60 EE 201 Electric Circuit Analysis

COURSE NOTES
 UNIT I – Basic Circuit Analysis
Contents:
Basic circuit elements - Ohm’s law - Kirchhoff’s laws- series and parallel combination of
resistances, inductances and capacitances - Energy Sources - voltage and current division -
source transformation – star delta transformation. Mesh and Nodal analysis.

Introduction:
 Knowledge of electric circuit analysis is a skill to be acquired by an engineer to
contribute to the solution of engineering problems.
 It is the basis for electrical engineering.
 Tells you what happens when we interconnect resistors, capacitors, inductors, batteries
etc.,
 Develops ability to analyze and understand the circuits.
 Also to solve problems and arrive at a solution, knowledge of circuit theory is required.
 Enables us to work in the field of electrical, electronics and instrumentation.

Need to Study Circuit Analysis:

 Circuits are widely used as components.
 Provides background to study other subjects.
 Provides a useful simulation tool (Any system can be modelled by a circuit).

Definitions and Units of Electrical Quantities

1. Charge
It is the characteristic property of the elementary particles of the matter.
Coulomb is used as the unit of charge. One coulomb of charge is equal to 6.24 × 1018
electrons. Charge of an electron is1.602 ×10−19 coulombs .
Charge in motion represents current. Charge is continuously transferred between different parts
of a circuit but total amount of charge is not changed.
2. Electric Current:
Definition:
Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor.
If a charge Q passes through a conductor in time t (the rate of flow of charge is constant), then
Current I = Q / t
If the rate of flow of charge is not constant, the instantaneous value of current is given by

The unit of electric current is called Ampere (A).

One Ampere - Definition:
One Ampere is defined as current flows when one coulomb of charge is transferred in one
second through any section of wire.

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3. Electric Voltage (or) Electric Potential (or) Electromotive Force:
Definition:
An amount of electrical work done in moving an electrical charge from one point to another
point against the electrical field is called as Electric Voltage (or) Electric Potential(or)
Electromotive Force.
If one joule work is done to move a charge of one coulomb between two points, then the
potential of the first point is said to be 1 V with respect to the second point.
dW
v=
dq
(i) Direct Voltage:
A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times (Absence of frequency)
(ii) Alternating Voltage:
In an alternating voltage, the polarity of voltage reverses its direction periodically and a
combination of one positive half and one negative half of waveform is called cycle.
The number of complete cycles per second is called frequency.
By ohms law, V = IR
The unit of electric Voltage is Volt.
Unit - Definition: One volt is defined as one coulomb of charge is carried through one ohm of
resistance in one second

4. Electrical Power:
Definition:
The rate at which electrical work is done in an electrical circuit is called electrical power.
Hence, power in electric circuits is obtained as the product of voltage (V) and current (I).
Electrical Power = Electrical Voltage X Electrical Current
P = VI.
Using Ohm’s law, it could be written as:
2
2 V
P=I R∨ watt
R
The unit of electrical Power is Watt or joule per second.
Unit - Definition:
One watt is defined as electric power consumed by an electric circuit, if one volt of Electric
potential causes one ampere of current flow in an electrical circuit.

5. Electrical Energy:
Definition:
The product of electrical power and time is called as electrical energy
2
V
Electrical Energy = Electrical power X Time ¿ VI t=I 2 Rt = t
R
The unit of electrical energy is Watt-hour or Joule.
In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hour (kWh). One kWh is also called 1 unit.
Energy∈kWh= power ∈kW ×time∈hours

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Unit - Definition:
Electrical energy is said to be one joule if one watt of electrical power is consumed in an
electrical circuit in one second.

Basic Circuit Elements

Electrical Network:
The interconnection of two or more simple electric circuit elements (Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) is called an electrical network.
Electric Circuit:
If the network contains atleast one closed path, then it is called as an electric circuit.
Circuit Element:
It is the mathematical model of two terminal electrical device and it is characterized by its
voltage and current.
Classification of Circuit Elements:
 Active Element and Passive Element
 Unilateral Element and Bilateral Element
 Linear and Nonlinear Element
 Lumped and Distributed Element
Active Element:
 The elements that supply / deliver energy to the circuit is called active element.
 They are capable of delivering average power greater than zero to the external device.
 Examples: voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic devices that require
power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can amplify
power of a signal.
Passive Element:
 The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it into
heat (R) or stores it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called passive element.
 They cannot supply average power greater than zero over infinite time interval.
 Examples: Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance. On the other hand, transformer is
not an active element because it does not amplify the power level and power remains
same both in primary and secondary sides. Transformer is an example of passive
element.
Unilateral Element:
 If the conduction of current takes place in only one direction in an element, then it is
termed as unilateral element.
 Example: Vacuum and silicon diodes, Metal rectifier and Transistor.
Bilateral Element:
 If the conduction of current takes place in both directions in an element with same
magnitude, then it is termed as bilateral element.
 Example: Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance.

Linear Element:
 It is the element which satisfies the principle of superposition i.e., homogeneity and
additivity.

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  VI characteristic is a straight line through the origin
 Example: Resistor
Nonlinear Element
 It is the element which doesn’t satisfy the principle of superposition.
Lumped Element
 It is very small in size and simultaneous action takes place for any given cause at the
same instant of time.
 Example: Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance
Distributed Element
 It is not electrically separable for analytical purpose. Example: Transmission line.

Basic Elements:
 Resistance (R)
 Inductance (L)
 Capacitance (C)
Resistance(R):
Symbol:

Figure 1.1 Resistance

Definition:
The opposition of electrons offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called
Resistance (R).
The resistance may be also defined as the physical property of a substance due to which it
opposes (or) restricts the flow of electric current (electrons) through it.
The practical unit of resistance is Ohm ( ).
If a current of I amperes flows through the resistor, it dissipates energy in the form of heat. The
power absorbed by the resistor is given by
2
2 V
P=VI =I R= watts
R
The power absorbed by the resistor is converted into heat (energy) during a period of time t, and
is given by
t
W =Pdt=∫ I Rdt =I Rt
2 2

= VI t joules
Substance that offers high opposition to the flow of electrons called insulators or poor
conductors.
Mica, Glass, Rubber, Dry wood are called as insulator.
Since resistance is actually distributed one, for practical studies resistance is considered as
lumped elements.
One Ohm - Definition:
It is the resistance offered by the material when a current of one ampere flows between the two
terminals with a voltage of 1 volt applied across it.

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Resistor: It is a circuit element in which the voltage across the element is linearly proportional

to the current flowing through it.

For a linear resistor, the ratio of I toV is constant. It is called conductance (G) and it is given by
I 1
= =G
V R

Unit of conductance is mho( ) or siemen (S)

Ohm’s law
George Simon Ohm discovered the relation between potential difference and current and
resistance in Electric Circuits. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the potential difference across the conductor is
directly proportional to current flowing through the conductor.
It is mathematically represented as

where V is the potential difference across the conductor, I is the current flowing through the
conductor and the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance. The unit of resistance is
ohms, which is 1 V/A and it is represented as omega, .
Limitations / Disadvantages of Ohm’s Law:
 It does not apply to all non metallic conductors.
 It also does not apply to non linear devices such as zener diode, vacuum tubes etc.
 Ohm’s cannot be applicable for non-constant temperature materials like Arc Lamp,
Electronic Valve, and Electrolyte
 It is true for metal conductors at constant temperature. If the temperature changes, the law is
not applicable.
Applications of Ohm’s Law:
 Ohm’s law is applicable for solving simple series and parallel circuits to calculate its
equivalent resistance, current and voltage of an electric circuit.

P.No.1: If 0.6A current flows through a resistor as shown in Figure 1.2. Voltage across the two
points of the resistor is 12V. What is the resistance of the resistor?

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 Figure 1.2

Solution:
Here, Current, I = 0.6A, Potential difference or Voltage, V = 12V, Resistance, R =?
According to ohm’s law, V = IR or R = V / I
R = 12V / 0.6A
R = 20 ohms

P.No.2: Resistance of an electric iron is 50Ω. Supply voltage is 210 Volts. Find the current
through the resistance.

Solution:
Here, Resistance, R = 50 Ω, Voltage, V = 201V, Current, I =?
From Ohm’s law, I = V/R = 210/50  I = 4.2A

Inductance (L):
Symbol:

Figure 1.3 Inductance

 A wire of certain length when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. When
current is passed through an inductor, an electro-magnetic field is formed.
 A change in the magnitude of current changes the electro-magnetic field. Increase in
current increases the electro-magnetic field. Decrease in current reduces the electro-
magnetic field.
 Therefore a change in current produces change in electro-magnetic field which induces
a voltage across the coil according to Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction.
 Inductance is the element in which energy is stored in the form of electromagnetic field.
 The practical unit of Inductance is Henry (H)

Definition-One Henry:

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  One Henry is defined as if one Ampere of current is flowing through one turn of coil,
then one Weber of flux is produced.
 In inductance, the voltage across it is proportional to the rate of change of current
through it.
di
v∞
dt

or Voltage across the inductor is

 Current flowing through an inductor is

 Assuming that previously no current was flowing through the inductance and if a
current of i amperes flows through it, the energy stored in the inductor during a time
interval of t is obtained as:
t t i
W =∫ vi dt=∫ L
0 0
( )
di
dt 0
1 2
i . dt=L∫ i . di=¿ Li joules ¿
2
Capacitance (C):
Symbol:

Figure 1.4 Capacitance

Definition:
 A Capacitor is a device that is capable of storing charge. It consists of two conducting
surface separated by an insulating material.
 The conducting surface is called plates of capacitor and insulating material is called
dielectric
 Capacitor is used to store electrical energy in dielectric.
 Capacitance is the element in which energy is stored in the form of electrostatic field.
 In capacitance, charge q, is directly proportion to voltage v across it.
i.e. Q∞V
or Q = CV

 The unit of capacitance is Farad

One Farad-Definition: One Farad is defined as if one coulomb of charge stores in capacitor
when one volt is applied across it.

 Differentiating Q = CV, we get

dq dv
=C
dt dt

or (
idt = Cdv ∴ i=
dq
dt )
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  Integrating both sides, we get ∫ i dt =C ∫ dv
1
or Voltage across the capacitor is v = ∫ i dt
C

 Current flowing through capacitor is

 Assuming no initial charge on the capacitor, if current i flows for a period of t seconds,
the energy stored in the capacitor will be
t v v
1
W =∫ vi dt =∫ v C dv=C ∫ v dv = C v joules
2

0 0 0 2

Table 1.1 shows the voltage-current relationships of three basic elements.

Table 1.1 Voltage-Current Relationships of Basic Elements

S.No Element Voltage Current
.
1. R V
V = IR I¿
R
2. L di 1
v=L
dt
i=
L
∫ v dt
3. C 1 dv
v=
C
∫ i dt i=C
dt

Common Circuit Terms:

 Circuit: A circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
 Path: A single line connecting elements or sources.
 Node: A node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit where two or more
circuit elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between
two or more branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
 Branch: A branch is composed of one or more circuit element and node at each end of
that element.
 Loop: A loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is
encountered more than once.
 Mesh: A mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There are no
components inside a mesh. All meshes are loops but all loops are not meshes.
 Short circuit: A circuit in which the current has a complete path to flow. It has zero
resistance. Voltage across a short circuit is zero.
 Open circuit: A circuit which has current path broken so that current cannot flow. It
has infinite resistance. Current through an open circuit is zero, irrespective of the
voltage across it.
 Series circuit: A circuit which has only one path for the current from one point to
another resulting in same current flowing through each component/ element.

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  Parallel circuit: A circuit which has more than one path for the current and has same
voltage across each load.
Figure 1.5 shows a typical DC circuit.

Figure 1.5 A typical DC circuit

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Introduction
Gustav Kirchhoff’s (1824-1887), an eminent German physicist formulated two
fundamentals of electricity. When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits
using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws, a number of definitions and terminologies are used to
describe the parts of the circuit being analysed such as: node, path, branch, loop and mesh are
shown in Figure 1.5. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis and so it is important to
understand them.

Kirchhoff’s Law
A pair or set of rules or laws are developed to deal with the conservation of current and
energy within electrical circuits. These two rules are commonly known as Kirchhoff’s Circuit
Laws with one of the Kirchhoff’s laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed
circuit, Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the voltage sources
present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, (KVL).

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) - Statement

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “ total current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other
place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node”.
 In other words the algebraic sum of all the currents in a node must be equal to
zero, I(Leaving) + I(Entering) = 0.
 This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Figure 1.6 Illustration of Kirchhoff’s Current Law

∑ I In=∑ I Out

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From Figure 1.6, the three currents entering the node a, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the
two currents leaving the node a, I4 and I5 are negative in value. We can also rewrite the equation
as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
Note: The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two
or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to
flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current
law when analyzing parallel circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Statement

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total
voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same
loop” which is also equal to zero.
 In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed path or loop must be equal to
zero.
 This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Voltage.

Figure 1.7 Illustration of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point as
shown in Figure 1.7. It is important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-
clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage
law when analysing series circuits.

Signs of EMFs and Voltage drop:

A rise in potential should be considered positive while a fall in potential should be considered
negative. There is a rise in potential and the emf should be given positive sign. It may be noted
that sign of emf is independent of the direction of current through that branch. It is shown in
Figure 1.8.

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 Figure 1.8 Signs of EMFs and voltage drop
Steps to be followed for Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law
The basic procedure for using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws is as follows:
 Assume all voltages and resistances are given. (If not label themV1, V2,…, R1, R2,...).
 Label each branch with a branch current. (I1, I2, I3 etc. )
 Find Kirchhoff’s first law [KCL] equations for each node.
 Find Kirchhoff’s second law [KVL] equations for each of the independent loops of the
circuit.
 Use linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents and voltages
and powers.
In the same way as we use Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law to calculate the various voltages and
currents circulating around a linear circuit, we can also use loop analysis to calculate the
currents in each independent loop which helps to reduce the amount of mathematics required by
using just Kirchhoff’s laws.

P.No.3: Find the current flowing and voltage across the 40Ω resistor shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9
Given:
V1 = 10V, V2 = 20V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 40 Ω,
VR3 = ?, I3 = I1 + I2 = ?
Solution:
The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops. Using Kirchhoff’s
Current Law, KCL the equations are given as;
At node A: I1 + I2 = I3 (1)
At node B: I3 = I1 + I2 (2)
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
Loop 1(cABfc) is given as : 10 = R1 x I1 + R3 x I3 = 10I1 + 40I3

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Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 x I2 + R3 x I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2
5I1 + 4I2 = 1 (3)
20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2
4I1 + 6I2 = 2 (4)
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced to give us the values
of I1 and I2
20I1 + 16I2 = 4
20I1 + 30I2 = 10
14I2 = 6
I2 = 0.429A (5)
Substitute the I2 in equation 4.
4I1 = 2 - (6 x 0.429) Hence I1 = - 0.143A
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps (a-c direction)
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps (d- a direction)
As I3 = I1 + I2
The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as: -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen was opposite to
the actual direction. In fact, the 20V battery is charging the 10V battery.

P.No.4: Find the currents through all the resistors in the circuit shown in Figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10
Given:
Vb = 12 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω
Solution:
Summing the voltages around the left and right loops gives the following two equations:
V b =i 1 R1 +i 2 R 2
12 = 10i1 + 15i2
V b =i 2 R2 −(i 1 −i 2 ) R3
12 = 15i2 - 20(i1 - i2)

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10I1 + 15I2 = 12 (1)
-20I1 + 35I2 = 12 (2)
20I1 + 30I2 = 24
-20I1 + 35I2 = 12
I2 = 0.55A (3)
Substitute the Value of I2 in equation 1.
10I1 + (15 x 0.55) = 12
I1 = 0.369A (4)
The current in all branches are given below
I1 = 0.369A, I2 = 0.55A, I1 – I2 = -0.185A
I2 = 0.554 Amps (Direction b-e), I1 = 0.369 Amps (Direction a-b), I3 = -0.185 Amps (Direction c - b)

P.No.5: Find the current flowing through 4 Ω resistor in the given circuit in Figure 1.11 by applying
Kirchhoff’s laws.

Figure 1.11

Solution:
Mark the currents in the various branches as shown in figure. Since there are two unknown
quantities I1 and I2, two equations must be formed by considering two loops.
Loop abefa, By KVL
8 - 2I1 - 4(I1 - I2) = 0
6I1 - 4I2 = 8 (1)
Loop bcdeb, By KVL
-6I2 - 5I2 – 10 + 4 (I1 - I2) = 0
4I1 - 15I2 = 10 (2)
24I1 - 16I2 = 32
24I1 - 90I2 = 60
74I2 = -28
I2 = -0.38 A (3)
Substitute the I2 in equation 1.
6I1 – (4 x -0.38) = 8
I1 = 1.08 A

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The current flowing through the 4Ω resistance = (I1 - I2) = 1.46 A

P.No.6: Find the current in 3Ω resistor shown in Figure 1.12 using Kirchhoff’s laws.

Figure 1.12
Solution:
Loop abefa, By KVL
30 - 8I1 - 3(I1 - I2) = 0
11I1 - 3I2 = 30 (1)
Loop bcdeb, By KVL
-6I2 + 3(I1 - I2) = 0
3I1 - 9I2 = 0
I1 = 3I2 (2)
Substitute the value of I1 in (1)
30 - (11 x 3I2) + 3I2 = 0
I2 = 1A
Substitute the value of I2 in (2)
I1 = 3A
The current in 3Ω resistance = (I1 - I2) = 1A
P.No.7: Determine the current in the 50Ω branch in the circuit shown in Figure 1.13 using
Kirchhoff’s laws.

Figure 1.13

Solution:

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Mark the currents in the various branches as shown in figure. Since there are two unknown
quantities I1 and I2, two equations must be formed by considering two loops.
Loop abefa, By KVL
2 - 60I1 - 30I1 - 50(I1 - I2) = 0
140I1 - 50I2 = 2 (1)
Loop bcdeb, By KVL
-50I2 + 4 - 50(I1 - I2) = 0
-50I1 + 100I2 = 4 (2)
280I1 - 100I2 = 4
-50I1 + 100I2 = 4
230I1 = 8
I1 = 0.0347A (3)
Substitute the I1 in equation (2)
-50 (0.035) + 100I2 = 4
I2 = 0.0575A. The current in 50Ω resistance = (I1 - I2) = -0.0225A. The negative sign indicates
the assumed current direction is in opposite position.

P.No.8: In the circuit shown in Figure 1.14 (i), (ii), determine the current labelled I.

Figure 1.14 (i)

Figure 1.14 (ii)

Solution:
For Figure 1.14 (i)
By KVL
-1 + 2 + 10I - 3.5 + 10I = 0
20 I = 2.5
I = 0.25A

For Figure 1.14 (ii)

By KVL
10 + I – 2 + I + I + 2 – 6 = 0
4I=-3

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 I = -1.33A

P.No.9: Calculate the value of current in each circuit shown in Figure 1.15 (i), (ii).

Figure 1.15(i) Figure 1.15(ii)

Solution:
For Figure 1.15(i), Assuming i in clockwise direction
By KVL
−7−5−2+i=0
i=14 A

For Figure 1.15(ii), Assuming i in clockwise direction

By KVL
−9+4 i+4i=0
8 i=9
i=1 .125 A

P.No.10: Calculate the current through 6Ω resistance in Figure 1.16 by application of

kirchoff’s law.

A B C D

H G F E

Figure 1.16
Solution:
By KVL to closed path ABGHA
−10+2 I 1 +4 ( I 1 −I 2 ) =0
6 I 1−4 I 2=10
------------------ (1)
By KVL to closed path BCFGB
4 ( I 2−I 1 ) + 1 I 2 +6 ( I 2 −I 3 ) =0
−4 I 1 +11I 2 −6 I 3 =0
----------------------(2)

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 By KVL to closed path CDEFC
6 ( I 3 −I 2 ) + 4 I 3−20=0

−6 I 2 +10 I 3=20
---------------------- (3)
Solving (1), (2) & (3) by cramer’s rule

( )( ) ( )
6 −4 0 I1 10
−4 11 −6 I 2 = 0
0 −6 10 I 3 20

6 −4 0
Δ=|−4 11 −6 |
0 −6 10 =284
6 10 0
Δ 2 =|−4 0 −6 |
0 20 10 =1120
6 10 0
Δ3 =|−4 0 −6|
0 20 10 =1240
Δ 2 1120 Δ 3 1240
I 2= = =3 . 944 A I 3= = =4 .366 A
Δ 284 Δ 284
Current through 6
=I 2 −I 3 =−0. 422 A

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

RESISTANCES IN SERIES
The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that the same current flows
through all resistances is called a series circuit as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17
By ohm’s law, voltages across various resistances are

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 V 1 =IR1 (1)
V 2 =IR 2 (2)
V 3 =IR 3 (3)
Total voltage drop is
V =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 (4)

Substitute Equation (1), (2) and (3) in Equation (4)

V =IR 1 + IR 2 + IR 3
V =I ( R1 + R 2 + R3 )
V
=RT =R 1 + R2 + R 3
I (5)
V
I is the total resistance RT between points A and B. RT is called the total or equivalent
resistance of the three resistances is shown in Figure 1.17(a).

Figure 1.17(a)
From Eqn (5)
RT =R1 + R 2 + R3
Hence when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total or equivalent
resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
i.e., RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . . . RN
 Total resistance is always greater than the individual higher value.
Characteristics of series circuit
 Current is same throughout all the elements.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . . . . IN
 Voltage drop across each element depends upon the individual resistance value.
 Voltage drops are additive. The sum of all the volt drops in the circuit is equal to the
applied voltage.
VA = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . . . VN
 The voltage drops are proportional to the values of the resistors in the circuit.
 Total power in the circuit is the sum of power in the individual circuit element.

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  An example of a series circuit is a Christmas tree lighting set.
Disadvantages
 Any break occurs at one point of the circuit, will break current flow in the rest of the
circuit.
 Current ratings of all the electrical appliances are not the same and so they cannot be
connected in series.
 Voltages are additive. So it is not suitable for practical lighting load.

P.No.11: Two resistors 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in series as shown in Figure 1.18, find the
equivalent resistance.
Given: R1 = 3Ω; R2 = 6Ω
3Ω 6Ω

Figure 1.18
Solution:
Two resistors are connected in series

The equivalent resistance RT =R1 + R 2

RT =3+6=9 Ω
P.No.12: Three resistors of 270, 330, and 4.7k values are connected in series. Calculate
the equivalent resistance.

RT = R 1 + R2 + R3
= 270 + 330 + 4.7k
= 270 + 330 + 4,700
RT = 5,300 or 5.3K

P.No.13: Calculate the total resistance and the total current in the circuit shown in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19
Solution:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 12 + 56 + 82  RT = 150

20
 I = V/ RT = 100/150 = 0.666 Amperes or 666 mA

P.No.14: Refer to Figure 1.20, Calculate the value of R3.

Figure 1.20

Solution: There will be three voltage drops: V1 across R1, V2 across R2, V3 across R3

I = 200 mA = 0.2 Amps

From Ohm’s Law:
V1 = I  R1 = 0·2  12 = 2·4 Volts
V2 = I  R2 = 0·2  15 = 3·0 Volts

In a series circuit: VS = V1 + V2 + V3
12 = 2·4 + 3·0 + V3
12 = 5·4 + V3
V3 = 12 - 5.4 = 6.6 Volts
R3 = V3 / I = 6.6 / 0.2 = 33 

VOLTAGE DIVISION TECHNIQUE

Statement:
To find the voltage over an individual resistance in series, take the total series voltage and
multiply by the value of individual resistance over the total resistance.
 With help of voltage division technique, voltage across each element can be calculated
in a series circuit without finding the current.
 Two resistors R1 and R2 in series and connects to a source of V. I is the current flowing
through the resistors R1, R2 ..... Rn. V1, V2 ..... Vn are the voltage drops across R1, R2 and Rn
respectively is shown in Figure 1.21.

V1 V2 Vn

Figure 1.21

21
By applying Ohm’s law,
V 1 =IR1 ; V 2 =IR 2 :….. V n =IR n (6)

Total voltage,
V =V 1 +V 2 +⋯⋯+V n (7)

Substituting Eqn (6) in Eqn (7) we get

V =IR 1 + IR 2 +⋯⋯+ IRn
V =I ( R1 + R 2 +⋯⋯+ Rn )
V
I=
R 1 + R2 +⋯⋯+ R n (8)

The voltage drop across R1 is

V 1 =IR1 (9)

Substituting Eqn (8) in Eqn (9)

R1
V 1 =V ×
R1 + R 2 +⋯⋯+ R n
Similarly the voltage drop across R2 is
V 2 =IR 2 (10)

Substituting Eqn (8) in Eqn (10)

R2
V 2 =V ×
R1 + R 2 +⋯⋯+ Rn
Rn
V n =V ×
R1 + R2 +⋯⋯+ Rn

∴ Voltage across any resistor =Total voltage ×

( resistance of that particular resistor
∑ of all resistances )
P.No.15: In Figure 1.22, two resistors 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in series across 30V supply.
Find the voltage across 6Ω resistor using voltage division technique.

Given:
R1 = 3Ω; R2 = 6Ω; V = 30V 3Ω 6Ω

V1 V2

30V
22
 Figure 1.22
Solution: By using voltage divider rule
R2
V 2 =V ×
R1 + R 2
6
V 6 Ω=30× =20 V
3+6
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
 If one end of each resistance connected to one common point and the other end of each
resistance connected to another common point, there will be a many paths for current
flow as the number of resistances. This is called parallel circuit.
 Let three resistances R1,R2,R3 be connected in parallel across a battery of V volts as
shown in Figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23
 The total current divides into three parts, I 1 flowing through R1, I2 flowing through R2, I3
flowing through R3. The voltage across each resistance is same.
By Ohm’s law, current through each resistance is
V V V
I 1= I 2= I 3=
R1 ; R2 ; R3 (11)

Total current
I =I 1 + I 2 + I 3 (12)
Sub Eqn (11) in Eqn (12)
V V V
I= + +
R 1 R 2 R3
1 1 1
I =V ( + + )
R1 R 2 R3

23
V I 1
=
I is the total resistance between the points A and B and V RT
I 1 1 1 1
= = + +
V RT R1 R2 R 3 (13)

From Eqn (13) the total resistance is

1
RT =
1 1 1
+ +
R1 R 2 R 3
 Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the total or equivalent
resistance is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of reciprocal of individual resistances.
 The resistance is always lower than the individual lower value.
Why are domestic appliances connected in parallel?
When appliances are connected in a parallel arrangement, each of them can be put on and off
independently. This is a feature that is essential in a house's wiring. Also, if the appliances were
wired in series, the potential difference across each appliance would vary depending on the
resistance of the appliance.
Characteristics of parallel circuit
 In a parallel circuit, same voltage exists across all elements.
 All elements will have individual currents, depending upon the value of resistance.
 Branch currents are additive. The total current IT is equal to the sum of all the individual
currents.
IT = I1+ I2 + . . . IN
 The total or equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the resistance
of the smallest resistor in the circuit.
 The total or equivalent resistance is calculated by:
1 1 1 1
— = — + — + . . — (Applies to all resistors in parallel)
RT R1 R2 RN

Resistor value
RT = -------------------------------------- (Applies to equal values of resistors in parallel)
Total no. of resistors in parallel

Product R1 x R2
RT = ——— = ——— (Applies to two unequal, or two equal resistors in parallel)
Sum R 1 + R2

 An open circuit in one resistor in a parallel circuit results in no current flowing in that
resistor, but current flow in the other resistors is not affected.
 A short-circuit in any resistor in a parallel circuit will result in excessive current flowing
in that part of the circuit. This situation may result in the blowing of a fuse or the

24
 tripping of a MCB, otherwise the heat produced by that excessive current would cause
damage.
Advantages of parallel circuit
 The electrical appliances rated for the same voltage but different powers can be
connected in parallel without affecting each other’s performance.
 If break occurs in any one of the branch, it will have no effect on the other branch.
P.No.16: Four resistors of 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω, 5Ω respectively are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 1.24. Find the equivalent resistance.
Given: R1 = 2Ω; R2 = 3Ω; R3 = 4Ω; R4 = 5Ω

Figure 1.24
Solution:
Total resistance
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
R T R 1 R2 R3 R4
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
RT 2 3 4 5
1 77
= Ω
R T 60
60
RT = Ω
77 =0. 77 Ω
P.No.17: Two resistors 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 1.25. Find the
equivalent resistance.
Given:
3Ω
R1=3Ω; R2=6Ω

6Ω

Figure 1.25
Solution: Two resistors are connected in parallel

25
 1 1 1
= +
R T R 1 R2
R1 R2
RT =
R 1 + R2
3×6
The equivalent resistance RT = =2 Ω
3+6
P.No.18: For Figure 1.26, find the total resistance and the total current.

Figure 1.26
Solution:

1 / RT = ( 1 / R1) + ( 1 / R2) + ( 1 / R3)

= ( 1 / 10) + (1 / 12) + ( 1 / 15) = 15 / 60

RT = 4

IT = V / RT = 6 / 4 = 1.5 Amps

P.No.19: Refer to Figure 1.27, Find I1, I2, I3 and IT.

Figure 1.27

Solution:
1 / RT = ( 1 / R1) + ( 1 / R2) + ( 1 / R3) = (1 / 4) + ( 1 / 6) + ( 1 / 12)
= (3 + 2 + 1) / 12
RT =2

26
 IT = V / RT = ( 6 / 2) = 3 Amps

I1 = V / R1 = ( 6 / 4) = 1.5 Amps ; I2 = V / R2 = ( 6 / 6) = 1 Amp

I3 = V / R3 = ( 6 / 12) = 0.5 Amp

Check: IT = I1 + I2 + I3 = 1.5 + 1.0 + 0.5 = 3 Amps

P.No.20: Refer to Figure 1.28. Find the supply voltage.

Figure 1.28
Solution
1 / RT = ( 1 / R1) + ( 1 / R2) + ( 1 / R3) = (1 / 12) + ( 1 / 24) + ( 1 / 24)
= (2 + 1 + 1) / 24
RT = 6 

V = IT x R T = 2 x 6 = 12 Volts

P.No.21: Refer to Figure 1.29, Find the following

(i) Total resistance of circuit
(ii) Total Current
(iii) The currents (a) I2 through R2 and (b) I3 through R3

Figure 1.29
Solution
For parallel resistors
Equivalent RP = Product / Sum = (R2 x R3) / (R2 + R3) = 15000 /250 = 60

27
 Figure 1.29(a)

RT = R1 + RP = 47 + 60 = 107

IT = VA / RT = 6 / 107 = 0.056 Amps or 56 mA

Volt drop across parallel resistor ( VP): VP = IT x Rp = 0.056 x 60 = 3.36 Volts

Current I2, through R2: I2 = VP / R2 = 3.36 / 100 = 0.0336 Amps or 33.6 mA

Current I3, through R3: I3 = VP / R3 = 3.36 / 150 = 0.0224 Amp or 22.4 mA

P.No.22: Refer to Figure 1.30, Find 1. Total resistance of circuit

2. Total Current
3. Voltage drop across each resistor
4. Current flow through each resistor.

Branch 1 Branch 2

Figure 1.30
Solution

Parallel Branch 1 Equivalent Resistance:

RP1 = R1 / Rx = 4 / 2 =2

Parallel Branch 2 Equivalent Resistance:

1 / R P2 = (1 / R4) + ( 1 / R5) + (1 / R6)
= (1 / 8) + ( 1 / 10) + (1 / 40)
= ( 5 + 4 + 1) / 40 = 10/40
R P2 = 4
RT = R1 + R P1 + R P2 = 6 + 2 + 4 = 12
IT = VA / RT = 24 / 12 = 2 Amps

28
 Figure 1.30(a)

Volt drop across R1: V1 = IT x R1 = 2 x 6 = 12 Volts

Volt drop across RP1: VP1 = IT x RP1 = 2 x 2 = 4 Volts
Volt drop across RP2: VP2 = IT x RP2 = 2 x 4 = 8 Volts
To find the current through each resistor:
I1 = 2 Amps ( Also total current IT )
I2 = VP1 / R2 = 4 / 4 = 1 Amps
I3 is equal to I2 as they are equal resistors in parallel.
I4 through R4 = VP2 / R4 = 8 / 8 = 1 Amps
I5 through R5 = VP2 / R5 = 8 / 10 = 0.8 Amps
I6 through R6 = VP2 / R6 = 8 / 40 = 0.2 Amps

P.No.23: Find Req for the resistive network shown in Figure 1.31.

Figure 1.31
Solution:
Req 1=100‖100 =50 Ω
Req 2 =100+Req 1 +100=100+50+100=250Ω
Req 3 =Req 2‖100=250‖100=71.429 Ω
Req 4 =100+100 +Req 3=100+100+71. 429 =271 . 429 Ω
Req 5 =100‖Req 4 =100‖271 .429=73 .077 Ω
Req 6 =100+100+R eq5 =100+100+73 . 077 =273 . 077 Ω
Req =R eq6||100=273 . 077||100=73 . 02Ω

CURRENT DIVISION TECHNIQUE

Statement:

29
 If two resistances are connected in parallel, the current in one resistor is the total current
times the opposite resistance divided by the sum of the two resistances.

Figure 1.32
Two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel across a battery of V volts. Current through
R1 is I1 and through R2 is I2 is shown in Figure 1.32.
Toal resistance RT
1 1 1
= +
R T R 1 R2
1 R +R
= 1 2
R T R 1×R 2
R1 R2
RT =
R 1 + R2 (14)

R1 R2
V =IR T =I ×
R1 + R 2 (15)

V
I 1=
By Ohm’s law, current through R1, R1 (16)
Sub Eqn (15) in Eqn (16)
R2
I 1=I ×
R1 + R 2 (17)

V R1
I 2= =I ×
Similarly current through R2, R2 R1 + R2 (18)
Therefore, for parallel combination of two resistors,
Current through any resistor=Total current ×
( Resistance of opposite resistor
∑ of resistances of two resistors )
If the circuit consists of N branches, the current in any branch is given by

30
 RT
I i=I T ×
Ri + R T

Where
I i = Current in ith branch
I T = Total current in the circuit

RT = Total resistance of the parallel branch

Ri
= Resistance of ith branch

P.No.24: Two resistors of 4Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 1.33. If the
total current is 30 A, find the current through 4Ω resistor.
I14Ω

I26Ω

Figure 1.33
Given:
R1 = 4Ω; R2 = 6Ω
I = 30A
Solution:
By using current division rule,
R2
I 1=I ×
R1 + R 2
6
I 1=I 4 Ω =30×
The current through 4Ω resistor, 4 +6 ;
I 4 Ω=18 A
P.No.25: In Figure 1.34, calculate the current through 20 Ω and 5 Ω resistors by using current
division technique. Calculate the power dissipated in 5 Ω resistor.
I

I1 I2

Figure 1.34

31
Given
R = 10Ω; R1 = 20Ω; R2 = 5Ω
Solution:
By using current division rule
R2
I 1=I ×
R1 + R 2
20Ω and 5Ω resistors are in parallel,
R1 R 2 20×5
RT = R 1 + R2 = 20+5 = 4Ω

Figure 1.34(a)
Now 10Ω and 4Ω resistors are in series,

RT = R1 + R 2 = 10+ 4 = 14Ω

Figure 1.34(b)
V 100
Current I = R T = 14 = 7.14A
R2
I 1=I ×
Current flowing through 20Ω resistor is, I20Ω = R1 + R 2

5
7 . 14×
= 20+5 = 1.42A
By using Kirchhoff’s current law,
I5Ω = I - I20Ω
I5Ω = 7.14 - 1.42 = 5.72A
(Or)

32
 R1
I 5Ω =I 2 =I ×
R1 + R 2
20
I 5Ω =7 .14× =5 . 72 A
20+5
2
5Ω
The power dissipated in 5 Ω resistor is P5 Ω=I R2= (5.72)2 x 5 = 163.5 W
P.No.26: A circuit shown in Figure 1.35 consists of two resistors R A and RB connected in
parallel and the combination connected in series with another resistor R C. The resistances RA,
RB and RC are 25Ω, 16Ω and 5Ω respectively. If the circuit is connected across a 30V supply,
calculate the current and voltage across each resistor.
Given: RA = 25Ω, RB =16Ω, RC = 5Ω
I1

I3
I2

Figure 1.35
Solution: 25Ω and 16Ω are connected in parallel
R A R B 25×16
R P=
R A + R B =25+16 = 9.75Ω

Figure 1.35(a)
9.75Ω and 5Ω are connected in series

Total circuit resistance

RT =Rc + R P =5+ 9 .75 = 14.75Ω

14.75Ω

30V
Figure 1.35(b)
V 30
I=
Total Current R T =14 .75 =2 A

33
 Voltage across parallel branch is
V p =IR p =2×9 .75 =19 . 5 V
V P 19 . 5
I 25 Ω= =
Current through 25Ω resistor 25 25 =0. 78 A
V P 19 . 5
I 16 Ω= =
Current through 16Ω resistor 16 16 =1 . 2 A

Current through 5Ω resistor

I 5Ω =I =2 A

Voltage across 5Ω resistor V 5 Ω=I (5) =2×5 =10 V

Voltage across 25Ω and 16Ω resistors V P =19 .5 V

P.No.27: A battery having an EMF of 12 V is connected across terminals AB of the circuit
shown in the Figure 1.36. Find (i) current flowing in each resistance and (ii) total power
absorbed by the circuit.

Figure 1.36

Solution:
Resistance between C and D,
1 1 1 1 5
= + + = Ω
R CD 4 8 4 8
8
RCD = Ω=1. 6 Ω
5
Resistance between E and F,
6×24
R EF = =4 .8 Ω
6+24

Figure 1.36 (a)

Total resistance between A and B,
R AB =RCD +R EF =1 . 6+4 .8=6 . 4 Ω
6.4Ω
A I B
Figure 1.36(b)

34
12V
 Total circuit current,
V 12
I= = =1 . 875 A
R AB 6 . 4
Voltage across C and D,
V CD =IRCD =1. 875×1. 6=3 V
Voltage across E and F,
V EF =IR EF =1 .875×4 .8=9 V
V CD 3
I 4 Ω= = =0 .75 A
i) Current through 4Ω resistors 4 4
V CD 3
I 8Ω = = =0 .375 A
Current through 8Ω resistor 8 8
V EF 9
I 6Ω = = =1. 5 A
Current through 6Ω resistor 6 6
V EF 9
I 24 Ω= = =0 .375 A
Current through 24Ω resistor 24 24
2 2
ii) Total power absorbed =I R AB =1 .875 ×6. 4=22. 5 watts

P.No.28: A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising two resistors
12 ohms and 8 ohms respectively as shown in Figure 1.37. The total power dissipated in the
circuit is 70 watts when the applied voltage is 22 volts. Calculate the value of R.
Given: Total power P=70 watts

Figure 1.37
Solution:
P 70
I= = =3 . 18 A
Total current through the circuit V 22
Equivalent resistance of parallel combination

35
 R 1×R 2 12×8
R P= = =4 . 8Ω
R1 + R 2 20

Voltage across the parallel combination V P=I×R P=3 .18×4 .8=15 .27 Volts
By using Kirchhoff’s voltage law,

∴ Voltage across the resistance V R =V −V P =22−15 .27=6 . 73Volts

V R 6 . 73
R= = =2 .12 Ω
By Ohm’s law, I 3 . 18
P.No.29: In a residential house, there are 10 lamps of 40 watts each. On an average, they burnt
for 5 hours each day. Find the energy consumed in 1 month. If the house owner has to pay
rupees 2 for each kWh of energy consumed, find his monthly bill.
Solution
Total power of lamps connected P = 10 x 40 =400W
The lamps are in circuit for 5 hours each day
Hence, energy consumed per day = P x t
= 400 x 5 = 2000 Wh
= 2 kWh
Energy consumption per month = 2 x 30
= 60 kWh
Cost of each kWh of energy = Rs. 2
Monthly bill = 2 x 60 = Rs.120

P.No.30: Determine the total current delivered by the source in the circuit shown in
Figure 1.38.

.
Figure 1.38
Req1 = (8x12) / (8 + 12) = 4.8 Ω
Req2 = 4.8 + 2 = 6.8 Ω
1/Req3 = 1/2 + 1/6 + 1/8 + 1/6.8
Req3 = 1.06 Ω
Req4 = 1.06 + 6

36
Req = 7.06 Ω
By ohm’s law, I = V/Req = 20/7.06 = 2.83A
P.No.31: Calculate the total current I flowing through the given network in Figure 1.39 and
also find the total power delivered from the source.

Figure 1.39
Re q=4+ ( 8‖6 ) + ( 10‖10 )
48 100
=4+ + =4 +3 . 429+5
14 20
Re q=12 . 429Ω
To find I:
V S 50
I= = =4 . 023 A
Re q 12 . 429
To find p:
V
502
S2
p= =
=201 .142 w
Re q 12. 429
INDUCTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL:
Inductors in series:

Figure 1.40(a) Inductors in series

For the circuit shown in Figure 1.40(a), Equivalent inductance of ‘N’ inductors connected in
series is given by

Inductors in parallel:

37
 Figure 1.40(b) Inductors in parallel
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.40(b), Equivalent inductance of ‘N’ inductors connected in
parallel is given by

For two inductors in parallel,

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL:

Capacitors in series:

Figure 1.41(a) Capacitors in series

For the circuit shown in Figure 1.41(a), Equivalent capacitance of ‘N’ capacitors connected in
series is given by

For two capacitors in series,

Capacitors in parallel:

Figure 1.41(b) Capacitors in parallel

For the circuit shown above, Equivalent capacitance of ‘N’ capacitors connected in parallel is
given by

38
P.No.32: Find the equivalent inductance of the following network in Figure 1.42 assuming all
the inductors are 1H each.

Figure 1.42
Solution:
Inductors L2 and L3 are in parallel.
Leq1 = (L2 x L3) / (L2 + L3) = (1 x 1) / (1 +1) = ½ = 0.5 H

Inductors L4 , L5 and L6 are in parallel.

1 / Leq2 = (1 / L4) + ( 1 / L5) + (1 / L6) = (1 / 1) + ( 1 / 1) + (1 / 1) = 1 / 3
Leq2 = 3.33H

Now L1, Leq1 and Leq2 are in series. Hence equivalent inductance is given by

Leq = L1 + Leq1 + Leq2 = 1 + 0.5 + 3.33 = 4.83 H

P.No.33: Find the equivalent capacitance of the following network in Figure 1.43.

Figure 1.43
Solution:
Capacitors 0.12μF and 0.08μF are in parallel.
Ceq1 = 0.12 + 0.08 = 0.2μF

Now Ceq1 and 0.05μF are in series.

Ceq2 = (Ceq1 x 0.05μF) / (Ceq1 + 0.05μF)
= ( 0.2 x 0.05 x 10-12) / (0.2 + 0.05)μF
= (0.01 x 10-6) / (0.25) = 0.04μF

Now Ceq2 and 0.06μF are in series

Ceq = Ceq2 + 0.06μF
= (0.04 + 0.06) μF = 0.1μF

ENERGY SOURCES
Electrical energy supplied from any form of source is decided by the two quantities, namely
voltage and current. Generally, the energy sources are operated by keeping one of them
constant and allowing the other quantity to vary. If the voltage is maintained constant and the

39
current is allowed to vary, the source is called voltage source. On the other hand, if the current
is maintained constant and the voltage is allowed to vary, it is called as current source.
Independent sources
Elements in which the voltage is completely independent of the current or the current is
completely independent of the voltage in any other part of the circuit are called as independent
sources.
(i) Ideal voltage source
It is a two terminal energy source which is characterized by a terminal voltage
completely independent of the current flowing through it.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.44(a), (b) DC voltage source, (c) AC voltage source and (d) DC current source

(ii) Ideal current source

It is a two terminal energy source in which current is completely independent of the
voltage across its terminals. It is shown in Figure 1.44(d).

Figure 1.45(a), (b) shows the representation of ideal voltage source and its voltage-current
relationship, respectively. Similarly, the ideal current source delivers constant current
irrespective of the voltage across its terminals. Figure 1.45(c), (d) shows the representation of
ideal current source and its voltage-current relationship, respectively.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.45(a) Ideal voltage source representation and (b) its V-I characteristics, (c) Ideal
current source representation and (d) its V-I characteristics.

However, ideal voltage sources are never realizable in practice. They have their own internal
resistance. This is represented by connecting it in series with the voltage source as shown in
Figure 1.46. The voltage across the source decreases with increasing load current and is due to
the voltage drop in internal resistance.

40
 Figure 1.46(a) Practical voltage source representation and (b) its V-I characteristics.

Similarly, practical current source has its own internal resistance. This is represented by
connecting it in parallel with the current source. In practical current source, the current
delivered to the external circuit decreases with increasing load voltage and the reduction in
current is due to its internal characteristics. The characteristics of practical source is shown in
Figure 1.46(b).

Dependent Sources
The voltage and current sources discussed above are called independent sources since their
voltage (for voltage source) and current (for current source) are independent and are not
affected by other parts of the circuit. In case of dependent sources, the source voltage or current
is not fixed, but is dependent on the voltage or current in some part of the same circuit. Such
sources mainly occur in modelling of electronic components like transistors, op-amp and so on.
These are represented in a circuit diagram by the symbol shown in Figure 1.47(a) and (b).

(a) (b)
Figure 1.47 Dependent sources (a) Voltage source (b) Current source

Dependent or controlled sources are characterized by a current or voltage which is dependent

on the voltage across it or current flowing through it. They are of the following types
1. Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. Voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. Current-controlled current source (CCCS) as shown in Figure 1.48.

41
 Figure 1.48 (a) Current controlled current source, (b) Voltage controlled current source,
(c) Voltage controlled voltage source and (d) Current controlled voltage source

SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
The current and voltage sources may be interchanged without affecting the remainder of the
circuit, this technique is the source transformation. It is the tool for simplifying the circuit.
It can be seen that in some networks, it is easier if the circuit has only voltage sources or current
sources. In several cases, we may have to transform one source to another. It can be proved that
a current source in parallel with a resistor is equal to a voltage source in series with the same
resistor provided that the value of the voltage source is equal to the value of the current source
multiplied by the resistance. The transformation is valid in either direction and is shown in
Figure 1.49.

Figure 1.49(a) Voltage source-to-current source conversion

Figure 1.49(b) Current source-to-voltage source conversion.

P.No.34: Convert the given circuit in Figure 1.50 into single current source.
10
25

5

10A
20V

25V

Figure 1.50

Solution: Convert the voltage sources into current sources and then add all the three current
sources into single current source.

42
I1 = V / R = 20 / 25 = 0.8A I2 = V / R = 25/ 10 = 2.5A

I = - 0.8 + 2.5 + 10 = 11.7A ;

1 / Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/25 + 1/10 + 1/5 = 0.34

Req = 1/0.34 = 2.941

P.No.35: Convert the given circuit in Figure 1.51 into a single voltage source.

Figure 1.51
Solution:
I1 = 50 / 5 =10A I2 = 10 / 3 =3.33A
Now the circuit consists of three current sources of 10A, 5A and 3.33A in parallel pointing in
upward direction.
Therefore I = I1 + I2 + I3 = 10 + 5 + 3.33 = 18.33A
1
=
1 1 1 1
Req =5‖2‖3 + + =
5 2 3 0 . 2+0 .5+0. 353 = 0.967Ω
Now the equivalent current source is given as

43
 0.967Ω
18.33A

To convert to equivalent voltage source

V = I R = 18.33 X 0.967 = 17.725V

0.967

17.73V

Practice Problems
1. Use source transformation to find Vo in the circuit.

2. Find io in the circuit using source transformation

STAR – DELTA TRANSFORMATION

 Delta-star and star-delta transformations may be applied in certain types of circuit to
simplify them before application of circuit theorems.
 Standard 3-phase circuits or networks take on two major forms with names that represent
the way in which the resistances are connected, a Star connected network which has the
symbol of the letter, Υ (wye) and a Delta connected network which has the symbol of a
triangle, Δ (delta).
 If a 3-phase, 3-wire supply or even a 3-phase load is connected in one type of configuration,
it can be easily transformed or changed it into an equivalent configuration of the other type
by using either the Star Delta Transformation or Delta Star Transformation process.
 A resistive network consisting of three impedances can be connected together to form a T or
“Tee” configuration but the network can also be redrawn to form a Star or Υ type network
as shown below.

44
T-connected and Equivalent Star Network

Figure 1.52(a) T-connected and Equivalent Star Network

As we have already seen, we can redraw the T resistor network to produce an electrically
equivalent Star or Υ type network as shown in Figure 1.52(a). But we can also convert a Pi or π
type resistor network into an electrically equivalent Delta or Δ type network as shown in Figure
1.52(b).
Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network

Figure 1.52(b) Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network

Having now defined exactly what is a Star and Delta connected network it is possible to
transform the Υ into an equivalent Δ circuit and also to convert a Δ into an equivalent Υ circuit
using a the transformation process. This process allows us to produce a mathematical
relationship between the various resistors giving us a Star Delta Transformation as well as a
Delta Star Transformation.

Delta to Star Transformation

45
To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to derive a
transformation formula for equating the various resistors to each other between the
various terminals. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.53.

Figure 1.53 Delta to Star Network

The resistance values for star network is obtained as follows

If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the
equivalent star network will be equal to one third the value of the delta resistors, giving each
branch in the star network as: RSTAR = 1/3 RDELTA

P.No.36: Convert the following Delta Resistive Network in Figure 1.54 into an equivalent Star
Network.

46
 Figure 1.54
Solution:
For delta to star conversion
R1 = (20 x 30) / ( 20 + 30 + 80) = 4.61
R2 = (20 x 80) / ( 20 + 30 + 80) = 12.31
R3 = (30 x 80) / ( 20 + 30 + 80) = 18.46

R1 = 4.61 ; R2 = 12.31 ; R3 = 18.46

4.61

18.46 12.31

Figure 1.55 Equivalent star network

Star to Delta Transformation

Star Delta transformation is simply the reverse of above as shown in Figure 1.56. We have seen
that when converting from a delta network to an equivalent star network that the resistor
connected to one terminal is the product of the two delta resistances connected to the same
terminal.

Figure 1.56 Star to Delta

Network

47
The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, Δ network is the sum of all the two-
product combinations of resistors in the star network divide by the star resistor located “directly
opposite” the delta resistor being found.

If all the resistors in the star network are all equal in value then the resultant resistors in the
equivalent delta network will be three times the value of the star resistors and equal, giving:
RDELTA = 3RSTAR. Both Star Delta Transformation and Delta Star Transformation allow us to
convert one type of circuit connection into another type in order for us to easily analyse the
circuit. These transformation techniques can be used to good effect for either star or delta
circuits containing resistances or impedances.

P.No.37: Convert the following Star Resistive Network in Figure 1.57 into an equivalent Delta
Network.

Figure 1.57
Solution: For star to delta conversion
RA = (RP x RQ)+(RQ x RR) +(RR x RP) / RR
= (150 x 180) + (180 x 60) +(60 x 150) /60
= 780
RB = (RP x RQ)+(RQ x RR) +(RR x RP) / RQ
= (150 x 180) + (180 x 60) +(60 x 150) /180
= 260
RC = (RP x RQ)+(RQ x RR) +(RR x RP) / RP
= (150 x 180) + (180 x 60) +(60 x 150) /150
= 312
RA = 780 ; RB = 260 ; RC = 312
Figure 1.58 Equivalent Delta network

P.No.38: Find equivalent resistance between A & B in the Network shown in Figure 1.59.

48
 Figure 1.59
Solution:
Converting delta to star equivalent
10×10
R1 = =3 . 33Ω
30
10×10
R2 = =3 . 33Ω
30
10×10
R3 = =3 . 33 Ω
30
10 Ω in series with 3.33 Ω .
Req =10+ 3. 33=13. 33 Req =10+3 .33=13 .33
1 ; 2
Req =13. 33‖13 . 33=6 . 67
3
Req =3 . 33+6 . 67 =10 Ω

P.No.39: Using star delta conversion, determine the equivalent resistance between A&B in
Figure 1.60.
A

B
Figure 1.60
Solution:
Converting the delta network with 3, 6 and 9 into star equivalent
18 27 54
R1 = =1Ω R2 = =1 .5 Ω R3 = =3 Ω
18 18 18
Now the star equivalent contains 1, 1.5 and 3
Req 1=1. 5+7=8 .5 Ω
1.5 in series with 7
Req 2 =3+8=11Ω
3 in series with 8
Req 3 =8 .5||11 =4 . 79Ω
8.5 in parallel with 11

49
1 in series with 4.79
Req =1+4 .79 =5 . 79Ω

P.No.40: Find Req using star to Δ conversion for the network shown in Figure 1.61.

Figure 1.61
Solution:
Given : R1 =10 Ω , R2 =10 Ω, R3 =10 Ω,
Converting this star to delta equivalent, We get

10×10+10×10+10×10
RA= =30Ω, R =R =30 Ω
10 Similarly B C
Now we have two delta networks with resistances 10, 10 and 30. Their star equivalents
are found as follows
10×10 10×30 10×30
R1 = =2 R2 = =6 R3 = =6Ω
10+10+30 ; 50 ; 50

Now the star equivalents are with resistances 2, 6 and 6.
6, 7.5 and 6 are in series.
Req 1=6+7 . 5+6=19. 5 Ω
Req 2 =6+6=12Ω
6 and 6 are in series.
R =12‖19.5=7. 429
 and 19.5 are in parallel. eq 3
12
2, 7.429 and 2 are in series
Req =2+7 . 429+2 =11. 429 Ω

P.No.41: Find the equivalent resistance between A & B in circuit given in Figure 1.62 using
star delta transformation.

50
 Figure 1.62

Solution:
Converting star network with 6, 4 and 3 into delta equivalent
R 1 R 2 + R2 R 3 + R1 R3 24+12+18
RA= = =18 Ω
R3 3

24+12+18 54 54
R B= = =13 . 5Ω RC == =9Ω
R2 4 6
Now delta equivalent contains 18, 13.5 and 9
R =13.5‖1.5=1.35Ω
13.5 and 1.5 are in parallel. eq 1
9 and 1 are in parallel.
Req 2 =9‖1=0.9Ω
 and 18.5 are in parallel.
Req 3 =9‖18=6Ω
9
1.35 and 0.9 are in series.
Req 4 =1 . 35+0 . 9=2 .25 Ω

6 and 2.25 are in parallel.

Req =6‖2.25=1.636Ω

MESH ANALYSIS
 It is a procedure for analyzing the circuits using mesh currents as the circuit variables.
 Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown currents.
 It is applicable to planar circuits
 If there are M meshes then will be M mesh currents and it is necessary to write M
independent equations.
Planar Circuits:
Circuit which can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one another.

Mesh Current:
It is the current through the perimeter of a mesh.

Mesh Analysis without current sources

Steps:
1. Assign mesh currents I1, I2, I3, …IN to n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of
the mesh currents
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

Mesh Analysis with current sources:

51
Super Mesh: It results when two meshes have a (dependent or Independent) current source in
common.

Procedure:

 We create super mesh by ignoring the current source and any element connected in
series with it.
 Thus no. of meshes is reduced by 1 for each current source present.
 If the current source lies on the perimeter of the circuit, then the single mesh in which it
is found is ignored.
 KVL is then applied to those meshes in the reinterpreted network.

P.No.42: Calculate the current through 6 Ω reistance shown in Figure 1.63 by using mesh
analysis.

Figure 1.63
Solution:
By mesh analysis
[V] = [I] * [R]

[ ][ ][ ]
24 40 −8 −20 I 1
0 = −8 18 −6 I 2
0 −20 −6 36 I3
40 −8 −20
| −8 18 −6 |
∆ = −20 −6 36 = 13056

40 24 −20
| −8 0 −6 |
∆2 = −20 0 36 = 9792

40 24 −20
| −8 0 −6 |
∆3 = −20 0 36 = 9792

I2 = ∆2 / ∆ = 0.75A
I3 = ∆3 / ∆ = 0.75A

52
Therefore the current through 6 Ω resistor = I2 – I3 = 0 A

P.No.43: Employ mesh analysis to determine (i) the current i y (ii) the power supplied by 10 V
source for the circuit shown in Figure 1.64.

Figure 1.64
Solution:
By mesh analysis
[V] = [I] * [R]

[ ][ ][ ]
10 7 −2 0 I 1
0 = −2 5 −2 I 2
0 0 −2 9 I
3

7 −2 0
|−2 5 −2|
∆= 0 −2 9 = 251
10 −2 0
|0 5 −2|
∆1 = 0 −2 9 = 410
7 −2 10
|−2 5 0|
∆3 = 0 −2 0 = 40
I1 = ∆1 / ∆ = 1.633A
I3 = ∆3 / ∆ = 0.16A
iy = 0.16A
Power (P) = VI =10*1.633 =16.33Watts

P.No.44: Calculate the current through 8Ω resistance in Figure 1.65 by using mesh analysis.

Figure 1.65

53
Solution:

For mesh 1, by KVL

−40+10 I 1 +6 (I 1 −I 2 )+12( I 1 −I 3 )=0

28 I 1−6 I 2−12I 3=40 ¿

¿
(1)
For mesh 2, by KVL
6 (I 2 −I 1 )+2 I 2 +8( I 2 −I 3 )=0

−6 I 1+16 I 2−8I 3=0 ¿

¿
(2)
For mesh3, by KVL
12( I 3−I 1 )+8( I 3 −I 2 )+ 4 I 3 =0

−12I 1−8 I 2+24 I 3=0 ¿

¿
(3)
Solving (1), (2) & (3) by Cramer’s rule

( )¿
(I ¿)(I ¿)¿¿¿ (40 ¿)(0 ¿)¿¿¿
28 −6 −12
−6 16 −8 1 2
−12 −8 24 = ¿
28 −6 −12
| −6 16 −8 |
Δ ¿
¿= −12 −8 24 = 6944

28 40 −12
| −6 0 −8 |
Δ 2 = −12 0 24 = -1920

28 −6 40
| −6 16 0 |
Δ 3 = −12 −8 0
= - 5760

Δ 2 −1920 Δ 3 −5760
I 2= = =−0 . 276 A I 3= = =−0 . 829 A
Δ 6944 Δ 6944

=I −I =−0. 276+0. 829=0 .553 A

Current through 8Ω 2 3

P.No.45: Use mesh analysis to determine (i) the current Iy (ii) Power supplied by 20V source in
Figure 1.66.

54
 Figure 1.66

Solution:
For mesh 1, by KVL
−20+15 I 1 +6 I 1−6 I 2 =0

21 I 1 −6 I 2=20 ¿
¿(1)
For mesh 2, by KVL
−6 I 1 +14 I 2 −3 I 3 =0 ¿
¿(2 )
For mesh 3, by KVL
−3 I 2 +13 I 3 =0 ¿
¿(3)
Solving (1), (2) & (3)

¿ ¿¿( )( )
¿ 21 −6 0
I1 ¿ I2 ¿ ¿ (20 ¿)(0 ¿)¿
¿ =¿
¿¿ ¿

|−6 14 −3|
Δ= 0 −3 13 =21 (182−9 )+6(−78)+0 =3633−468=3165
20 −6 0
| 0 14 −3 |
Δ 1= 0 −3 13 =21 (182−9 )+6(0 )+0 =3633

21 −6 20
|−6 14 0 |
Δ 3 = 0 −3 0 =21 (0)+6 (0)+20 (18 ) =360
Δ1 3633
I 1= = =1 .148 A
Δ 3165

Δ 3 360
I 3= = =0 . 114 A
Δ 3165

55
 I y =I 3 =0. 114 A
(i)
(ii) Power supplied by 20V Source
P=VI 1 =20 X 1. 148=22. 96 W

NODAL ANALYSIS:
 This method is used to find the node voltages, by applying KCL.
 A three node circuit should have two unknown voltages and two equations.
 In general, an N node circuit will need (N-1) voltages and (N-1) equations.

Nodal analysis with current sources only:

Given a circuit with nodes & without voltage sources, the nodal analysis involves the following
steps:

i) Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1, V2…..,VN-1 to the
remaining N-1 nodes. The voltages are referenced w.r. to the reference node.
ii) Apply KCL to each of the N-1 non reference nodes. Use ohm’s law to express
the branch circuits in terms of node voltages.
iii) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.

Super Node:
o It is formed by enclosing (dependent or independent) voltage source connected
between 2 non-reference nodes and any element connected in parallel with it.
o Apply KVL &KCL to find the node voltage.

P.No.46: Determine the value of the voltage labeled v1 in the circuit using nodal analysis in
Figure 1.67.

Figure 1.67
By Nodal Analysis
[I] = [ 1/R] * [V]

[I] = [ G] * [V]

( )( )
1
+ 12 − 13
( )
1
−3
=
2

−3
1 1
3
+
1
1
V1
V2

( )(
1
=
0 . 83 −0 . 33 V 1
−3 −0 . 33 1 . 33 V 2 )( )
0.83 −0.33
| |
∆= −0.33 1.33 = 0.995

56
 1 −0.33
| |
∆V1 = −3 1.33 = 0.34
V1 = ∆V1/ = 0.34 / 0.995
V1=0.342Volts

P.No.47: Calculate the node voltage and currents in different branches of the network shown in
Figure 1.68 and also calculate the power consumed in the network.

Figure 1.68
Solution:
15−V 1 V −V 2 V V 20−V 2
I 1= I 2= 1 I 3= 1 I 4 = 2 I 5=
1 , 0.5 , 1 , 2 , 1 ---------- (1)
At node 1
Applying KCL we get,
I1 = I2 + I3
15−V 1 V 1 −V 2 V 1
= +
1 0.5 1
4V1 - 2V2 = 15 --------------- (2)

At node 2
Applying KCL we get,
I4 = I2 + I5
V 2 V 2 −V 1 20−V 2
= +
2 0.5 1
4V1 - 7V2 = - 40 ---------- (3)
By solving (2) & (3), we get
V2 = 11V ---------- (4)
V1 = 9.1V ---------- (5)
Substitute (4), (5) in (1), we get
I1 = 5.8A, I2 = -3.5A, I3 = 9.1 A, I4 = 5.5A, I5 = 9 A
Total power P=266.25 watts

P.No.48: Determine the value of the voltage labeled V 1 in the circuit shown in Figure 1.69
using nodal analysis.

57
 Figure 1.69
Solution:
At node 1:
By KCL & ohm’s law
V −V 2 V 1−0
5= 1 +
10 20
2 V 1 −2V 2 +V 1
5=
20
3 V 1 −2V 2=100 −−−−−−−(1 )

At node 2:
By KCL & ohm’s law
V 2−V 1 V 2 −0
+
10 20 +10 =0
2V 2 −2 V 1 +V 2 =−10
20
−2 V 1 +3 V 2 =−200

2V 1−3V 2=200 ¿
¿−−−−−−(2)
Solving (1) & (2), by cramer’s rule

(3 ¿)¿ ¿¿ ( )
V 1 ¿ ¿ ( 100¿) ¿
¿¿ ¿¿
¿ ¿ =¿

Δ=¿|3 ¿|¿ ¿¿
¿ =−9+4=−5
Δ 1=¿|100−2 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿

Δ 2 =¿|3 ¿|¿ ¿ ¿
¿
Δ1 100
V 1= = =−20
Δ −5

58
 Δ2 400
V 1= = =−80
Δ −5
=V 1−V 2 =−20−(−80 ) =−20+80 =60 V
Voltage V1

P.No.49: Determine the value of voltage labeled V1 in the circuit shown in Figure 1.70.

Figure 1.70
Solution :
At node 1:
By KCL & ohm’s law
V −0 V 1−V 2
5= 1 +
4 3
60=7V 1−4V 2 ¿
¿−−−−−−−−(1)
At node 2:
By KCL & ohm’s law
V 2−V 1 V 2 −0
+ +2=0
2 1
−V 1 +4 V 2 =−6

V 1 +4 V 2 =−6 ¿
¿−−−−−−−−(2)
Solving (1) & (2)

(7 ¿)¿ ¿¿( )
V 1 ¿ ¿ ¿¿ ( 60¿ ) ¿
=¿ ¿¿
¿ ¿ ¿

Δ=¿|7 ¿|¿ ¿¿
¿ =−28+=−24
|60 |¿ =−240+24
Δ1=¿ ¿ ¿¿=−216
¿
Δ1 −216
V 1= = =9
Δ −24
V 1 =V 1 =9 V

59
P.No.50: Determine the value of IA & IB in Figure 1.71 using nodal analysis.

Figure 1.71
Solution :
At node 1, by KCL& ohm’s law
i 1 +i 2 +i 3 =0
V 1−V 2 V 1 V 1−200
+ + =0
0.2 2 0.5
5 V 1 −5V 2 +0 .5 V 1 +2V 1 −400=0

7.5V 1 −5V 2 =400 ¿

¿−−−−−−−(1)
At node 2, by KCL & ohm’s law
i 1 +i 4 +i 5 =0
V 2−V 1 V 2 V 2 −100
+ + =0
0.2 2 0. 25
5 V 2 −5V 1 +0 .5 V 2 +4 V 2−400=0

−5 V 1 +9. 5V 2=400 ¿
¿−−−−−−(2 )
Solving (1) & (2)

(7.5 ¿)¿ ¿¿( )

V1¿ ¿
¿¿ =¿ ( 400¿) ¿ ¿¿
¿ ¿ ¿

Δ=¿|7.5 ¿|¿ ¿¿
¿ =71 . 25−25=46 . 25
Δ1=¿|400 ¿|¿ ¿¿
¿ =3800+ 2000=5800
Δ2=¿|7.5 ¿|¿ ¿¿
¿ =3000+ 2000=5000
Δ1 5800
V 1= =125 . 41V
Δ = 46 . 25

60
 Δ2 5000
V 2= = =108 . 11V
Δ 46 . 25
V 125 . 41
I A=i 2 = 1 = =62 .71 A
Current 2 2
V 108. 11
I B =i 4 = 2 = =54 . 06 A
2 2

P.No.51: For the circuit shown in Figure 1.72, find the voltage across the 10Ω resistor and the
current passing through it.

Figure 1.72

Solution: The circuit shown above is a parallel circuit, and consists of a single node A, By
assuming voltage V at the node A w.r.t. B, we can find out the current in the 10 Ω branch (see
Figure 1.73).

Figure 1.73

According to Kirchhoff’s current law,

I 1 +12 + I 3 + I 4 +5=10
By using Ohm’s law, we have
V V V V
I 1= , I 2= , I 3 = , I 4 =
5 10 2 1
V V V
+ + +V +5=10
5 , 10 2
V
[ 1 1 1
+ + +1 =5
5 10 2 ]
V [ 0 .2+0. 1+0 .5+1]=5
5
V= =2. 78 V
1 .8
∴ The voltage across the 10 Ω resistor is 2.78V and the current passing through it is

61
 V 2. 78
I 2= = =0 . 278 A
10 10

P.No.52: Determine the current through the resistance R3 in the circuit shown in Figure 1.74.

Figure 1.74

Solution: According to Kirchhoff’s current law,

I T =I 1 + I 2 + I 3
Where IT is the total current and I 1, I2, and I3 are the currents in resistances R 1, R2 and R3
respectively.
∴ 50 = 30 +10 + I3

or I3 = 10 mA

P.No.53: Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit shown in Figure 1.75.

Figure 1.75

RT
I 1=I T ×
Solution: ( R 1 + RT )

R2 R3
RT = =2Ω
Where R 2 + R3
∴ R1 =4 Ω
I T =12 A
2
I 1=12× =4 A
2+ 4
2
I 2=12× =4 A
Similarly, 2+ 4

62
 2
I 3=12× =4 A
and 2+ 4
Since all parallel branches have equal values of resistance, they share current equally.

P.No.54: For the circuit shown in Figure 1.76, find the total resistance between terminals A
and B, the total current drawn from a 6V source connected from A to B, the current through
4.7kΩ and voltage across 3kΩ.

Figure 1.76
Solution: The circuit in Figure 1.76 can be redrawn as shown in Figure 1.77.

Figure 1.77
From Figure 1.77, the total resistance is RT = 10 k || 3k || [4 k + 5 k || 4.7 k ] = 1.7 kΩ
6V
I T= =3 . 53 mA
Total current drawn by the circuit is 1. 7 k Ω
The current in the 10kΩ resistor is
6V
∴ I 10 k= =0 . 6 mA
10 k
The current in the 3kΩ resistor is
6V
I 3k = =2 mA
3k Ω
The remaining current blows through the 4kΩ resistor and the parallel combination of (5kΩ ||
4.7 kΩ).
I 4 k = 3.53 m A – 2.6 mA = 0.93 m A
The current in the 4.7kΩ resistor is
5
I 4 . 7k =0 . 93× =0 . 47 mA
5+4 . 7
The voltage across the 3kΩ resistor is
V 3 k =I 3 k R=2×10−3×10 3=6 V

P.No.55: An electric circuit has three terminals A, B,C Between A and B is connected a 2 Ω
resistor, between B and C are connected a 7 Ω resistor and a 5 Ω resistor in parallel, and
between A and C is connected a I Ω resistor. A battery of 10 V is then connected between

63
terminals A and C calculate (a) total current drawn from the battery, (b) voltage across the 2 Ω
resistor, and (c) current passing through the 5 Ω resistor.

Solution: The circuit can be drawn as shown in Figure 1.78 below.

Figure 1.78
The current passing through the 1 Ω resistor is
10
I 1Ω = =10 A
1
The current passing through the series parallel branch between terminals A and C is
10
I 2Ω = =2 A
2+(7 // 5)
Total current drawn from the battery is I T =10+2=12 A .
Voltage across the 2Ω resistor is V2Ω = 2¿ 2 = 4volts.
2×7
I 5Ω = =1 .17 A
Current passing though the 5Ω resistor is 5+ 7

P.No.56: What is the voltage across A and B in the circuit shown in Figure 1.79?

Figure 1.79

Solution: The above circuit can be redrawn as shown in Figure 1.80.

Figure 1.80
Assume loop currents I1 and I2 as shown in Figure 1.80.
6
I 1= =0 . 6 A
10

64
 12
I 2= =0 .86 A
14
VA = Voltage drop across the 4 Ω resistor = 0.6 X 4 = 2.4 V
VB = Voltage drop across the 4 Ω resistor = 0.86 X 4 = 3.44 V
The voltage between points A and C is the sum of voltages as shown in figure 1.46
V AB =−2 . 4+12+3 . 44
= 13.04 V

P.No.57: Determine the current in the 10 Ω resistance and find V s in the circuit shown in Figure
1.81.

Figure 1.81
Solution: The current in the 10 Ω resistance
I10 = total current x [ (RT) / (RT+R10)]
Where RT is the total parallel resistance
7
=1. 65 A
I10 = 4 x 17
Similarly, the current in the resistance R5 is
10
I 5=4× =2 .35 A
10+7
or 4 - 1.65 = 2.35 A
The same current flows through the 2 Ω resistance
∴ Voltage across the 2 Ω resistance, Vs = I5 x 2 = 2.35 x 2 = 4.7 V

P.No.58: Determine the value of R in the circuit shown in Figure 1.82 when the current is zero
in the branch CD.

Figure 1.82
Solution: The current in the branch CD is zero, if the potential difference across CD is zero.
Since no current is flowing, the branch CD is open-circuited. So the same voltage is applied
across ACB and ADB
10
V 10=V A×
15
R
V R=V A ×
20+ R

65
∴ V 10=V R
10 R
V A × =V A×
and 15 20+R
∴ R=40 Ω

P.No.59: Write the mesh equations for the circuit shown in Figure 1.83 and determine the
currents, I1 I2 and I3

Figure 1.83
Solution: In Figure 1.83, the current source lies on the perimeter of the circuit, and the first
mesh is ignored. Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied only for second and third meshes.
From the second mesh, we have
3( I 2 −I 1 )+2( I 2−I 3 )+10=0

or
−3 I 1 +5 I 2 −2 I 3 =−10
From the third mesh, we have
I 3 +2( I 3 −I 2 )=10
or
−212 + 3 I 3 =10
From the first mesh,
I 1=10 A
From the above three equations, we get
I 1=10 A , I 2=7 . 27 A , I 3=8 .18 A ,

P.No.60: Write the node voltage equations and determine the currents in each branch for the
network shown in Figure 1.84.

Figure 1.84
Solution: The first step is to assign voltages at each node as shown in Figure 1.85.

66
 Figure 1.85

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node 1, we have

V V −V 2
5= 1 + 1
10 3

or
V1
[ ] []
1 1
10 3
1
+ −V 2 =5−−−−−−−−−−(1)
3
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node 2, we have
V 2−V 1 V 2 V 2 −10
+ + =0
3 5 1

or
−V 1
[] [
1
3
1 1
]
+V 2 + +1 =10−−−−−−−(2 )
3 5

From Eqs (1) and (2), we can solve for V1 and V2 to get
V1 = 19.85V, V2 = 10.9V
Currents in each branch is given by
V V −V 2 19 . 85−10 . 9
I 10= 1 =1. 985 A I 3= 1 = =2 .98 A
10 3 3
V 10. 9 V −10
I 5= 2 = =2 .18 A I 1= 2 =0 . 9 A
5 5 1
P.No.61: Determine the voltage at each node for the circuit shown in Figure 1.86.

Figure 1.86

Solution: At the node 1, assuming that all current are leaving, we have
V 1−10 V 1 −V 2 V 1 V 1 −V 2
+ + + =0
10 3 5 3

67
or
[ 1 1 1 1
] [ ]
1 1
+ + + −V 2 + =1
V1 10 3 5 3 3 3
0.96V1-0.66V2 = 1
At the node 2, assuming that all currents are leaving except the current from the current source,
we have
V 2−V 1 V 2 −V 1 V 2−V 3
+ + =5
3 3 2
−V 1
[] [
2
3
1 1 1 1
] []
+V 2 + + −V 3 =5
3 3 2 2
-0.66 V1 + 1.16V2 - 0.5V3 = 5
At node 3, assuming all currents are leaving, we have
V 3 −V 2 V 3 V 3
+ + =0

¿¿
2 1 6
- 0.5 V2 + 1.66 V3 = 0
Applying Cramer’s rule, we get

7 .154
=8 .06 V

¿¿
V1 = = 0 .887

Similarly,

9 .06
=10. 2 V
V2 = = 0 .887

68
V3 =
¿¿ 2 .73
= 0 .887
=3. 07 V

P.No.62: Using source transformation, find the power delivered by the 50 V voltage source in
the circuit shown in Figure 1.87.

Figure 1.87

Solution: The current source in the circuit in Figure 1.87 can be replaced by a voltage source as
shown in Figure 1.88.

Figure 1.88

Applying KCL and Ohm’s law at node V, we get

V −50 V −20 V −10
+ + =0
5 2 3
V [ 0 .2+0. 5+0 . 33 ]=23 . 33

69
 23. 33
V= =22. 65 V
or 1 . 03
∴ The current delivered by the 50V voltage source is (50-V) / 5
50−22. 65
=5. 47 A
= 5
Hence, the power delivered by the 50 V voltage source = 50 ¿ 5.47 = 273.5 W

P.No.63: By using source transformation, source combination and resistance combination

convert the circuit shown in Figure 1.89 into a single voltage source and single resistance.

Figure 1.89

Solution: The voltage source in the circuit of Figure 1.89 can be replaced by a current source as
shown in Figure 1.90.

Figure 1.90
Here, the current sources can be combined into a single source. Similarly, all the resistances
can be combined into a single resistance, as shown in Figure 1.91.

Figure 1.91

Figure 1.91 can be replaced by single voltage source and a series resistance as shown in Figure
1.92.

70
Figure 1.91

71