Example 1 (page 1 of 2)
Show that every positive integer n satisfies
n
n(n + 1) X n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = , that is, i= .
2 2
i=1
Basis step: We show that the claim is true in the case where
1(1 + 1)
n = 1, that is, we show 1 = .
2
1(1 + 1) 1(2)
We have = = 1, so the claim holds in the case
2 2
where n = 1.
Inductive hypothesis: Suppose that k is an arbitrary fixed
positive integer such that the claim holds in the case where n = k,
k(k + 1)
that is, 1 + 2 + · · · + k = .
2
Inductive step: Assuming the inductive hypothesis, we show that
the claim holds in the case where n = k + 1, that is, we prove
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1) = .
2
Example 1 (page 2 of 2)

We have
1 + 2 + · · · + k + (k + 1)
= (1 + 2 + · · · + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
= + (k + 1) (by the inductive hypothesis)
2  
k (k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
= (k + 1) +1 = = .
2 2 2

Therefore, the claim holds in the case where n = k + 1.

This establishes the inductive step.
Conclusion: By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, it follows
n(n + 1)
that for all positive integers n, we have 1 + 2 + · · · + n = .
2
Example 2 (page 1 of 2)
Fix a real number r ̸= 1. Show that every integer n ≥ 0 satisfies
n
r n+1 − 1 X r n+1 − 1
1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn = , that is, ri = .
r −1 r −1
i=0
Basis step: We show that the formula holds in the case where
0
X r 0+1 − 1 r −1
n = 0. We have r i = 1 and = = 1, so
r −1 r −1
i=0
0
X r 0+1−1
ri = , so the formula holds in the case where n = 0.
r −1
i=0
Inductive hypothesis: Suppose that k is an arbitrary fixed
non-negative integer such that the formula holds in the case where
r k+1 − 1
n = k, that is, 1 + r + r 2 + · · · + r k = .
r −1
Inductive step: Assuming the inductive hypothesis, we show that
the formula holds in the case where n = k + 1, that is, we show
r (k+1)+1 − 1
1 + r + r 2 + · · · + r k+1 = .
r −1
Example 2 (page 2 of 2)

We have
1 + r + r 2 + · · · + r k+1
= (1 + r + r 2 + · · · + r k ) + r k+1
r k+1 − 1
= + r k+1 (by the inductive hypothesis)
r −1
r k+1 −1 r k+1 (r − 1)
= + (because r is not equal to 1)
r −1 (r − 1)
r k+1 − 1 + r k+2 − r k+1 r k+2 − 1 r (k+1)+1 − 1
= = = .
r −1 r −1 r −1
Therefore, the formula holds in the case where n = k + 1. This
establishes the inductive step.
Conclusion: By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, it follows
r n+1 − 1
that every integer n ≥ 0 satisfies 1 + r + r 2 + · · · + r n = .
r −1
Examples (page 1 of 3)

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n =
2
r n+1 − 1
1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn =
r −1

Find the following sums. (To be done in class)

▶ 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100
▶ 11 + 12 + 13 + · · · + 100
▶ 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 100
▶ 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 99
▶ 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n−1
▶ 9 + 27 + 81 + · · · + 380
P1000 3k+2
▶ k=0 10
Examples (page 2 of 3)

100(100 + 1)
▶ 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100 = = 50(101) = 5050.
2
▶ 11+12+13+· · ·+100 = (1+2+· · ·+100)−(1+2+· · ·+10) =
100(100 + 1) 10(10 + 1)
− = 50(101) − 5(11) =
2 2
5050 − 55 = 4995.

▶ 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 100 = 2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 50) =

2(50)(50 + 1)
= 50(51) = 2550.
2
▶ 1+3+5+· · ·+99 = (1+2+3+· · ·+100)−(2+4+6+· · ·+100) =
5050 − 2550 = 2500.
Examples (page 3 of 3)

2n−1+1 − 1
▶ 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n−1 = = 2n − 1.
2−1
▶ 9 + 27 + 81 + · · · + 380 = 9(1 + 3 + 9 + · · · + 378 ) =
378+1 − 1 381 − 9
9· = .
3−1 2
1000
X 1000
X 1000
X
3k+2 2 3 k 2
▶ 10 = 10 (10 ) = 10 (103 )k =
k=0 k=0 k=0
(103 )1000+1 − 1 103005 − 100
102 · = .
103 − 1 999