Lecture 15 – Examples of Pushdown Automata

COSE215: Theory of Computation

Jihyeok Park

2024 Spring

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 1 / 23

Recall
A pushdown automaton (PDA) is a finite automaton with a stack.
• Acceptance by final states
• Acceptance by empty stacks

P(⌃⇤) Languages Automata Grammars

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CFL
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Context-Free Pushdown Context-Free

an bn
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Language Automata Grammar

RL
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(CFL) (PDA) (CFG)

an
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Regular Finite Regular

Language Automata Expression
(RL) (FA) (RE)

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 2 / 23

Contents

1. Examples of Pushdown Automata

Example 1: an bn
Example 2: an b2n
Example 3: ww R
Example 4: Balanced Parentheses
Example 5: Equal Number of a’s and b’s
Example 6: Unequal Number of a’s and b’s
Example 7: Not of the Form ww

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 3 / 23

Example 1: an bn
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by final states:

LF (P) = {an bn | n ≥ 0}

The key idea is to count the number of a’s using the stack.
1 Start with the stack only having the initial stack alphabet Z .
2 Repeatedly push X onto the stack for each a.
3 Repeatedly pop X from the stack for each b.
4 Accept when the top of the stack is Z .

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 4 / 23

Example 1: an bn
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by final states:

LF (P) = {an bn | n ≥ 0}

a [Z → XZ ]
a [X → XX ] b [X → ϵ]

start [Z ] q0 q1 q2
ϵ [Z → Z ] ϵ [Z → Z ]
ϵ [X → X ]

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-an-bn-final.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 5 / 23

Example 2: an b2n
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by final states:

LF (P) = {an b2n | n ≥ 0}

Now, we need to push two X ’s for each a.

1 Start with the stack only having the initial stack alphabet Z .
2 Repeatedly push two X ’s onto the stack for each a.
3 Repeatedly pop X from the stack for each b.
4 Accept when the top of the stack is Z .

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 6 / 23

Example 2: an b2n
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by final states:

LF (P) = {an b2n | n ≥ 0}

a [Z → XXZ ]
a [X → XXX ] b [X → ϵ]

start [Z ] q0 q1 q2
ϵ [Z → Z ] ϵ [Z → Z ]
ϵ [X → X ]

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-an-b2n-final.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 7 / 23

Example 3: ww R
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by final states:

LF (P) = {ww R | w ∈ {a, b}∗ }

The key idea is to store the first half of the word and compare it with the
second half in reverse order using the stack.
1 Start with the stack only having the initial stack alphabet Z .
2 Repeatedly push X (or Y ) onto the stack for each a (or b).
3 Repeatedly pop X (or Y ) from the stack for each a (or b).
4 Accept when the top of the stack is Z .

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 8 / 23

Example 3: ww R
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by final states:

LF (P) = {ww R | w ∈ {a, b}∗ }

a [Z → XZ ]
a [X → XX ]
a [Y → XY ]
b [Z → YZ ]
b [X → YX ] a [X → ϵ]
b [Y → YY ] b [Y → ϵ]

start [Z ] q0 q1 q2
ϵ [Z → Z ] ϵ [Z → Z ]
ϵ [X → X ]
ϵ [Y → Y ]

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-w-wr-final.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 9 / 23

Example 4: Balanced Parentheses
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {w ∈ {(, )}∗ | w is balanced}

The key idea is to count the number of unmatched open parentheses.

1 Start with the stack only having the initial stack alphabet Z .
2 If the current symbol is (, push ( onto the stack.
3 If the current symbol is ), pop ( from the stack.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3.
5 Accept when the top of the stack is Z .

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 10 / 23

Example 4: Balanced Parentheses
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {w ∈ {(, )}∗ | w is balanced}

( [Z → (Z ]
( [( → ((]
) [( → ϵ]
ϵ [Z → ϵ]

start [Z ] q0

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-balanced-empty.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 11 / 23

Example 5: Equal Number of a’s and b’s
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {w ∈ {a, b}∗ | Na (w ) = Nb (w )}

where Na (w ) and Nb (w ) are the number of a’s and b’s in w , respectively.

Consider the following function f : {a, b}∗ → N:

f (w ) = Na (w ) − Nb (w )

The key idea is to represent the positive value of f (w ) using the number
of P’s and the negative value of f (w ) using the number of N’s.
1 Start with the stack only having the initial stack alphabet Z .
2 If the current symbol is a, push P or pop N.
3 If the current symbol is b, push N or pop P.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3.
5 Accept when the top of the stack is Z .
COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 12 / 23
Example 5: Equal Number of a’s and b’s
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {w ∈ {a, b}∗ | Na (w ) = Nb (w )}

where Na (w ) and Nb (w ) are the number of a’s and b’s in w , respectively.

a [Z → PZ ]
a [P → PP]
a [N → ϵ]
b [Z → NZ ]
b [P → ϵ]
b [N → NN]
ϵ [Z → ϵ]

start [Z ] q0

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-eq-a-b-empty.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 13 / 23

Example 6: Unequal Number of a’s and b’s
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {w ∈ {a, b}∗ | Na (w ) ̸= Nb (w )}

where Na (w ) and Nb (w ) are the number of a’s and b’s in w , respectively.

The key idea is same but we accept the top of the stack is P or N.
1 Start with the stack only having the initial stack alphabet Z .
2 If the current symbol is a, push P or pop N.
3 If the current symbol is b, push N or pop P.
4 Repeat steps 2 and 3.
5 Accept when the top of the stack is P or N.

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 14 / 23

Example 6: Unequal Number of a’s and b’s
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {w ∈ {a, b}∗ | Na (w ) ̸= Nb (w )}

where Na (w ) and Nb (w ) are the number of a’s and b’s in w , respectively.

a [Z → PZ ]
a [P → PP]
a [N → ϵ]
b [Z → NZ ] ϵ [Z → ϵ]
b [P → ϵ] ϵ [P → ϵ]
b [N → NN] ϵ [N → ϵ]

start [Z ] q0 q1
ϵ [P → ϵ]
ϵ [N → ϵ]

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-uneq-a-b-empty.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 15 / 23

Example 7: Not of the Form ww
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | x is not of the form ww }

There are two cases of x ∈ LE (P):

1 x is an odd-length word or
2 x is divided into two same-length but unequal words.

In the second case, assume x = a1 · · · a2n . Then,

∃1 ≤ i ≤ n. ai ̸= ai+n

i 1 n 1 n i
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ai
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ai+n
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COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 16 / 23

Example 7: Not of the Form ww
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | x is not of the form ww }

There are two cases of x ∈ LE (P):

1 x is an odd-length word or
2 x is divided into two same-length but unequal words.

In the second case, assume x = a1 · · · a2n . Then,

∃1 ≤ i ≤ n. ai ̸= ai+n

i 1 i 1 n i n i
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ai
<latexit sha1_base64="kNEDHwynPjSjevZyyKAJx2YEWKo=">AAACEnicbVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARXZUakuiy6cVnRPqAdSiaTtqFJZkjuCOPQT3An+i/uxK0/4K+4Mm1nYVsPXDicc29u7gliwQ247rezsrq2vrFZ2Cpu7+zu7ZcODpsmSjRlDRqJSLcDYpjgijWAg2DtWDMiA8Fawehm4rcemTY8Ug+QxsyXZKB4n1MCVronPd4rld2KOwVeJl5OyihHvVf66YYRTSRTQAUxpuO5MfgZ0cCpYONiNzEsJnREBqxjqSKSGT+bfnWMT60S4n6kbSnAU/XvREakMakMbKckMDSL3kT81zMgiU51uLAf+ld+xlWcAFN0tr6fCAwRnqSBQ64ZBZFaQqjm9gJMh0QTCjazufeBj57GRRuWtxjNMmmeV7xqpXp3Ua5d57EV0DE6QWfIQ5eohm5RHTUQRQP0jF7Rm/PivDsfzuesdcXJZ47QHJyvX3g8nuI=</latexit>

ai+n
<latexit sha1_base64="AZHwR81Jo+GpArfRH87+QBGceJM=">AAACFnicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPVVdelmsAiCUBKR6rLoxmUF+4A2lMlk0g6dTMLMjRBDPsKd6L+4E7du/RVXTtssbOuBC4dz7p0793ix4Bps+9taWV1b39gsbZW3d3b39isHh20dJYqyFo1EpLoe0UxwyVrAQbBurBgJPcE63vh24ncemdI8kg+QxswNyVDygFMCRuqQQcbPZT6oVO2aPQVeJk5BqqhAc1D56fsRTUImgQqidc+xY3AzooBTwfJyP9EsJnRMhqxnqCQh0242/W6OT43i4yBSpiTgqfp3IiOh1mnomc6QwEgvehPxX09DSFSq/IX9EFy7GZdxAkzS2fogERgiPEkE+1wxCiI1hFDFzQWYjogiFExuc+8DHz/lZROWsxjNMmlf1Jx6rX5/WW3cFLGV0DE6QWfIQVeoge5QE7UQRWP0jF7Rm/VivVsf1uesdcUqZo7QHKyvX7IMoJs=</latexit>

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 17 / 23

Example 7: Not of the Form ww
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | x is not of the form ww }

There are two cases of x ∈ LE (P):

1 x is an odd-length word or
2 x is divided into two same-length but unequal words.

In the second case, assume x = a1 · · · a2n . Then,

∃1 ≤ i ≤ n. ai ̸= ai+n

j j
<latexit sha1_base64="t0MtSVh4HUo09yWbX4Qoy5bapFw=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmUL9gFtKJPJpB07k4SZGyGGfoE70X9xJ279A3/FldM2C9t64MLhnHvnzj1eLLgG2/62CmvrG5tbxe3Szu7e/kH58Kito0RR1qKRiFTXI5oJHrIWcBCsGytGpCdYxxvfTv3OI1OaR+E9pDFzJRmGPOCUgJGaD4Nyxa7aM+BV4uSkgnI0BuWfvh/RRLIQqCBa9xw7BjcjCjgVbFLqJ5rFhI7JkPUMDYlk2s1mH53gM6P4OIiUqRDwTP07kRGpdSo90ykJjPSyNxX/9TRIolLlL+2H4NrNeBgnwEI6Xx8kAkOEp1lgnytGQaSGEKq4uQDTEVGEgkls4X3g46dJyYTlLEezStoXVadWrTUvK/WbPLYiOkGn6Bw56ArV0R1qoBaiiKFn9IrerBfr3fqwPuetBSufOUYLsL5+Ae2Png8=</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="t0MtSVh4HUo09yWbX4Qoy5bapFw=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmUL9gFtKJPJpB07k4SZGyGGfoE70X9xJ279A3/FldM2C9t64MLhnHvnzj1eLLgG2/62CmvrG5tbxe3Szu7e/kH58Kito0RR1qKRiFTXI5oJHrIWcBCsGytGpCdYxxvfTv3OI1OaR+E9pDFzJRmGPOCUgJGaD4Nyxa7aM+BV4uSkgnI0BuWfvh/RRLIQqCBa9xw7BjcjCjgVbFLqJ5rFhI7JkPUMDYlk2s1mH53gM6P4OIiUqRDwTP07kRGpdSo90ykJjPSyNxX/9TRIolLlL+2H4NrNeBgnwEI6Xx8kAkOEp1lgnytGQaSGEKq4uQDTEVGEgkls4X3g46dJyYTlLEezStoXVadWrTUvK/WbPLYiOkGn6Bw56ArV0R1qoBaiiKFn9IrerBfr3fqwPuetBSufOUYLsL5+Ae2Png8=</latexit>

k k
<latexit sha1_base64="F3EG0lJLoDRZCtptTYQpGRYLK9A=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmULthXaUCaTSTtkMgkzN0IM/QJ3ov/iTtz6B/6KK6dtFrb1wIXDOffOnXu8RHANtv1tldbWNza3ytuVnd29/YPq4VFXx6mirENjEasHj2gmuGQd4CDYQ6IYiTzBel54O/V7j0xpHst7yBLmRmQkecApASO1w2G1ZtftGfAqcQpSQwVaw+rPwI9pGjEJVBCt+46dgJsTBZwKNqkMUs0SQkMyYn1DJYmYdvPZRyf4zCg+DmJlSgKeqX8nchJpnUWe6YwIjPWyNxX/9TRERGXKX9oPwbWbc5mkwCSdrw9SgSHG0yywzxWjIDJDCFXcXIDpmChCwSS28D7w8GlSMWE5y9Gsku5F3WnUG+3LWvOmiK2MTtApOkcOukJNdIdaqIMoYugZvaI368V6tz6sz3lrySpmjtECrK9f7zueEA==</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="F3EG0lJLoDRZCtptTYQpGRYLK9A=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmULthXaUCaTSTtkMgkzN0IM/QJ3ov/iTtz6B/6KK6dtFrb1wIXDOffOnXu8RHANtv1tldbWNza3ytuVnd29/YPq4VFXx6mirENjEasHj2gmuGQd4CDYQ6IYiTzBel54O/V7j0xpHst7yBLmRmQkecApASO1w2G1ZtftGfAqcQpSQwVaw+rPwI9pGjEJVBCt+46dgJsTBZwKNqkMUs0SQkMyYn1DJYmYdvPZRyf4zCg+DmJlSgKeqX8nchJpnUWe6YwIjPWyNxX/9TRERGXKX9oPwbWbc5mkwCSdrw9SgSHG0yywzxWjIDJDCFXcXIDpmChCwSS28D7w8GlSMWE5y9Gsku5F3WnUG+3LWvOmiK2MTtApOkcOukJNdIdaqIMoYugZvaI368V6tz6sz3lrySpmjtECrK9f7zueEA==</latexit>

ai
<latexit sha1_base64="kNEDHwynPjSjevZyyKAJx2YEWKo=">AAACEnicbVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARXZUakuiy6cVnRPqAdSiaTtqFJZkjuCOPQT3An+i/uxK0/4K+4Mm1nYVsPXDicc29u7gliwQ247rezsrq2vrFZ2Cpu7+zu7ZcODpsmSjRlDRqJSLcDYpjgijWAg2DtWDMiA8Fawehm4rcemTY8Ug+QxsyXZKB4n1MCVronPd4rld2KOwVeJl5OyihHvVf66YYRTSRTQAUxpuO5MfgZ0cCpYONiNzEsJnREBqxjqSKSGT+bfnWMT60S4n6kbSnAU/XvREakMakMbKckMDSL3kT81zMgiU51uLAf+ld+xlWcAFN0tr6fCAwRnqSBQ64ZBZFaQqjm9gJMh0QTCjazufeBj57GRRuWtxjNMmmeV7xqpXp3Ua5d57EV0DE6QWfIQ5eohm5RHTUQRQP0jF7Rm/PivDsfzuesdcXJZ47QHJyvX3g8nuI=</latexit>

ai+n
<latexit sha1_base64="AZHwR81Jo+GpArfRH87+QBGceJM=">AAACFnicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPVVdelmsAiCUBKR6rLoxmUF+4A2lMlk0g6dTMLMjRBDPsKd6L+4E7du/RVXTtssbOuBC4dz7p0793ix4Bps+9taWV1b39gsbZW3d3b39isHh20dJYqyFo1EpLoe0UxwyVrAQbBurBgJPcE63vh24ncemdI8kg+QxswNyVDygFMCRuqQQcbPZT6oVO2aPQVeJk5BqqhAc1D56fsRTUImgQqidc+xY3AzooBTwfJyP9EsJnRMhqxnqCQh0242/W6OT43i4yBSpiTgqfp3IiOh1mnomc6QwEgvehPxX09DSFSq/IX9EFy7GZdxAkzS2fogERgiPEkE+1wxCiI1hFDFzQWYjogiFExuc+8DHz/lZROWsxjNMmlf1Jx6rX5/WW3cFLGV0DE6QWfIQVeoge5QE7UQRWP0jF7Rm/VivVsf1uesdcUqZo7QHKyvX7IMoJs=</latexit>

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 18 / 23

Example 7: Not of the Form ww
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | x is not of the form ww }

There are two cases of x ∈ LE (P):

1 x is an odd-length word or
2 x is divided into two odd-length words whose centers are different.

In the second case, assume x = a1 · · · a2n . Then,

∃1 ≤ i ≤ n. ai ̸= ai+n

j j
<latexit sha1_base64="t0MtSVh4HUo09yWbX4Qoy5bapFw=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmUL9gFtKJPJpB07k4SZGyGGfoE70X9xJ279A3/FldM2C9t64MLhnHvnzj1eLLgG2/62CmvrG5tbxe3Szu7e/kH58Kito0RR1qKRiFTXI5oJHrIWcBCsGytGpCdYxxvfTv3OI1OaR+E9pDFzJRmGPOCUgJGaD4Nyxa7aM+BV4uSkgnI0BuWfvh/RRLIQqCBa9xw7BjcjCjgVbFLqJ5rFhI7JkPUMDYlk2s1mH53gM6P4OIiUqRDwTP07kRGpdSo90ykJjPSyNxX/9TRIolLlL+2H4NrNeBgnwEI6Xx8kAkOEp1lgnytGQaSGEKq4uQDTEVGEgkls4X3g46dJyYTlLEezStoXVadWrTUvK/WbPLYiOkGn6Bw56ArV0R1qoBaiiKFn9IrerBfr3fqwPuetBSufOUYLsL5+Ae2Png8=</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="t0MtSVh4HUo09yWbX4Qoy5bapFw=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmUL9gFtKJPJpB07k4SZGyGGfoE70X9xJ279A3/FldM2C9t64MLhnHvnzj1eLLgG2/62CmvrG5tbxe3Szu7e/kH58Kito0RR1qKRiFTXI5oJHrIWcBCsGytGpCdYxxvfTv3OI1OaR+E9pDFzJRmGPOCUgJGaD4Nyxa7aM+BV4uSkgnI0BuWfvh/RRLIQqCBa9xw7BjcjCjgVbFLqJ5rFhI7JkPUMDYlk2s1mH53gM6P4OIiUqRDwTP07kRGpdSo90ykJjPSyNxX/9TRIolLlL+2H4NrNeBgnwEI6Xx8kAkOEp1lgnytGQaSGEKq4uQDTEVGEgkls4X3g46dJyYTlLEezStoXVadWrTUvK/WbPLYiOkGn6Bw56ArV0R1qoBaiiKFn9IrerBfr3fqwPuetBSufOUYLsL5+Ae2Png8=</latexit>

k k
<latexit sha1_base64="F3EG0lJLoDRZCtptTYQpGRYLK9A=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmULthXaUCaTSTtkMgkzN0IM/QJ3ov/iTtz6B/6KK6dtFrb1wIXDOffOnXu8RHANtv1tldbWNza3ytuVnd29/YPq4VFXx6mirENjEasHj2gmuGQd4CDYQ6IYiTzBel54O/V7j0xpHst7yBLmRmQkecApASO1w2G1ZtftGfAqcQpSQwVaw+rPwI9pGjEJVBCt+46dgJsTBZwKNqkMUs0SQkMyYn1DJYmYdvPZRyf4zCg+DmJlSgKeqX8nchJpnUWe6YwIjPWyNxX/9TRERGXKX9oPwbWbc5mkwCSdrw9SgSHG0yywzxWjIDJDCFXcXIDpmChCwSS28D7w8GlSMWE5y9Gsku5F3WnUG+3LWvOmiK2MTtApOkcOukJNdIdaqIMoYugZvaI368V6tz6sz3lrySpmjtECrK9f7zueEA==</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="F3EG0lJLoDRZCtptTYQpGRYLK9A=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwVRKR6rLoxmULthXaUCaTSTtkMgkzN0IM/QJ3ov/iTtz6B/6KK6dtFrb1wIXDOffOnXu8RHANtv1tldbWNza3ytuVnd29/YPq4VFXx6mirENjEasHj2gmuGQd4CDYQ6IYiTzBel54O/V7j0xpHst7yBLmRmQkecApASO1w2G1ZtftGfAqcQpSQwVaw+rPwI9pGjEJVBCt+46dgJsTBZwKNqkMUs0SQkMyYn1DJYmYdvPZRyf4zCg+DmJlSgKeqX8nchJpnUWe6YwIjPWyNxX/9TRERGXKX9oPwbWbc5mkwCSdrw9SgSHG0yywzxWjIDJDCFXcXIDpmChCwSS28D7w8GlSMWE5y9Gsku5F3WnUG+3LWvOmiK2MTtApOkcOukJNdIdaqIMoYugZvaI368V6tz6sz3lrySpmjtECrK9f7zueEA==</latexit>

ai
<latexit sha1_base64="kNEDHwynPjSjevZyyKAJx2YEWKo=">AAACEnicbVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARXZUakuiy6cVnRPqAdSiaTtqFJZkjuCOPQT3An+i/uxK0/4K+4Mm1nYVsPXDicc29u7gliwQ247rezsrq2vrFZ2Cpu7+zu7ZcODpsmSjRlDRqJSLcDYpjgijWAg2DtWDMiA8Fawehm4rcemTY8Ug+QxsyXZKB4n1MCVronPd4rld2KOwVeJl5OyihHvVf66YYRTSRTQAUxpuO5MfgZ0cCpYONiNzEsJnREBqxjqSKSGT+bfnWMT60S4n6kbSnAU/XvREakMakMbKckMDSL3kT81zMgiU51uLAf+ld+xlWcAFN0tr6fCAwRnqSBQ64ZBZFaQqjm9gJMh0QTCjazufeBj57GRRuWtxjNMmmeV7xqpXp3Ua5d57EV0DE6QWfIQ5eohm5RHTUQRQP0jF7Rm/PivDsfzuesdcXJZ47QHJyvX3g8nuI=</latexit>

ai+n
<latexit sha1_base64="AZHwR81Jo+GpArfRH87+QBGceJM=">AAACFnicbVDLSsNAFJ34rPVVdelmsAiCUBKR6rLoxmUF+4A2lMlk0g6dTMLMjRBDPsKd6L+4E7du/RVXTtssbOuBC4dz7p0793ix4Bps+9taWV1b39gsbZW3d3b39isHh20dJYqyFo1EpLoe0UxwyVrAQbBurBgJPcE63vh24ncemdI8kg+QxswNyVDygFMCRuqQQcbPZT6oVO2aPQVeJk5BqqhAc1D56fsRTUImgQqidc+xY3AzooBTwfJyP9EsJnRMhqxnqCQh0242/W6OT43i4yBSpiTgqfp3IiOh1mnomc6QwEgvehPxX09DSFSq/IX9EFy7GZdxAkzS2fogERgiPEkE+1wxCiI1hFDFzQWYjogiFExuc+8DHz/lZROWsxjNMmlf1Jx6rX5/WW3cFLGV0DE6QWfIQVeoge5QE7UQRWP0jF7Rm/VivVsf1uesdcUqZo7QHKyvX7IMoJs=</latexit>

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 19 / 23

Example 7: Not of the Form ww
Construct a PDA that accepts the language by empty stacks:

LE (P) = {x ∈ {a, b}∗ | x is not of the form ww }

a, b [Z → XZ ] a, b [X → ϵ] a, b [Z → XZ ]
a, b [X → XX ] ϵ [Z → ϵ] a, b [X → XX ]

start [Z ] q0 q1 q2
a [Z → Z ] ϵ [Z → Z ]
a [X → X ]
b [Z → Z ] b [Z → Z ]
b [X → X ] b [X → X ]
a [Z → Z ]
ϵ [Z → Z ] a [X → X ]
q3 q4 q5

a, b [X → ϵ] a, b [Z → XZ ] a, b [X → ϵ]
ϵ [Z → ϵ] a, b [X → XX ] ϵ [Z → ϵ]

https://plrg.korea.ac.kr/courses/cose215/materials/pda-not-w-w-empty.pdf

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 20 / 23

Summary

1. Examples of Pushdown Automata

Example 1: an bn
Example 2: an b2n
Example 3: ww R
Example 4: Balanced Parentheses
Example 5: Equal Number of a’s and b’s
Example 6: Unequal Number of a’s and b’s
Example 7: Not of the Form ww

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 21 / 23

Homework #4
• Please see this document on GitHub:

https://github.com/ku-plrg-classroom/docs/tree/main/cose215/pda-examples

• The due date is 23:59 on May 15 (Wed.).

• Please only submit Implementation.scala file to Blackboard.

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 22 / 23

Next Lecture
• Equivalence of Pushdown Automata and Context-Free Grammars

Jihyeok Park
jihyeok [email protected]
https://plrg.korea.ac.kr

COSE215 @ Korea University Lecture 15 – Examples of PDA May 1, 2024 23 / 23