Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT)

Department of Civil Engineering

CEng 4602 – Hydraulic Structures II [3] (2-3-3)

1. River Morphology

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 River
River is any body of fresh water flowing from an upland source to a large lake or to the
sea, fed by such sources as springs and tributary streams. The main parts of a river
include a channel, in which the water flows, and a floodplain—a flat region of a valley on
either side of the channel.
◊ Rivers may be;
(i) Perennial – continuous flow (have adequate discharge though out the year,
there is dependable base flow contribution)
(ii) Ephemeral – flows only for short period during or following precipitation (less
than 30 days per year)
(iii) Intermittent – flow only during certain times of the year (seasonal flow, lasts
more than 30 days per year).
◊ Rivers carry both water and sediment (clay, silt, sand, gravel, etc).
◊ Rivers also have multitude of functions, which includes the following:

Social/ economic/ cultural functions:
o Sources of water is used for
- Municipal/ commercial/ industrial uses
- Irrigation
- Power production (hydropower)
- Transportation
- Recreation
o Means of waste disposal

Ecological functions

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 o Habitats to
- Aquatic plants and animals
◊ Rivers are complex dynamic systems

Interaction between:
o Hydrodynamics
o Morphodynamics
o Ecological processes

They continuously change their forms and patterns (shape, size, position) and
other morphological characteristics in space and time (spatial & temporal) due
changes in;
o Water discharge
o Sediment discharge

The changes in water and sediment discharge may be caused by;
o Natural elements (natural forces)
- Discharge is naturally variable
o Anthropogenic elements
- Human interference in the fluvial system
 Land developments
 Land clearance
 Infrastructure building
 Land use change
 River developments
 Hydraulic structures
 River channelization
 Gravel and sand mining
◊ River morphology is the study of the forms and patterns of rivers and the
processes that developed those forms. It is time dependent and varies particularly
with discharge, sediment input and characteristics, and with bank material. River
morphology can also be substantially influenced by engineering works.

River forms and patterns:
o River channel geometry

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 - Shape of channel cross
cross-section
- Size of channel cross-section
cross
o River channel pattern/ planform
planf
- Straight channel
- Meandering channel
- Braided channel
o River channel planform geometry
o River bed grade/ slope

River morphological processes: processes due to flowing water
o Erosion
o Transportation
o Deposition
◊ River forms and patterns and morphological proces
processes
ses interact in a feedback
mechanism.

Understanding of sediment transport and morphological processes are essential for

integrated river management and river engineering. If the transport capacity of the river
is affected, e.g. by diversion of water from
from the river or by storing water in a reservoir,

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deposition of sediments may occur. If not properly taken care of, harmful sedimentation
and/or erosion may occur due to water management measures, which then again to be
remedied. Hence, good water management (and more generally good river
management, which includes also the management of, e.g. flood plain of the river)
includes sediment management. For this, sufficient understanding of the sediment
transport and morphological processes in the river is a must.

Some of the reasons why good understanding of sediment transport process is

important are:
(a) Morphological boundary conditions for design of hydraulic structures and
river training works.
For the design of such structures boundary conditions have to be specified. These
comprise not only the discharge, maximum and minimum water levels and current
velocities, but also the lowest bed levels that may occur in a river and the future
changes in the morphological characteristics of the river near the structure. These
levels and possible changes are effectuated by gradients in the sediment transport
rates. Changes are not only due to natural processes like the variation of the
discharge in time or ongoing bank erosion, but there will also be an interaction
between the future structure and the nearby flow pattern and sediment transport.
Also the latter should be accounted for properly. This requires understanding of the
interaction between flow, sediment and structure.

(b) Sedimentation in Reservoirs

Many reservoirs are suffering from excessive sedimentation. Often this is due to the
fact that either the upstream sediment supply was never considered or that the
seriousness of this process was underestimated, e.g. because not sufficient data
were available. Also changes in sediment yield, e.g. due to changed land use in the
upstream catchment, can cause detrimental sedimentation. To remedy the negative
effects (loss in storage capacity), changes in the operation of the reservoir are often
required, sometimes with drastic consequences, e.g. the reduction of the power
production.

(c) Sediment problems at Intakes

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 Many main canals of irrigation projects suffer from excessive sedimentation, which is
entering via the head works. Often this is due to the fact that the sediment transport
in the river was not properly assessed and appears to be much larger than
anticipated. Another reason is that morphological changes have taken place after
construction of the intake structure, which jeopardized the measures taken to
exclude sediment when withdrawing water. Remedial measures are rehabilitation of
the intake structure or regular cleaning of the canals, which both are very expensive.

(d) Environmental Impact Assessment

There is an increasing awareness of possible environmental impact of water
management schemes and river training works. To assess the potential impacts of
such schemes not only their hydraulic impacts should be assessed but also
possible morphological changes (degradation or aggradation, changes in flood plain
sedimentation, etc) should be identified. This assessment can only be done when
sufficient understanding is available on sediment transport processes.

Many more examples can be given which all stress the importance of understanding
sediment loads and sediment transport processes in rivers and the resulting
morphological changes before embarking on major water management schemes or
river training.

1.2 Natural Water Courses and Watershed

1.2.1 Natural Water Courses
◊ The hydrosphere is a closed system, i.e, the amount of water is approximately
constant.
◊ The water in the hydrosphere is caught up in the hydrologic cycle/ water cycle.
◊ Four main hydrological processes

Precipitation – P

Surface runoff – SR

Evaporation/ evapotranspiration – E/ ET

Infiltration – I
◊ Overland and channel flow

Precipitation on land, after deduction of

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 o Surface storage
o Evaporation
o Infiltration
forms the surface runoff.

Such surface flow is called overland flow.
o At the beginning such runoff is likely to flow in thin sheets of water as
sheet flow –(1)
o But it will soon start concentrating in natural depressions/ gullies forming
shallow concentrated flows – (2)

As the water flows downhill, the small gullies join to form channel flow –(3)
(usually detectable from areal photograph)
◊ Stream Ordering (Strahler – Horton stream order)

It is a measure of the relative size of streams;

It is a measure of the degree of stream branching within a watershed.

Each length of stream is indicated by its order (for example, first-order,
second order, etc.).
o Smaller recognizable channels are designated as Order 1: no
permanent flowing tributaries
o A first-order stream is an unbranched tributary, and a second-order
stream is a tributary formed by two or more first-order streams.
o When two channels of order 1 join, channel of order 2 results
o Generally, when two channels of order i join, channel of order i + 1
results

A third-order stream is formed by two or more second-order streams, and in
general, an nth-order stream is formed by two or more streams of order (n-1)
and streams of lower order.

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Figure 1.1 Ordering of stream of watershed having a principal order of 4.
Note in the figure above that the intersection of a channel with another channel of lower
order does not raise the order of the stream below the intersection (e.g., a fourth-order
stream intersecting with a second-order stream is still a fourth-order stream below the
intersection).

Within a given drainage basin, stream order correlates well with other basin parameters,

such as drainage area or channel length. Consequently, knowing what order a stream is

can provide clues concerning other characteristics such as which longitudinal zone it

resides in and relative channel size and depth.

1.2.2 The Watershed/ Catchment

◊ Rivers do not exist in isolation. They are part of a larger system – fluvial system
◊ In such system the concept of watershed/ catchment is important

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Definition

◊ Total area from which surface runoff flows to a given point of concentration is called
a watershed, a catchment area, a drainage basin, or a drainage area. Hence a
watershed is always connected to a certain point of concentration, the lowest point
of the respective basin.

In Fig. 1.2, the point A denotes the final concentration point for the given watershed
(beyond that point no runoff flow pertaining to the catchment area is possible), whereas
at point H the runoff flow from the partial watershed area (hatched) is concentrated.

Figure 1.2 Watershed boundaries

◊ Therefore, whenever specifying a watershed area of a given stream, it should always

be clearly stated upstream of which point on the stream course it is related to. By
summarizing the partial watershed areas of all the tributaries, and by adding the
areas draining directly into the stream, total area of the watershed above the
concentration point is obtained.
◊ The imaginary line delimiting various watersheds is known as water dividing line or
water-divide. Its configuration depends on the topography only, and it runs along the
highest points of the surrounding area. Precipitations falling outside the area
enclosed by this line will form a runoff flowing to another stream, over another
catchment area (see Fig. 1.2). The farther downstream along the stream the point of

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 concentration, the more tributaries will join the stream and the larger the respective
watershed.

1.2.2.1 Watershed geomorphology/ characteristics

(a) Drainage area – A
◊ It is the single most important watershed characteristics for hydrologic design
◊ It reflects the volume of water that can be generated from precipitation;
o V = Rainfall depth x Area
(b) Watershed Length - L
◊ It is the second most important watershed characteristics in hydrologic design.
◊ It is useful for the computation of the concentration time - Tc;
◊ It is the distance measured along the main channel from the watershed outlet to
the basin divide;
◊ While the length increases, the drainage area increases;
(c) Watershed Slope – S
◊ Flood magnitudes reflect the momentum of the runoff. Slope is an important
factor in the momentum.
◊ Watershed slope reflects the rate of change of elevation with respect to distance
along the principal flow path.
(d) Watershed Shape
◊ Watersheds have an infinite variety of shapes;
◊ Not used directly in hydrologic design;
◊ However, the shape reflects the way that runoff will “bunch up” at the outlet;
o A circular watershed would result in runoff from various parts of the
watershed reaching the outlet at the same time.
o An elliptical watershed having the outlet at one end of the major axis and
having the same area as the circular watershed would cause the runoff to
be spread out over time, thus producing a smaller flood peak than that of
the circular watershed.
◊ Some of the hypothetical shapes are shown in figure 1.3:

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Figure 1.3 Hypothetical watersheds. (a) Ellipse: side; (b) triangle: center; (c) square:
Comer; (d) circle; (e) triangle: vertex; (f) rectangle; (g) ellipse: end.

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 ◊ In spite of the infinite number of possible watershed shapes, the majority may
nevertheless be usually reduced to three main configuration groups (Fig. 1.4):

(1) elongated watershed,

(2) broad watershed, and
(3) fan-shaped watershed

Figure 1.4 Simplified watershed shapes

1.2.2.2 Effect of Watershed Shape on the Runoff Flow

There are many factors which influence the hydraulic characteristics of a watershed as
a part of an overall fluvial system. These factors may generally be summarized as
follows:
1. Watershed geometry - which, among others, includes area, shape, location,
length of streams, average main-stream slope, drainage density, etc.
2. Soil characteristics - type of soil, grain-size distribution, texture, erosivity, etc.
3. Vegetation cover - types and distribution, interception, transpiration, etc.
4. Hydrology - infiltration rate, groundwater, peak discharges, type of flow (perennial
or ephemeral), yearly hydrographs, etc.
5. Geology - structure, bedrock and surface-soil types and distribution, etc.
6. Climate - temperature, precipitation type, seasonal occurrence and duration,
frequency, etc.
7. Sediment yield - erosion and transport mechanism, sources of, etc.

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 8. Human influence - degree and type of development, construction activity,
deforestation, etc.
While the characteristics under 2 to 8 have a preponderant influence on the volume of
the runoff from a given watershed area, geometric characteristics affect the form of the
hydrograph and the peak discharge.

Watersheds can obviously have infinite variations of shape, according to the given
topography. Analytical analysis of hydrograph forms and corresponding peak
discharges have been carried out by many hydrologists and in Fig. 1.5 a very illustrative
diagram of such an analysis is given.

Watersheds in Fig. 1.5 all have the same area and the same characteristics except the
geometrical shape. Uniform rainfall intensity of duration tr = tc is supposed to prevail.
The symbol nB denotes the ratio between the length of the watershed and its width.

Figure 1.5 Effect of geometric shape of watershed on hydrograph and peak discharge

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1.2.3 Longitudinal Profile and Mean Slope of streams
Longitudinal profile along the main stream of the watershed will often provide valuable
information about its properties and the extension of its various parts in respect of the
elevation (Fig. 1.6).

Upper course (zone 1 or head water) - Generally large longitudinal slopes, hence high
velocities of flow, and continuous erosion of the bed. Typically erosive stream
characteristics.

Middle course (zone 2 or transfer zone) - Longitudinal slope of the stream gradually
eases, tributaries join the main stream, and therefore often sudden changes of flow
regime. It is usually characterized by wide floodplains and meandering channel
patterns. Although stretches of erosion and deposition frequently exchange, both in
space and time, this transitional reach of the stream is on the whole generally the most
stable and balanced part. Stream characteristics obtained from the middle course are
frequently used as basis for the design of stream training projects.

Lower course (zone 3 or depositional zone) - Longitudinal slope flattens, discharge

increases. Gradual deposition of sediment eroded upstream; hence relatively short-
period shifting and changing of the main stream channel.

It is important to note that erosion, transfer, and deposition occur in all zones, but the
zone concept focuses on the most dominant process.

Some of the changes in the zones are characterized in Figures 1.6 and 1.7.

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Figure 1.6 Three longitudinal profile zones. Channel and floodplain characteristics
change as rivers travel from headwaters to mouth.

Figure 1.7 Changes in the channel in the three zones. Flow, channel size, and sediment
characteristics change throughout the longitudinal profile.

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1.2.4 Elements of Hydrometric Measurements
Our knowledge and understanding of the morphology and behavior of natural
watercourses has been gained or derived from many long-term observations and
measurements. These measurements, as far as alluvial channels are concerned can
generally be classified into the following groups:

1. Geodetic measurements,
2. Position fixing,
3. Water-level measurements,
4. Depth sounding,
5. Velocity measurements,
6. Discharge measurements, and
7. Sediment transport measurements.
The first two measurement groups belong to surveying methods; strictly speaking, they
do not make part of hydrometric measurements, but are auxiliary to them.

Water-Level Measurements

a) Staff Gauges
One of the simplest ways for detecting and measuring changes in water levels of a
stream is by means of a graduated pole sunk vertically into the water and fastened to
bed, banks or some stable structure, if available.

b) Suspended-Weight Gauge
This is also a relatively simple device for measurement of water-level changes, but
unlike staff gauge, it is a portable instrument used in connection with any suitable fixed
structure, such as bridges or streamside constructions. Water levels are determined by
means of a cord or steel tape held tight by a suspended weight, and lowered from a
fixed point until it touches the water surface.

c) Automatic Gauge
At those places along a watercourse where continuous water level recording is wanted,
usually a permanent structure will have to be erected. Recording instrument is housed
in a small shelter connected to a stilling-well beneath it.

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Depth Sounding
a) Sounding Rod
This is the simplest method for the depth sounding. The conveniently graduated rod, at
whose lower end a square plate is fixed, is sunk into the water from an appropriate
vessel until it reaches the bottom; the depth is then read on the scale, the zero being at
the base of the rod. The rod must not necessarily be in the vertical position, provided
the angle it makes with the water surface is duly taken into account.

b) Echo Sounding
This method is based on the use of the physical properties of the sound propagation in
water. High-frequency sound impulses emitted from a base vessel are reflected from
the bottom and received back as an echo. The time interval between the emission of the
signal and its back-reception is proportional to the depth of the water. Thus practically a
continuous depth profile can be obtained.

Velocity Measurements
a) Floats
Measurement of flow velocities by means of floats is the simplest method, but also the
least accurate one. By measuring the time interval it takes a light-weight float to cover a
predetermined distance between two fixed cross-sections, surface velocity can be
obtained.
b) Current Meters
Current meters are still the most widely used measuring instrument in hydrometry. They
convert the momentum of the liquid into torque that can be calibrated in terms of
velocity.

Discharge Measurement

The final scope of all the hydrometric measuring methods discussed so far is generally
to obtain a fairly accurate, economically and technically acceptable estimate of the
discharge at a given flow section. This can be achieved by using (a) current meters, (b)
hydraulic structures, such as weirs, etc.

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Sediment Transport Measurements
There can be no doubt about the engineering importance of obtaining fairly reliable
information in respect of the sediment transporting capacity of a watercourse under
study. In fact, for good understanding of an alluvial stream and its characteristics, such
information is essential. It is customary for measuring purposes to assume that the total
sediment load of a stream consists of two parts:
a) Suspended load (discharge), carried by the water across a stream section above
the bed layer. It consists of particles that stay suspended for an appreciable
length of time, and may contain sand and finer fractions, such as silt and clay.
b) Bed load (discharge), sediment that is carried across a stream section inside the
bed layer or close to it. Particles move by means of small jumps (saltation),
rolling or sliding.

1.3 Alluvial Streams

Alluvial stream may be defined as an open conduit, with geometric dimensions - cross
section, longitudinal profile and slope - changing with time, in dependence of discharge,
material of the stream bed and banks, and quantity and quality of the solid sediment
carried by the water.

Alluvial channels are virtually free to adjust their dimensions and shape in response to
changing hydraulic conditions of flow; it is evident, therefore, that most parts of the
stream bed and its banks are composed of the material transported by the stream.

The morphological processes which are responsible for the formation and development
of alluvial streams are: (i) erosion, (ii) transportation, and (iii) deposition.

Erosion: is the process by which soils and minerals are detached and transported.
Erosion can take place both in the channel and the watershed.
- Channel erosion – due to channel flow
- On the watershed – due to overland flow
• Splash erosion
• Sheet erosion

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 • Rill erosion
• Gully erosion

Splash erosion: when rain drop strikes bare soil, it breaks up the soil aggregates amd
separates the fine particles from heavier soil particles. These particles are then
transported with the surface runoff.

Sheet erosion: the thin sheets of water that forms at the beginning of rainfall carries
loose materials as it runs over the land towards the waterways.

Rill erosion: As the sheet flow begins to concentrate on the land surface, the kinetic
energy of the concentrated flow begins to cut small channels called rills and is capable
of detaching and transporting soil particles.

Gully erosion: As rills become deeper and wider, gullies are formed. They are capable
of transporting large quantities of sediment since the flow rates are greater.

Channel erosion: It occurs when bank vegetation is disturbed or when the flow rate in
the stream is increased beyond the critical point where bed material particle movement
is initiated. These changes destroy the geomorphic equilibrium of natural streams and
cause channel erosion to begin.

Stable stream channel: is one in which there is no objectionable silting/aggradation

(gradual rise in channel bottom over entire length), scouring (erosive deformation of the
channel), or sedimentation (increase and advancing forward of the volume of sediment
deposited). When these processes occur in excessive amount the channel becomes
unstable and its natural balance is destroyed.

The channel functions by transporting sediment out of the watershed by means of its
flow. The total load of sediment transported by the channel is made up of the bed-
material load and the wash load.

1.3.1 Sediment Transport in Rivers

The science of sediment transport deals with the interrelationship between flowing water
and sediment particles. An understanding of the physical properties of water and
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sediment particles is essential to our study of sediment transport. In this section, the
most commonly used terminologies are introduced; fundamental properties of water and
sediment particles are also given.

Some commonly used terms for describing the properties of water and sediment are:

1. Density: the mass per unit volume [kg/m³]. The density of water is denoted by ρ
while that of sediment is denoted by ρs.
2. Specific weight: the weight per unit volume [kN/m³]. It is denoted by g for water g s
for sediment. The relationship between density and specific weight is
γ s = ρs g for sediment, and
γ = ρg for water
3. Specific gravity: The specific gravity, s, is the ratio of the specific weight of a solid
or a liquid (a given material) to that of water at 4°C. The specific gravity of most
common sediments is 2.65.
4. Nominal diameter: is the diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the
particle.
5. Sieve diameter: is the diameter of a sphere equal to the length of the side of a
square sieve opening through which the particle can just pass. As an
approximation, the sieve diameter is equal to the nominal diameter.
6. Fall diameter: is the diameter of a sphere that has a specific gravity of 2.65 and
has the same terminal fall velocity as the particle when each is allowed to settle
alone in quiescent, distilled water. The standard fall diameter is the fall diameter
determined at a water temperature of 24°C.
7. Fall velocity: is the average terminal settling velocity of a particle falling alone in
quiescent distilled water of infinite extent. When the fall velocity is measured at
24°C, it is called the standard fall velocity.
8. Angle of repose: is the angle of slope formed by a given material under the
conditions of incipient sliding.
9. Porosity: is a measure of the volume of voids per unit volume of sediment, i.e.

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 where p= porosity, Vv = volume of voids, Vt = total volume of sediment, including
that due to voids, and Vs = volume of sediment excluding that due to voids.

10. Viscosity: is the degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied force.
Dynamic viscosity is the constant of proportionality relating the shear stress and
velocity gradient, i.e. τ = µ du dy , where τ is shear stress, µ is dynamic viscosity and

du/dy is the velocity gradient. Kinematic viscosity is the ratio between dynamic
viscosity and fluid density, i.e. ν = µ /ρ, ν is kinematic viscosity.

1.3.1.1 Properties of sediment

Sediments are broadly classified as cohesive and non-cohesive (or cohesionless). With
cohesive sediments, the resistance to erosion depends on the strength of the cohesive
bond binding the particles. Cohesion may far outweigh the influence of the physical
characteristics of the individual particles. On the other hand, the cohesionless
sediments generally consist of larger discrete particles than the cohesive soils.
Cohesionless sediment particles react to fluid forces and their movement is affected by
the physical properties of the particles such as size, shape, and density.

Sediment properties of individual particles that are important in the study of sediment
transport are particle size, shape, density, specific weight, and fall velocity.

a) Size
Size is the basic and most readily measurable property of sediment. Size has been
found to sufficiently describe the physical property of a sediment particle for many
practical purposes. The size of a particle can be determined by caliper, sieve or by
sedimentation methods. The size of an individual particle is not of primary importance in
river mechanics or sedimentation studies, but the size distribution of the sediment that
forms the bed and banks of the stream or reservoir are of great importance.

b) Shape
Shape refers to the geometric form or configuration of a particle regardless of its size or
composition. Corey investigated several shape factors, and concluded that from the

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viewpoint of simplicity and effective correlation, the following ratio was most significant
expression of shape.
c
Sp = (1.1)
ab
In this equation, a, b, and c are the lengths of the longest, the intermediate, and the
shortest mutually perpendicular axes through the particle, respectively, and Sp is the
shape factor (also called Corey’s shape factor). The shape factor is 1.0 for sphere.
Naturally worn quartz particles have an average shape factor of 0.7.

c) Density
The density of a sediment particle refers to its mineral composition. Usually, specific
gravity, which is defined as the ratio of specific weight or density of sediment to specific
weight or density of water, is used as an indicator of density. Waterborne sediment
particles are primarily composed of quartz with specific gravity of 2.65.

d) Specific weight
Specific weight is an important factor extensively used in hydraulics and sediment
transport. The specific weight of deposited sediment depends on the extent of
consolidation of the sediment. It increases with time after initial deposition. It also
depends on the composition of the sediment mixture.

e) Fall velocity, ω
The fall velocity, or the terminal fall velocity, that a particle attains in a quiescent column
of water, is directly related to relative flow conditions between the sediment particle and
the water during conditions of sediment entrainment, transportation, and deposition. The
fall velocity reflects the integrated result of size, shape, surface roughness, specific
gravity, and viscosity of fluid. The fall velocity of a particle can be calculated from a
balance between the particle buoyant weight and the resisting force resulting from fluid
drag. The general drag equation is

ω2
FD = C D ρA (1.2)
2

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where FD = drag force; CD = drag coefficient; ρ = density of water; A = the projected
area of particle in the direction of fall, and ω = the fall velocity.

The buoyant or submerged weight of a spherical sediment particle is

π r 3 (ρ s − ρ )g
4
Ws = (1.3)
3
where r is the particle radius.

The fall velocity can be solved from equations (1.2) and (1.3) once the drag coefficient
has been determined. The drag coefficient is a function of Reynolds number and shape
factor.

Figure 1.8 Relationship between drag coefficient and Reynolds number

Theoretical consideration of drag coefficient: For a very slow and steady moving
sphere in an infinite liquid at a very small Reynolds number, the drag force can be
expressed as

FD = 6 µ π r ω (1.4)
The drag coefficient is then found to be (this is the viscous or Stokes range where Re is
less than 0.1)

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 24
CD = (1.5)
Re
where Re = Reynolds number.

Equation (1.5) is acceptable for Reynolds numbers less than 1.0.

From equation (1.2) and (1.5), Stoke’s equation can be obtained, i.e.,

FD = 3 π d ρ υ ω (1.6)
From equation (1.3) and (1.6), the terminal fall velocity for a sediment particle is

1 γs −γ d2
ω= g (1.7)
18 γ υ
where d is the sediment diameter.
Equation (1.7) is applicable for the estimation of fall velocity of a sediment particle in
water if the particle diameter is equal to or less than 0.1 mm. The value of kinematic
viscosity in equation (1.7) is a function of water temperature, and can be computed from

(
ν = 1.79 2 x10 −6 1.0 + 0.0337T + 0.000221T 2 ) (1.8)
where T is water temperature in °C.

Oseen included some inertia terms in his solution of the Navier-Stokes equation. The
solution thus obtained is

CD =
24
Re
(
1 + 163 R e ) (1.9)

Goldstein provided a more complete solution of the Oseen approximation, and the drag
coefficient becomes
24  19 71 
CD = 1 + 3 R e − R e2 + R 3e + ... (1.10)
R e  16 1280 20480 

Equation (1.10) is valid for Reynolds number up to 2.0.

Rubey’s formula: Rubey introduced a formula for the computation of fall velocity of
gravel, sand, and silt particles. For quartz particles with diameter greater than 1 mm, the
fall velocity can be computed by

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 1
  γ − γ 
2

ω = F d g  s   (1.11)
  γ 

where the parameter F= 0.79 for particles greater than 1 mm settling in water with
temperature between 10°C and 25°C, and d is the par ticle diameter.

For smaller grain sizes

1 1
2 36 ν 2  2
 36 ν 2  2

F= +  − 3  (1.12)
 3 g d (( γ s γ ) − 1)   g d ((γ s γ ) − 1) 
3

For particle sizes greater than 2 mm, the fall velocity in 16°C water can be
approximated by

ω = 3.32 d
1
2
(ω in m / s, d in m ) (1.13)

Bulk Properties of Sediment

The size distribution, specific weight, and porosity of bed material are the three
important bulk properties in the study of sediment transport.

1. Particle Size Distribution: While the properties and behavior of individual sediment
particles are of fundamental concern, the greatest interest is in groups of sediment
particles. Various sediment particles moving at any time may have different sizes,
shapes, specific gravities, and fall velocities. The characteristic properties of the
sediment are determined by taking a number of samples and making a statistical
analysis of the samples to determine the mean, distribution, and standard deviation of
the sample.

The most commonly used method to determine size frequency is mechanical or sieve
analysis. In general, the results are presented as cumulative – size frequency curves.
The fraction or percentage by weight of sediment that is smaller or larger than a given
size is plotted against particle size.

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Usually, sediments are referred to as gravel, sand, silt or clay. These terms refer to the
size of the sediment particle. Table 1.1 presents the grain size scale of the American
Geophysical Union. This scale is based on powers of 2, which yields a linear logarithmic
scale via the phi-parameter defined as Φ = - log2d (with d in mm).

Table 1.1 Grain size scale of American Geophysical Union

Various methods are available to determine the particle size. Cobbles can be measured
directly with ruler. Gravel, sand and silt are analyzed by wet or dry sieving methods
yielding sieve diameters. Clay materials are analyzed hydraulically by using settling
methods yielding the particle fall velocity from which the standard fall diameter is
computed.

A natural sample of sediment particles contains particles of a range of sizes. The size
distribution of such a sample is the distribution of sediment material by percentages of
weight, usually presented as a cumulative frequency distribution (see Figure 1.9).

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 (a) (b)
Figure 1.9 Particle size distribution curves

The frequency distribution is characterized by:

 Median particle size – d50 which is the size at 50% by weight is finer. d50 is
commonly used as the characteristic grain size.
 Mean particle size - d m = ∑ (p i d i ) 100 , with pi = percentage by weight of each

grain size fraction, di.

 Geometric mean size – dg = (d15.9 d84.1)1/2 is the geometric mean of the two sizes
corresponding to 84.1% and 15.9% finer, respectively.
 Geometric standard deviation – σg = (d84.1/d15.9)1/2.
 Sorting coefficient – S = (d90/d10)1/2
Small values of S and σg imply a nearly uniform sediment size distribution. A large
value of S means a broad sediment size distribution.

1  d 84.1 d 50 
 Gradation coefficient – G =  +  - used to characterize the range of
2  d 50 d15.9 
particles sizes.

2. Specific Weight: The specific weight of deposited sediment depends on the

extent of consolidation of the sediment. It increases with time after initial deposition. It
also depends on the composition of the sediment mixture. The consolidation of
sediment is of interest to hydraulic engineers. For example, the life of reservoirs varies
as function of deposition and consolidation. Consolidation concepts can be used to

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convert sediment load, determined in units of weight, to volume of deposits in rivers,
irrigation channels, etc.

3. Porosity: Porosity is important in the determination of the volume of sediment

deposit. It is also important in the conversion from sediment volume to sediment
discharge. The following equation can be used for the computation of sediment
discharge by volume including that due to voids, once the porosity and sediment
discharge by weight have been determined, i.e.,
Vs
Vt = (1.14)
1− p

where Vt= total volume of sediment, including that due to voids, and Vs = volume of
sediment excluding that due to voids.

Exercises

1. Determine the fall velocities of sediment particles using Rubey's formula with
diameters of 0.4, 1.2, and 2.5 mm, respectively. The water temperature is 60°F and
the specific gravity of the sediment is 2.65.

2. The cumulative size distribution of bed material in a river is as shown in the table
below:

Determine the size-frequency distribution, mean diameter, standard deviation,

geometric mean size, geometric standard deviation, and gradation coefficient.

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