Microbiology

FUNDAMENTALS
A Clinical Approach

Third Edition

Marjorie Kelly Cowan

&
Heidi Smith
with
Jennifer Lusk
BSN RN CCRN

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 4

Eukaryotic Cells and

Microorganisms

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 The History of Eukaryotes (1)

• The first eukaryotic cells appeared 2 to 3

billion years ago
• Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya all evolved
from the Last Common Ancestor
• First primitive eukaryotes were likely single-
celled and independent
• Over time cells aggregated, forming colonies

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 The History of Eukaryotes (2)

• Cells within colonies became specialized to

perform a specific function
• Complex multicellular organisms evolved as
individual cells lost the ability to survive
separately from the intact colony

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 The Extraordinary Emergence of Eukaryotic
Cells

•Mitochondria of eukaryotic cells resembles a

prokaryotic cell (Rickettsia prowazekii )
- contains a circular chromosome

- capable of independent division

- contains prokaryotic ribosomes

- have bacterial membranes that are inhibited

by drugs that only affect bacteria

•Chloroplasts likely arose when endosymbiotic

cyanobacteria provided their host cells with a built-in
feeding mechanism
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (1)
Which of the following characteristics is
evidence that mitochondria were once
prokaryotic cells?
A. Circular chromosome
B. Prokaryotic ribosomes
C. Capable of independent division
D. Membranes that can be inhibited by antibiotics
E. All of the choices are correct.

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 Structures of a Eukaryotic Cell

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©McGraw-Hill Education © Aaron J. Bell/Science Source
 Appendages for Moving:
Cilia and Flagella
Eukaryotic flagella:
• Different from bacterial flagella
• Thicker by a factor of 10
• Structurally more complex
• Covered by an extension of the cell membrane
• Long, sheathed cylinder containing regularly spaced
microtubules
Eukaryotic cilia:
• Similar to flagella in structure, but are smaller and more
numerous
• Found only in a single group of protozoa and certain animal cells

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Glycocalyx
An outermost layer that comes into direct contact
with the environment
Composed of polysaccharides
Appears as:
• A network of fibers
• A slime layer
• A capsule
Contributes to protection, adherence, and signal
reception
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 Boundary Structures: The Cell Wall
 Protozoa and helminths do not have cell walls
Cell walls of fungi:
• Rigid and provide structural support and shape
• Different in chemical composition from bacterial
and archaeal cell walls
• Thick inner layer of polysaccharide fibers composed
of chitin or cellulose
• Thin outer layer of mixed glycans

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 Cross-Sectional Views of Cell Wall

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/Science Source
 Boundary Structures:
The Cell Membrane
 Typical bilayer of phospholipids in which
protein molecules are embedded
 Contain sterols of various kinds:
• Relative rigidity give stability to the membrane
• Important in cells that do not have a cell wall
 Cytoplasmic membranes serve as selectively
permeable barriers

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 Internal Structures: The Nucleus
 Most prominent organelle of eukaryotic cells
 Separated from the cell cytoplasm by an
external boundary called the nuclear
envelope:
• Composed of two parallel membranes separated by
a narrow space
• Perforated with small, regularly spaced pores,
formed at sites where the membranes unite
• Macromolecules migrate through the pores to the
cytoplasm and vice versa
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 The Nucleus (1)

Nucleolus:
• Found in the nucleoplasm
• Site for ribosomal RNA synthesis
• Collection area for ribosomal subunits
Chromatin:
• Made of linear DNA and histone proteins
• Genetic material of the cell

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 The Nucleus (2)

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©D Spector/Photolibrary/Getty Images
 Internal Structures:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A series of membrane tunnels used in transport
and storage
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
• Allows transport materials from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm and to the cell’s exterior
• Ribosomes attached to its membrane surface
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
• Closed tubular network without ribosomes
• Functions in nutrient processing and in synthesis and
storage of nonprotein macromolecules such as lipids
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 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
 Internal Structures: Golgi Apparatus
Site of protein modification and shipping
Consists of several flattened, disc-shaped sacs called
cisternae
Always closely associated with the endoplasmic
reticulum:
• Transitional vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum are
picked up at the face of the Golgi apparatus
• Proteins are modified within the cisternae by the addition
of polysaccharides and lipids
• Condensing vesicles pinch off of the Golgi apparatus and are
then conveyed to lysosomes or transported outside the cell
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 Golgi Apparatus

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©EM Research Services, Newcastle University
 Nature’s Assembly Line
Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi
apparatus:
• A segment of genetic code of DNA from the nucleus
is copied into RNA and passed through the nuclear
pores to the ribosomes on the endoplasmic
reticulum
• Specific proteins on the RER are deposited in the
lumen and transported to the Golgi apparatus
• Proteins in the Golgi apparatus are chemically
modified and packaged into vesicles to be used by
the cell

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 The Transport Process

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 Vesicles
Lysosomes:
• Contain a variety of enzymes involved in the intracellular
digestion of food particles and protection against invading
microorganisms
• Participate in the removal of cell debris in damaged tissue
Vacuoles:
• Membrane-bound sacs containing fluids or solid particles to
be digested, excreted, or stored
• Found in phagocytic cells in response to food and other
substances that have been engulfed
• Contents of a food vacuole are digested through a merger of
a vacuole with a lysosome
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 Origin and Action of Lysosomes in
Phagocytosis

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 Mitochondria (1)

 Generate energy for the cell

 Composed of a smooth, continuous outer
membrane with an inner folded membrane
 Folds on the inner membrane are called cristae:
• Hold the enzymes and electron carriers of aerobic respiration
• Extracts chemical energy contained in nutrient molecules
and stores it as ATP
 Unique organelles
• Divide independently of the cell
• Contain circular strands of DNA
• Have bacteria-sized 70S ribosomes
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 Mitochondria (2)

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 Chloroplasts
 Found in algae and plant cells
 Capable of converting energy from sunlight
into chemical energy through photosynthesis
 Produce oxygen gas as a by-product of
photosynthesis
 Resemble mitochondria but are larger,
contain special pigments, and are more
varied in shape
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Ribosomes
Distributed throughout the cell:
• Scattered freely in the cytoplasm and cytoskeleton
• Attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Appear inside mitochondria and chloroplasts
Can be found in short chains of polyribosomes
Size and structure:
• Large and small subunits of ribonucleoprotein
• Eukaryotic ribosome is 80S, a combination of 60S
and 40S subunits
©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Cytoskeleton
Functions:
• Anchoring organelles
• Moving RNA and vesicles
• Permitting shape changes and movement

Three types of cytoskeletal elements:

• Actin filaments: long, thin protein strands
• Intermediate filaments: ropelike structures
• Microtubules: long, hollow tubes

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 Cytoskeleton

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Dr. Torsten Wittmann/Science Source
 Components and Characteristics of
Each Organism Type
Function or Structure Characteristic Bacterial/ Archaeal Cells Eukaryotic Cells Viruses

Genetics Nucleic acids + + +

Genetics Chromosomes + + –
Genetics True nucleus – + –
Genetics Nuclear envelope – + –
Reproduction Mitosis – + –
Reproduction Production of sex cells +/– + –
Reproduction Binary fission + + –
Biosynthesis Independent + + –
Biosynthesis Golgi apparatus – + –
Biosynthesis Endoplasmic reticulum – + –
Biosynthesis Ribosomes + + –
Respiration Mitochondria – + –
Photosynthesis Pigments +/– +/– –
Photosynthesis Chloroplasts – +/– –
Motility/locomotor structures Flagella +/– +/– –
Motility/locomotor structures Cilia – +/– –
Shape/protection Membrane + + +/–
Shape/protection Cell wall + +/– – (capsids instead)
Shape/protection Glycocalyx +/– +/– –
Complexity of function + + +/–
Size (in general) 0.5–3μm 2–100 μm < 0.2μm
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 Endosymbiosis

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 Concept Check (2)
Which of the following organelles is responsible
for energy production in the cell?
A. Nucleus
B. Golgi apparatus
C. Endoplasmic reticulum
D. Mitochondrion
E. Ribosome

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungal Cells
Yeasts:
• Round to oval shape
• Asexual reproduction, budding
Hyphae:
• Long, threadlike cells found in the bodies of
filamentous fungi
Pseudohypha: chain of yeast cells
Some fungal cells are considered dimorphic and
can take either form, depending on growth
conditions
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 Hyphae of Molds

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©McGraw-Hill Education Courtesy Dr. Judy A. Murphy, Murphy Consultancy Microscopy & Digital Imaging, Stockton, CA
 Microscopic Morphology of Yeasts

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Science Photo Library/Getty Images
 Fungi and Human Disease (1)

Nearly 300 species of fungi can cause human

disease
Three types of fungal disease in humans:
① Community-acquired infections caused by
environmental pathogens
② Hospital-associated infections caused by fungal
pathogens
③ Opportunistic infections caused by low-virulence
species infecting weakened individuals
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 Fungi and Human Disease (2)

Harmless spores can cause opportunistic

infections in AIDS patients
Fungal cell walls give off substances that cause
allergies
Toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms can
induce neurological disturbances and death
Aspergillus flavus produces a potentially lethal
poison to animals who eat contaminated grain

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 Fungi and Human Disease
•Primary pathogens: sicken even healthy persons
(e.g. histoplasmosis (Histoplasma), blastomycosis
(Blastomyces), coccidiomycosis aka “Valley fever” -
Coccidioides
•Opportunistic pathogens: attack persons who are
already weakened in some way (e.g. aspergillosis
(Aspergillis), systemic candidiasis (Candida) and
cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus).
•Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly Pneumocystis carinii),
is a classic opportunist associated with AIDS)
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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Mycoses

• Requirements for invasion:

–proximity to host
–ability to penetrate the host
–ability to digest/absorb nutrients

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 Fungi and Human Disease

• Fungal infections or mycoses are classified depending

on the degree of tissue involvement and mode of
entry into the host:
• Superficial - localized to the skin, hair, and nails.
• Subcutaneous - infection confined to the
hypodermis.
• Systemic - deep infections of the internal organs (via
lungs, gastrointestinal tract or intravenous lines)
• Opportunistic - cause infection only in the
immunocompromised.
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Figure 5.17
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Selected Mycoses
o Rhizopus – black bread mold that acts as an opportunistic
pathogen and can infect individuals with diabetes mellitus
o Candidiasis– C. albicans; Vaginal candidiasis, thrush;
considered the most common nosocomial fungal infection
o Aspergillosis - Aspergillus; results in opportunistic
respiratory infections; can invade wounds, burns, the cornea
and external acoustic meatus .
o Histoplasmosis (Ohio Valley Fever or “Darling’s Disease”) –
soil fungus, H. capsulatum; associated with bird/bat excreta.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Agricultural Impact of Fungi (2)

A number of species are pathogenic to corn and

grain:
• Reduces crop production
• Can cause disease in domestic animals consuming
contaminated feed crops
Fungi rot fresh produce during shipping and
storage:
• 40% of fresh produce is consumed by fungi

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Benefits of Fungi
 Play an essential role in decomposing organic matter
and returning minerals to the soil
 Form stable associations with plant roots and increase
their ability to absorb water and nutrients
(mycorrhizae)
 Fungi have been engineered to produce large
quantities of antibiotics, alcohol, organic acids, and
vitamins
 Some fungi are eaten or used to impart flavoring to
food
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungal Nutrition
Heterotrophic: acquire nutrients from a wide variety of
organic substrates
Saprobic: obtain nutrients from the remnants of dead
plants and animals in soil or aquatic habitats
Parasitic: grow on the bodies of living animals or plants,
although very few require a living host
Fungi penetrate the substrate and secrete enzymes that
reduces it to small molecules that can be absorbed by the
cells
Fungi thrive in nutritionally poor or adverse
environments, and those with high salt or sugar content
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Morphology of Fungi (1)

Cells of most microscopic fungi grow in loose

associations or colonies
 Colonies of yeasts are much like bacteria: they
have a soft, uniform texture and appearance
 Colonies of filamentous fungi have a cottony,
hairy, or velvety texture

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Morphology of Fungi (2)

Mycelium: the woven, intertwining mass of hyphae

that makes up the body or colony of a mold
Septa: segments or cross walls found in most fungi
that allow the flow of organelles and nutrients
between adjacent compartments:
• Nonseptated hyphae consist of one, long, continuous cell

Vegetative hyphae are responsible for the visible mass

of growth that appears on a substrate
Reproductive, or fertile, hyphae produce spores
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Reproductive Strategies
and Spore Formation
Most can propagate by the outward growth of
hyphae or by fragmentation
Spores:
• Primary reproductive mode of fungi
• Can be dispersed through the environment by air,
water, and living things
• Will germinate upon finding a favorable substrate
and produce a new fungus colony in a short time

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 Types of Asexual Mold Spores

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 Asexual Spore Formation
Sporangiospores: formed by successive cleavages
within a saclike head called a sporangium, which
is attached to a stalk, the sporangiophore
Conidiospores or conidia: free spores not
enclosed by a spore-bearing sac

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Sexual Spore Formation
Linking of genes from two parent fungi creates
offspring with combinations of genes different
from that of the parents
Variations lead to potentially advantageous
adaptations
Sexual spores vary from simple fusion of fertile
hyphae to a complex union of male and female
structures

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (3)
From which sources can fungi derive nutrients?
A. Dead plants and animals
B. Living tissues
C. Rubber
D. Petroleum products
E. All of the choices are correct.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Protozoa
 Name comes from the Greek for “first
animals”
 About 12,000 species of single-celled
creatures
 Most are harmless, free-living inhabitants of
water and soil
 A few species are pathogens responsible for
hundreds of millions of infections each year

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Protozoan Form and Function (1)

Single cells containing all of the major

eukaryotic organelles except chloroplasts
Cytoplasm divided into two parts:
• Ectoplasm: clear outer layer involved in locomotion,
feeding, and protection
• Endoplasm: granular inner region housing the
nucleus, mitochondria, and food and contractile
vacuoles

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 Protozoan Form and Function (2)

• Some organelles act as a primitive nervous system

to coordinate movement
• Can move through fluids by means of pseudopods
(“false feet”)
• Cell membrane regulates food, wastes, and
secretions
• Cell shape can remain constant (as in most ciliates),
or change constantly (as in amoebas)
• Size of most protozoans range from 3 to 300 μm:
• Giant amoebas and ciliates range from 3 to 4 mm
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Nutritional and Habitat Range
• Heterotrophic, require food in a complex organic form
• Free-living species scavenge dead plant or animal debris or
graze on bacteria and algae
• Some have special feeding structures, such as oral grooves
• Some absorb food directly through the cell membrane
• Pathogenic species may live on the fluids of their host or actively
feed on tissues
• Main limiting factor is availability of moisture
• Predominant habitats are fresh and marine water, soil, plants,
and animals
• Can survive in extremes of temperature and pH
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycles
Trophozoite: motile feeding stage requiring
ample food and moisture to stay active
Cyst:
• Dormant, resting stage when conditions in the
environment become unfavorable
• Resistant to heat, drying, and chemicals
• Can be dispersed by air currents
• Important factor in the spread of disease

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of Protozoa

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©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC/Dr. Stan Erlandsen
 Life Cycles and Transmission
• Some protozoan groups exist only in the
trophozoite phase
• Many alternate between the trophozoite and
cyst stage, depending on the habitat
• Trichomonas vaginalis, a common STD, does
not form cysts and must be transmitted by
intimate contact
• Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia
form cysts and are readily transmitted in
contaminated water and foods
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Reproduction
All protozoa reproduce by simple, asexual
mitotic cell division or multiple fission
Sexual reproduction also occurs in most
protozoa:
• Ciliates participate in conjugation in which two cells
fuse and exchange micronuclei
• This results in new and different genetic
combinations that can be advantageous in evolution

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 Mastigophora
• Move using flagella
• Complex life cycles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Undulating membrane Flagellum

• Many parasitic
species
– Trypanosoma - vectors
include Tse tse fly and
Reduviid bug.
– Giardia lamblia
– Trichomonas vaginalis
– Leishmania – vector:
Sand fly
a: © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Figure 5.24
©McGraw-Hill Education
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Sarcodina
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Move using Nucleus

pseudopodia Food
Pseudo pod

vacuole

• Includes amoeba
Water-expelling
–Entamoeba vacuole

histolytica
–Naegleria
–Acanthamoeba (b)
(b): © Stephen Durr

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Ciliophora
• Move using cilia
“eyelashes”
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Most are free living

• Paramecium
• Balantidium coli
Cilia

c: © BioMEDIA ASSOCIATES

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Apicocomplexa (Sporozoa)

• Non-motile protozoa Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cytostome Food vacuoles Nucleus

• Obligate parasites
• Plasmodium vivax –
vector: Anopheles
mosquito
• Toxoplasma gondii
d: © Yuuji Tsukii, Protist Information Server, http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/protist_menuE.html

©McGraw-Hill Education
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Major Pathogenic Protozoa (1)

Amoeboid Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis (intestinal and Humans, water, and food
other symptoms)
Naegleria, Acanthamoeba Brain infection Free-living in water

Ciliated Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Balantidium coli Balantidiosis (intestinal and Pigs, cattle
other symptoms)

Flagellated Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Giardia lamblia Giardiasis (intestinal distress) Animals, water, and food

Trichomonas vaginalis Trichomoniasis (vaginal Human

symptoms)
Trypanosoma brucei, T. cruzi Trypanosomiasis (intestinal Animals, vector-borne
distress and widespread organ
damage)
Leishmania donovani, Leishmaniasis (either skin Animals, vector-borne
L. tropica, L. brasiliensis lesions or widespread
involvement of internal organs)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Major Pathogenic Protozoa (2)

Apicomplexan Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Plasmodium vivax, Malaria (cardiovascular Human, vector-borne
P. falciparum, P. malariae and other symptoms)
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis (flulike Animals, vector-borne
illness or silent infection)

Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidiosis Water, food

(intestinal and other
symptoms)
Cyclospora cayetanensis Cyclosporiasis (intestinal Water, fresh produce
and other symptoms)

Amoeboid Protozoa Ciliated Protozoa Flagellated Apicomplexan

Using Pseudopods (Ciliophora) Protozoa Protozoa–Nonmotile
(Sarcodina) (Mastigophora) (Sporozoa)
©Stephen Durr (Amoeba proteus); ©J. R. Factor/Science Source (Balantidium coli); ©Eye of Science/Science Source (SEM of Trichomonas vaginalis. Magnification-9,000x);
©BSIP/Universal Images Group/Getty Images (SEM of Toxoplasma gondii. Magnification not available)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (4)
The active, feeding, and motile stage of the
protozoan life cycle is the ______ stage.
A. cyst
B. endospore
C. trophozoite
D. merozoite
E. All of the choices are correct.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Helminths
Include tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms
Adult specimens are usually large enough to be
seen with the naked eye
Not all flatworms and roundworms are
parasites; many live free in soil and water
Parasitic helminths spend part of their lives in
the gastrointestinal tract

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Flatworms and Roundworms
Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes):
• Very thin, often segmented body plan
• Divided into cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes
(flukes)
Roundworms (phylum Aschelminthes):
• Also called nematodes
• Elongated, cylindrical, unsegmented body

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Pathogenic Flatworms

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Geoff Brightling/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images (a); ©Eye of Science/Science Source (b)
 Pathogenic Roundworm

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC

 General Worm Morphology
Multicellular animals that are equipped with
organs and organ systems
In pathogenic helminths, the most developed
organ is the reproductive tract
Therefore, there is a reduction in the digestive,
excretory, nervous, and muscular systems

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycles and Reproduction (1)

Complete life cycle includes the fertilized egg,

larval, and adult stages
Adults derive nutrients and reproduce sexually
in a host’s body
 Nematodes: sexes are separate and different
in appearance
 Trematodes: sexes can be separate or
hermaphroditic
 Cestodes: generally hermaphroditic
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycles and Reproduction (2)

Helminth life cycle:

• Must transmit an infective form (egg or larva) to the body of
another host
• The host in which the larva develops is known as the
intermediate host
• Adulthood and mating occur in the definitive (final) host
• Transport host is an intermediate that experiences no parasitic
development
Sources for human infection are contaminated food, soil,
and water or infected animals
Routes of infection are by oral intake or penetration of
tissues
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Examples of Helminths and How They
Are Transmitted
Common Name Disease or Host Spread to Humans By
Worm Requirement
Roundworms—Nematodes
Intestinal Nematodes Ingestion
Infective in egg (embryo) stage:
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis Humans Fecal pollution of soil with eggs
Enterobius vermicularis Pinworm Humans Close contact
Infective in larval stage:
Trichinella spiralis Trichina worm Pigs, wild mammals Consumption of meat containing larvae
Tissue Nematodes Burrowing of larva into tissue
Onchocerca volvulus River blindness Humans, black flies Fly bite
Dracunculus medinensis Guinea worm Humans and Ingestion of water containing Cyclops
Cyclops (an aquatic
invertebrate)
Flatworms—Trematodes
Schistosoma japonicum Blood fluke Humans and snails Skin penetration of larval stage
Flatworms—Cestodes
Taenia solium Pork tapeworm Humans, swine Consumption of undercooked or raw pork
Diphyllobothrium latum Fish tapeworm Humans, fish Consumption of undercooked or raw fish
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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Egg Laying
Fertilized eggs:
• Released to the environment
• Provided with a protective shell and extra food to
aid their development into larvae
• Vulnerable to heat, cold, drying, and predators
Certain helminths can lay from 200,000 to 25
million eggs a day to assure successful
completion of their life cycle

©McGraw-Hill Education
 A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm (1)

Enterobius vermicularis:
• Pinworm or seatworm
• Common infestation of the large intestine
• Range from 2 to 12 mm long with a tapered, curved
cylindrical shape

©McGraw-Hill Education
 A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm (2)

Life cycle:
• Microscopic eggs are swallowed: picked up from
another infected person or objects they have
touched
• Eggs hatch in the intestine
• Larvae mature into adults within 1 month
• Male and female worms mate
• Female migrates to the anus to deposit eggs
• Intense itching ensues
• Scratching spreads the eggs
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of the Pinworm

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©MNStudio/Shutterstock
 Distribution and Importance
of Parasitic Worms
• About 50 species of helminths cause disease
in humans
• Distributed in all areas of the world
• Higher incidence in tropical areas
• Yearly estimate of cases is in the billions and
are not confined to developing countries
• Conservative estimate of 50 million helminth
infections in North America alone
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (5)
Adulthood and mating of helminths occurs in
the ______.
A. larvae
B. intermediate host
C. cyst
D. definitive host
E. egg

©McGraw-Hill Education