Revision: POLYNOMIALS

4.1 Polynomials and Identities

Notes

1. A polynomial is the sum or difference of multiple terms, each in the form axn, where n is a non-
negative integer and the constant a is called the coefficient of xn. For example, x2 + 5x + 2 is a
polynomial.

2. The degree of a polynomial in x is the highest power of x. For example, the degree of x2 + 5x +
2 is 2.

3. Combine like terms when adding or subtracting polynomials.

4. Apply the distributive law when expanding the product of two polynomials.

5. Methods to find unknowns in an identity:

Method 1: Substitute values of x into the identity.
Method 2: Equate the coefficients and/or constants on both sides of the identity.

6. When a polynomial P(x) is divided by another polynomial D(x), we can express the division
algorithm as P(x) = D(x)  Q(x) + R(x), where the quotient Q(x) and the remainder R(x) are
polynomials of x, and the degree of the remainder R(x) is always less than the degree of the
divisor D(x).

1 Expand each of the following.

(a) (3x – 4)(x2 – 2x + 1)
(b) (2x3 – x – 1)(3x2 + 2x – 4)

2 Find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of (x2 – 4x + 7)(1 – 2x – 3x2).

3 If x3 – 10x2 + 28x – 13 = ax(5 – x)2 + b(5 – x) + c for all values of x, find the value of a, of b
and of c.

4 If 6x3 – x2 + cx + 6 = (3x – 2)(ax – 1)(2x + b) for all values of x, find the value of a, of b
and of c.

5 Find the remainder and quotient when –2x2 + x – 3 is divided by x + 1.

6 Express 4x5 – 5x3 + 4x2 + 5x – 2 as (2x2 + x – 1)Q(x) + R(x), where Q(x) and R(x) are
polynomials, and the degree of R(x) is less than two.
 4.2 The Remainder and Factor Theorems

Notes

1. The Remainder Theorem states that if a polynomial f(x) is divided by a linear divisor ax – b,
b
the remainder is f( ). In particular, if the divisor is x – a, the remainder is f(a).
a

2. The Remainder Theorem enables us to find the remainder but not the quotient.

3. The Factor Theorem states that if x – a is a factor of a polynomial f(x), then f(a) = 0.
Conversely if f(a) = 0, then x – a is a factor of f(x). This also means that f(x) is divisible by
x – a.

7 Given that f(x) = –3x3 – 2x2 + 1, find the remainder when f(x) is divided by
(i) x + 3,
(ii) 3x – 2.

8 The expression px2 – 8x + 3, where p is a constant, leaves a remainder of –3 when divided by

2x – 1. Find the value of p.

9 The expression –2x3 + ax2 + bx + 9 is exactly divisible by x – 3. Show that 3a + b = 15 .

10 The expression 5x3 + ax2 + bx + c leaves the same remainder when divided by 2x – 1 and by
x – 1. Show that 6a + 4b + 35 = 0 .

11 The expression 3x3 – ax2 – 17x + b is exactly divisible by x2 – x – 6. Find the value of a
and of b.
 4.3 Cubic Polynomials and Equations

Notes

1. A polynomial in the form a3 + b3 is called the sum of cubes. A polynomial in the form a3 – b3 is
called the difference of cubes.

2. a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)
a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)

3. Follow these steps to factorise a cubic polynomial f(x).

Step 1: Use the Factor Theorem to find a linear factor of f(x), say x – k.
Step 2: Write f(x) as (x – k)(ax2 + bx + c), where ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic factor of f(x).
Step 3: Substitute values of x or equate coefficients and/or constants to find the unknowns a, b
and c.

4. To find the roots of a cubic equation f(x) = 0, factorised the cubic polynomial f(x) first. If x – k,
where k is a real number, is a factor of f(x), then x = k is a root of f(x) = 0.

5. Connections between the algebraic and graphical representations of a cubic polynomial f(x):
• If the graph of y = f(x) intersects the x-axis at x = k, then x – k is a linear factor of f(x).
• The number of x-intercepts of the graph is the number of distinct real roots of f(x) = 0.
• The graph of y = f(x) can intersect the x-axis at up to three points. Thus, f(x) = 0 has at most
three distinct real roots.

12 Factorise
(a) x3 – 27,
(b) 125x3 + 64y3.

13 Factorise 2x3 + 3x2 – 3x – 2 completely.

14 Find the real roots of the equation x3 – 7x – 6 = 0.

15 Solve the equation x2(3x + 4) = 1. Leave your answers in surd form, where necessary.

16 Show that the equation x3 + x2 = 3 – x has only one real root.

 4.4 Partial Fractions

Notes

f ( x)
1. An algebraic fraction is called a proper fraction if the degree of the numerator f(x) is less
g( x)
15 - 6x
than the degree of the denominator g(x), such as . Otherwise, it is called an
(2x -1)(x 2 + 2)
improper fraction.

f ( x)
2. Follow these steps to express an algebraic fraction as a sum of its partial fractions.
g( x)
Step 1: Check whether the given algebraic fraction is proper or not. If it is improper, express it
as the sum of a proper fraction and a polynomial by the division algorithm.
Step 2: For the proper algebraic fraction, factorise the denominator g(x) completely and apply
the rules in this table to perform partial fraction decomposition.

If the denominator g(x) has Write the partial fraction(s) as Example

distinct linear factors: A B 7x + 4 A B

= +
ax + b, cx + d ax + b + cx + d ( x + 3)( x − 2) x+3 x−2
repeated linear factors: A B 7x + 4 A B
ax + b, ax + b + = +
ax + b (ax + b)2 ( x − 2) 2 x−2 ( x − 2) 2
[written as (ax + b)2]
irreducible quadratic factor: Ax + B 4x + 7 Ax + B C
= 2 +
x2 + c2 x2 + c2 ( x + 1)( x + 1)
2
x +1 x +1
A, B and C are the constants to be found.

Step 3: Substitute values of x or equate coefficients and/or constants to find the values of A, B
and C.

x−5
17 Express in partial fractions.
x −x−2
2

x 2 − 6 x − 10
18 Express in partial fractions.
( x − 2)( x + 1) 2

3x 2 − 2 x + 9
19 Express in partial fractions.
( x − 3)( x 2 + 1)

x3 + 3 x 2 − 11x − 14
20 Express in partial fractions.
( x − 3)( x + 4)
Answers
1 (a) 3x3 − 10 x 2 + 11x − 4 (b) 6 x5 + 4 x 4 − 11x3 − 5 x 2 + 2 x + 4

2 –12

3 a = 1, b = –3 and c = 2

4 a = 1, b = 3 and c = –11

5 Remainder = –6, Quotient = –2x + 3

6 4x5 – 5x3 + 4x2 + 5x – 2 = (2x2 + x – 1)( 2x3 – x2 – x + 2) + 2x

7
7 (i) 64 (ii) –
9

8 p = −8

11 a = 4 and b = 6

12 (a) (x – 3)(x2 + 3x + 9) (b) (5x + 4y)(25x2 – 20xy + 16y2)

13 (x – 1)(2x + 1)(x + 2)

14 x = –1, x = –2 or x = 3

1 13
15 x = −1 or x = − 
6 6

2 1
17 −
x +1 x − 2

3 1 2
18 + −
x + 1 ( x + 1) 2
x−2

3 2
19 − 2
x − 3 x +1

1 2
20 x+2+ −
x −3 x + 4