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Chapter 2
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Algebraic Concepts
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Chapter Overview
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Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with symbols and the rules for manip-
ulating those symbols. These symbols (usually alphabets) stand for numbers in equations
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and formulae, permitting us to express general mathematical relationships and systematic so-
lution to problems. A variable is a symbols (like x, y, or z) which represent unknown
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value(s) that can alter(s) or take different values in course of a mathematical op-
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eration. A constant is a value remains unchanged in course of a mathematical

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operation, such as numbers like 3, -5, or π. An algebraic expression is a mixture

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of variables, constants, and arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multipli-

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cation, division). For example, 3x + 2 and 4y 2 − 7 are algebraic expressions. An equation

asserts which two expressions are equal, using the equal sign (=). For example,
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2x + 3 = 7 is an equation. Solving an equation means finding the value(s) of the variable(s)

that satisfy the equation(i.e. make it true.) A term is a single part of an expression or
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equation, separated by addition or subtraction. In the expression 5x2 + 3x − 7, there

are three terms: 5x2 , 3x, and −7. The coefficient is the numerical factor of a term that
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contains a variable. In 5x3 , the coefficient is 5.

Basic or cardinal operations in mathematics include :
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- Addition and Subtraction: Combining like terms (terms with the same variables to the same
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power)in which coefficients are added or subtracted.

- Multiplication: Using the distributive property to expand expressions, such as 3(x+4) = 3x+12
- Division: Simplifying expressions, often by dividing each term by a common factor
Factorisation involves writing a an expression as a product of its factors. For example, x2 − 9
can be factored as (x + 3)(x − 3). The reverse or opposite of factorisation is expansion

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 Comprehending these concepts is inevitable for progressing in mathematics and related fields,
providing the tools to approach and solve complex problems systematically.
We will discuss some basic properties of the sets of real numbers, absolute value, surds, poly-
nomials and symmetric functions of roots.
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By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

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1. solve problems involving absolute value

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2. Use law of indices and logarithms and their relationship to solve problems

3. Use laws of surds and its algebra to evaluate problems involving surds
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4. add, subtract, multiply and divide polynomials

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5. solve problems using remainder and factor theorems

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6. simplify given expression in the terms of sum and product of given roots of a quadratic
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equations
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7. use theory of quadratic equation to obtain the type of roots of a quadratic even without
solving
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 2.1 Algebraic Concepts

Introduction
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An expression containing the sign of equality (=) is called an equation. For a, b ∈ R , a

statement of the form
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a > b, a ≥ b, a < b , a ≥ b (2.1)

are called real number inequalities.

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Solution to equations are points or set of points, while solutions to inequalities are
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range of values or intervals. Interval (range of values) subsets of R are shown in Figure 2.1
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above. These include (i) open interval (ii) closed interval, (iii) half open or closed interval (iv)
half closed or open interval and (v) to (ix), infinite intervals.They will play important role as
solutions to inequalities later in 3.2 of chapter 3 .

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 2.1.1 SOME ORDER PROPERTIES OF SET OF REAL NUM-
BERS

Let be any real numbers. Then

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
a < b, a + c < b + c 
(i) ∀c∈R
a > b, a + c > b + c
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
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
 ac < bc, c > 0
(ii) a < b.
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ac > bc, c < 0



 0, a = 0
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(iii) ∀ a ∈, a =
> 0, a ̸= 0

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(iv) a < b, b < c, then a < c (Transtivity or transtive property)

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2.1.2 Absolute Value

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Let r be a real number. The absolute value of r denoted by |r| is defined as

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
 r, r > o 
r, r ≥ 0
|r| = 0, r = 0 ≡ (2.2)
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−r, r < 0
−r, r < 0

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Remark 2.1 (I) Observe from the definition of absolute value in (2.2) above,
(◦) If r ∈ R+ ≡ (0, ∞) , i.e., a positive real number,|r| = r > 0 (◦◦) |r| = 0 ⇔ r = 0
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(◦ ◦ ◦) If r ∈ − ≡ (−∞, 0) , i.e., a negative real number,|r| = − (−r) = r > 0 ∴ |r| > 0 I if r ̸=

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0 and 0 iff r = 0.
(II) Geometrically, absolute value of a real number is the distance between the real number and
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the real number zero. For |r| = |r − 0| . E.g., −3 and 3 are each of a distance 3 units from 0.
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Properties of Absolute Value: (i) |r| ≥ 0 and |r| = 0 ⇔ r = 0

(ii) |rs| = |r| |s| (i.e. absolute value of a product
 = product of the absolute values)
=, if r and s have the same sign
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(iii) |r + s| ≤ |r| + |s| (triangular inequality)

<, if r and s are of opposite sign
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1 1
(iv) r = |r| , r ̸= 0

Example 2.2
3 −2
Evaluate: (i) |3 − 5| (ii) − 6 + 2
(iii) |(−2) (18 − 6)| (iv) 5

SOLUTION: Class Discussion

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 Remark 2.3 (i) |x| < k ⇔ −k < x < k ≡ (−k, k)
(ii) |x| ≤ k ⇔ −k ≤ x ≤ k ≡ [−k, k]
(iii) |x| > k ⇒ x > k or x < −k ≡ (−∞, −k) ∪ (k, ∞)
(iv) |x| ≥ k ⇒ x ≥ k or x ≤ −k ≡ (−∞, k] ∪ [k, ∞)
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Verification: 
x < k ( x > 0) ≡ (−∞, k)
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(i) |x| < k ⇒ and (−k, ∞) ∩ (−∞, k) = (−k, k)

−x < k (x < 0) ⇒ x > −k ≡ (−k, ∞)
(ii) Similarly, by(ii) replacing < with ≤
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x > k ( x > 0) ≡ (k, ∞)

(iii) |x| > k ⇒ = (−∞, −k) ∪ (k, ∞)
−x > k (x < 0) ⇒ x < −k ≡ (−∞, −k)
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(iv) Similarly, for (iv) by replacing > with ≥

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2.1.3 Integral Indices

Indices: An index (plural indices) is of the form ax , a is the base while x is the power
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or index or exponent.
Laws of Indices
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Let x, y be any real numbers and m and positive integers.

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(i) xn xm = xn+m


(ii) (xy)n = xn y n


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 n−m 

 x ,n > m



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
xn
(iii) If x ̸= 0, = 1, n = m


xm


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 1
,n < m

 n xm−n (2.3)
x xn
(iv) =
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

y xn 

n m
(v) (x ) = xnm




(vi) x0 = 1
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


√ √ m
1 m



(vii)Rational Exponent :(◦) x n = n
x (◦◦) x n = ( n x)
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Example 2.4
x11 18
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1. Simplify: (i) 23 × 24 (ii)x4 × x3 (iii) (iv) x3
x22
− 41
1
1 −2
(v) (4 · 54) 3 (vi) (3x2 ) (12x7 ) (vii) 16
x
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2. Reduce to lowest positive index: (i) x12 ·x20 (ii) (5y −7 ) (8y 4 ) (iii) (4x2 y 3 z −1
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 2 −3
(iv) yx−4
1 √
5
q
1
3. Evaluate: (i) (32) 5 (ii) −243 (iii) 3
8

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14 √
6
3
(iv) 625
(v) 212 · 36 (vi) 36 2

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 Solution: Class Discussion

2.1.4 Logarithm Function and Exponential Functions

The exponential function, expa x : R → R+ was defined by

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ax or expa x, a > 0 (2.4)

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The inverse of the exponential function i.e. (expa )−1 is the logarithm function
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loga x : R+ → R
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where a is the base. Therefore, for each real number x,

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loga (expa x) ≡ loga ax = x and expa (loga x) ≡ aloga x = x (a > 0) ··· (2.5)
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Relationship between Indices and Logarithm:

y = loga x ⇔ ay = x (x > 0) ··· (2.6)

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Definition 2.5 The logarithm of a number to a given base is the power you will raise
the give base to get the number.
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For example
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1
loga a = 1 . . . a1 = a, log4 64 = 3, . . . 43 = 64, log8 2 = . . . 8 3 = 2 etc
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Laws of Logarithm: For a > 0,

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(i) loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

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x
(ii) loga = loga x − loga y
y
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(iii) loga xk = k loga x, k ∈ R

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(iv) loga a = 1
logb x
(v) loga x = (Change of base)
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logb a
VERIFICATION of (v):
y = loga x ⇔ ay = x
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⇒ logb ay = logb x (taking log of both sides to base b)

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⇒ y logb a = logb x
logb x
⇒y=
logb a
logb x
⇒ loga x = (logb a ̸= 0) ⊓
⊔
logb a

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 Example 2.6

−x
1. Convert each of the following exponentials to the given base: (i) y = 15 to base 5 (ii) y =
16 √
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2x
3x
2 34 (iii) y = −5(0.09)−3x , to base 0.3 (iv) y = 8 3 , to base 2 (v) y =


to base
9
1
(64) . to base 4 (vi) y = (64)−x , to base 8
x
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1 1
2. Evaluate: (i) log2 (ii) log3 (iii) log5 1 (iv) log1 0 0.0000001 (v) log5 125 (vi) log7 7 (v
log 5
16 81
(viii) 3 3
(ix) log 1 π 2
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1 1
3. Solve each of the following equations: (i) log9 x = (ii) log16 x = (iii) log10 x =
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2 2
1
4 (iv) loga 8 =
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3
4. Given that log10 3 = 0.477121, log10 5 = 0.698970, and log10 70 = 1.845098, evaluate with-
√
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out using tables or calculator: (i) log10 2.1 (ii) log10 1.4 (iii) log3 5 (iv) log10 2
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5. If loga x = 3,find: (i) log 1 x (ii) log√a x (iii) loga2 x

a
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Solution:Class Discussion
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2.1.5 Surds
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Let a, b be real numbers and c > 0. A number of the form and is a positive rational number and
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√ q3 q 1 √
not the square of a rational number is called a pure quadratic surd , e.g. 2, 2
, 17
, 5 etc
√
While a number of form a + b c is called a simple quadratic surd or simply a surd,
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√ √ √
e.g.2 + 3, 3 + 4 5 , 7, 1 − 8 2 etc
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N.B. If a = 0, a simple quadratic surd implies a pure quadratic surd and a simple quadratic
surd is a rational number.
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Remark 2.7
√ √

(I) A simple quadratic surd a + b c can be reduced to the form ± p + q .
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√ √
(II) a + b = c + d ⇔ a = c and b= d
√ √ n
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(III) If a + b, a ̸= 0 is a surd, then a + b , n a non-zero integer, is a surd.

√ √ √
(IV) Two pure quadratic surds a and b are said to be similar √ab is rational.

Example 2.8
Decide which of the following are pure or simple quadratic surds or not.

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 √ √ p√ √
(i) 16 (ii) 216 (iii) 3 (iv) 2 + 3 (v) 2

Solution: Class Discussion

√ √
Conjugate of a Surd: The conjugate of a surd a + b c is a − b c
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Algebra and Law of Surds

√ √

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√ √
(i) a + b c ± e + d f = (a ± e) + b c ± d f

√ √
√ √ √
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(ii) (a + b c) e + d f = ae + ad f + be c ± bd f c
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√
a+b c
√
a+b c
√
e−d√f √ √
(iii) √
e+d f
= √
e+d f
• e−d f
,e − d f conjugate of e + d f
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√ √ √
(iv) mn = m n
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√
pm m
(v) n
= √
n
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Example 2.9
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(a) Express each q

of the following as a single number.
1
√ 1
√
(i) 3 45 (ii) 2 12 (iii) 54 15
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√ √ √ √ √ √
5 √ √
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(b) Simplify: (i) 5 × 20 (ii) 2 × 18 × 3 (iii) 2 3 × 15 × 21

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(c) Simplify byqrationalizing the denominator:

√
(i) √33 (ii) 11
(iii) 5√122
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√ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ 3 2 − 2 8 + 32
(d) Simplify the following: (i) 45+ 5 (ii) 18−3 8+5 50 (iii) √ √
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√ √ √ √ 12 + 3 3
2 7 − 21 3 2−2 3
(iv) √ √ (v) √ √ (vi) √ √
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2 + 18 7 + 21 12 + 18
√ 1 1
(vii) 5 + √ − √
5 45
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Solution: Class Discussion

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Assignment 2.1
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1 Evaluate: (i) |7 − 12| (ii) | − 4(6 − 15)| (iii) −53

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2. Find all integers n satisfying: (i) (i) |n| < 5 (ii) 1 < |n| ≤ 4 (iii) 5 > |n − 2| ≥ |n + 1|
2x √
3. Convert the following exponentials to the indicated base:(i) y = 8 3 , to base 2
1
(ii) y = (64)x . to base 4
3
(iii) y = (64)−x , to base 8

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 √ √ √
4.(a) Express each of the following as root of a single number:(i) 3 11 (ii) 2 13 (iii) 10 3
√ √
(iv) 4 10 (v) 17 105
√
(vi) 14 32
√ √ √ √
2 √ √
3
(b) Simplify the following:(i) 3 10 × 3 × 30 (ii) 2 7 × 7 (iii) 3 5
√ √ √ √
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(iv) 6 × 8 × 14 × 7
(c) Simplify the following by rationalizing the denominator: (i) √3081 (ii) √166
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(iii) √68
√ √ √ √ √ √
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(d) Simplify the following:(i) 3√12−

2−2
√ 3 (ii) 3
18
√ 2+2√ 3
12+ 18
(iii) 2 63 + √2 − √12
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(iv) 63 − 21
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 2.2 Polynomials

Introduction

A polynomial is a mathematical expression that consists of variables (also called indetermi-

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nates) and coefficients. These expressions involve only the operations of addition, subtrac-
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tion, multiplication, and positive-integer powers of variables. In simpler terms, polynomials

are combinations of terms involving variables raised to whole-number. They are fundamental
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mathematical expressions consisting of variables and coefficients, combined using addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents. They are prevalent across various
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fields of mathematics, including algebra, calculus, and numerical analysis, and find applica-
tions in science, engineering, economics, and many other disciplines.Polynomials find extensive
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applications in mathematics and beyond. They are used to model various real-world phenom-
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ena, such as population growth, economic trends, and physical processes. Additionally, they
serve as a foundation for more complex mathematical concepts, including calculus, differential
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equations, and numerical analysis. Understanding polynomials and their properties is crucial
for solving equations, graphing functions, and analyzing mathematical models in diverse fields.
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Their simplicity and versatility make them indispensable tools in both theoretical and applied
mathematics.
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In the sequel, we will define polynomials. Then we will treat algebra of polynomials, quadratic
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polynomials and theory of quadratic equations and symmetric function of roots.

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Definition 2.10 A function of a real variable of the form

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n
X
2 n−1 n
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x + · · · + an−1 x + an x = ar xr (ascending order) (2.7)
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r=0
n n−1 2
or f (x) = an x + an−1 x + · · · + a2 x + a1 x + a0 (descending order) (2.8)
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where an̸= 0, a0 , a1 , · · · , an ∈ R or are real numbers or constants are called the coefficients,n ∈
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Z+ = {0, 1, 2 · · ·} , is called a polynomial of degree n i.e. n greatest power, is the degree

with ar the coefficient of xr ,a0 is the called the constant term or the term independent
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of x.
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n = 0 gives the constant polynomial i.e. a0 ; n = 1 - gives the linear polynomial, i.e.
a0 + a1 x ≡ ax + b
n = 2 gives quadratic polynomial,i.e a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 ≡ ax2 + bx + c
n = 3 gives cubic polynomial,i.e.a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 ≡ ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
n = 4 gives quartic polynomial, i.e. a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 ≡ ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e

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 2.2.1 Algebra of Polynomials

If p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , and q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b2 x2 +

b1 x + b0 , an ̸= 0, bm ̸= 0,are polynomials of degrees n and m respectively with m ⩾ n, say.
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(i) Addition : (p + q)(x) = p(x) + q(x)

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= an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 + bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · ·

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+ b 2 x 2 + b1 x + b 0
= (bm + am )xm + · · · + (bn+1 + an+1 )xn+1 + (bn + an )xn + · · ·
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+ (b1 + a) x + (b0 + a0 ) (2.9)

(ii) Product :(p × q)(x) = p(x)p × q(x)
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= (an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 )(bm xm + bm−1 xm−1

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+ · · · + b 2 x 2 + b1 x + b 0 )
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= an bm xn+m + (an bm−1 + an−1 bm )xn+m−1 + · · · + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x

+ b 0 a0 (2.10)
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Got by expanding the brackets above and then summing up like terms.
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(iii) Quotient: pq (x) := p(x)

q(x)
such that q(x) ̸= 0 in general is not always polynomial, but is
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called a rational function, i.e., quotient of two polynomials.

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Example 2.11
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(a) If p(x) = 7x3 − 12x2 + 14 x − 1 and q(x) = −3x4 + x3 + 6x2 − x + 8.

Evaluate : (i) (p + q)(x) (ii)(p − q)(x)
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(b) p(x) = x2 − 2x − 1 and q(x) = x − 1 find : (i) pq (ii) pq

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Solution: Class Discussion

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2.2.2 Remainder and Factor Theorems

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7
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Recall: = 3 Remainder1 ≡ 3 + 1 ⇒ 7 = 3 (2) + 1

2
Dividend
∴ = Quotient + Remainder ⇒ Dividend = (Divisor) (Quotient) + Remainder
Divisor

The above process is quite extendable to polynomials. Hence for any polynomial.

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 p (x) , ∃ D (x) , Q (x) , R (x) such that p(x) can be expressed as

p (x) = D (x) Q (x) + R (x) (2.11)

If D(x) = x − c, then (2.11) becomes
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p(x) = (x − c)Q(x) + R(x) (2.12)

Then x = c in (2.12) gives
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p(c) = R(c) (2.13)

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And if R(c) = 0, then(2.13) becomes

p(c) = 0 (2.14)
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(2.14) is the Factor Theorem which asserts that if the remainder R(c) is zero when p(x)
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is divided by D(x), then D(x) = x − c is a factor of p(x), otherwise (2.13) which is the
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Remainder Theorem holds in which D(x) = x − c is not a factor of p(x) and giving
R(c) ̸= 0 as the remainder.
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Example 2.12
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Factorise: (i) 2x3 − 9x2 + 3x + 4 (ii)x3 + x2 + 2x + 2

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Solution: Class Discussion

Trial and error at times are cumbersome and may fail. Some other useful identities are given in
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remark 2.13 below.

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Remark 2.13
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(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 (square of sum of two items equals sum of their squares
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plus twice their product)

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(ii) (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 (square of difference of two items equals sum of their
squares minus twice their product)
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(iii) a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) (difference of squares of two items equals product of their

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sum and difference)

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(iv) a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) (difference of cubes of two items equals product of

their difference and sum of their squares plus their product)

(v) a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) (sum of cubes of two items equals product of their

sum and sum of their squares minus their product)

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 Example 2.14
Factorise:(i) 16x2 + 40xy + 25y 2 (ii) 16u2 − 56uv + 49v 2 (iii) 16y 2 − 9z 2 (iv) 4y 2 + 7yz + 3z 2

Solution:Class Discussion
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2.2.3 Quadratic Polynomials- Roots and Factorisation

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Recall:To fatorise ax2 + bx + c, a, b, c ∈ R, a ̸= 0.

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We seek for two factors of a × b whose sum is b

If a × b is positive, then the two factors are of the same sign +, + or −, − and sign
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of b is chosen
If a × b is negative, then the two factors are of the opposite sign + and − and vice-
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versa , then sign of b is cosen for sign of the bigger factor

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Having this in mind we can as well proceed to factorise ax2 + bx + c as follows:

 
b c
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2 2
ax + bx + c = a x + x +
a a
b c
Then to factorise x2 +
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x + we complete the square in x

a a
 2 2
b2 b2

2 b c 2 b b c b c
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∴x + x+ = x + x+ − 2 + = x+ + − 2
a a a 2a 4a a 2a a 4a
√
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 2
b 2 b2 −4ac
, b2 > 4ac
2

2 x + −

b b − 4ac 
2a 2a
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= x+ − = √ 2
2a 4a2  x + b
2 + b2 −4ac
, b2 < 4ac
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2a 2a
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(I) If b2 − 4ac >h0 or b2 > 4acgives difference of two squares namely:

√  
 √b2 −4ac i
2 b b2 −4ac b


ax + bx + c = x + 2a − 2a
x + 2a + 2a
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(II) If b2 − 4ac < 0 or b2 < 4ac, x2 + ab x + ac , is a nonzero sum of two squares. Therefore
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p(x) = a x2 + ab x + ac ̸= 0 ∀ x ∈ R. Hence p(x) has no real factors or no factors.

b2 − 4ac is called the Discriminant, D of ax2 + bx + c or ax2 + bx + c = 0 for it determines

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the type of factors or roots possesses by ax2 + bx + c or ax2 + bx + c = 0. In summary we

have the following:
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1. (i) If b2 − 4ac > 0 or b2 > 4ac then p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two distinct or different
√ √
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b2 −4ac −b− b2 −4ac

real roots namely- −b+ 2a
and 2a
(ii) If b2 − 4ac = 0 or b = 4ac ,then p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal or coincident
2

b
or repeated real roots given by − 2a
(iii) If b2 − 4ac < 0 or b2 < 4ac, then p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no real factors or roots
√ √
−b+i b2 −4ac −b−i b2 −4ac
but has complex roots namely- 2a
and 2a

34
 (iv) If b2 − 4ac is a perfect square i.e. (its square root is an integer), p(x) = ax2 + bx + c
is factorisable.
2. (i) If α, β are the factors or root of an equation p(x) = ax2 + bx + c or p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0
respectively. Then
PU
N

 
2 2 b c
2 b c
ax + bx + c or ax + bx + c = 0 = a x + x + or x2 + x+ =0 (2.15)
a a a a
LN

⇒ a[(x − α) + (x − β)] or (x − α) + (x − β) = 0(α, β are factors or roots respectively)

⇒ a x2 − (α + β)x + αβ or x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
 
(2.16)
SE
RI

Comparing (2.15) and (2.16) coefficient wise

ES
CO

b

 (◦) α + β = − a (sum of roots)


PY

⇒ (2.17)
 (◦◦) αβ = c (product of roots)


a
RI
G
H

(ii) A new quadratic polynomial or equation in the variable x whose roots are the known
T

numbers α and β is given by

RE


(◦)x2 − (α + β)x + αβ or x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
SE


⇒ (2.18)
2
(◦◦) I.e. x − (Sum of Roots)x + Product of Roots = 0
RV


ED
20

2.2.4 Symmetric Function of Roots

25

From (2.17) we see that:

b c
α + β = − (sum of roots) and αβ = (products of roots)
a a
Now, using these expressions for sum(α + β = − ab ) and product(αβ = ac ) of roots (which is
the only thing obtainable from any given quadratic expression or equation,) we simplify other

35
 expression by writing them in terms of sum and product of roots as follows:

(i) α2 + β 2 (α + β)2 = α2 + 2αβ + β 2

⇒ α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ (2.19)
(ii) (α − β)2 , and α − β : (α − β)2 = α2 − 2αβ + β 2
PU

= α2 + β 2 − 2αβ
N

= (α + β)2 − 2αβ − 2αβ (Using equation (2.19))

LN

⇒ (α − β)2 = (α + β)2 − 4αβ (2.20)

1 
And α − β = (α + β)2 − 4αβ 2 


SE



(2.21)

RI

q 
or α − β = (α + β)2 − 4αβ


ES

(iii) α2 − β 2 : α2 − β 2 = (α + β)(α − β)
1
⇒ α2 − β 2 = (α + β) (α + β)2 − 4αβ 2 (By(2.21))

(2.22)
CO

(iv) α3 − β 3 : α3 − β 3 = (α − β) α2 + αβ + β 2


1 
= (α + β)2 − 4αβ 2 (α + β)2 − 2αβ + αβ
 
PY

(By (2.21) and(2.19))

RI

1 
⇒ α3 − β 3 = (α + β)2 − 4αβ 2 (α + β)2 − αβ
 
(2.23)
G

(v) α3 + β 3 : α3 + β 3 = (α + β)(α2 − αβ + β 2 )
H

= (α + β) (α + β)2 − 2αβ − αβ (By (2.19))

 
T

⇒ α3 + β 3 = (α + β) (α + β)2 − 3αβ
 
(2.24)
RE

Example 2.15
SE

1. Solve:(i) x2 − 12 = 0 (ii) 3x2 + 30x + 72 = 0 (iii) 4t − 3(2t ) + 2 = 0 (iv) − x4 + 2x2 + 3 = 0

2. If α, β are the roots of 2x2 − 10x + 7 = 0. Find (i) α2 + β 2 (ii) α − β (iii) α2 − β 2 (iv) α3 +
RV

β 3 (v) α3 − β 3
3. If α and β are the roots of x2 − 4x + 1 = 0, show that α3 + β 3 = 52.
ED

2
4. If α and β are the roots of x + px + q = 0, q ̸= 0, find in terms of α and β the roots of
qx2 + (2q − p2 ) x + q = 0 αβ , αβ
20

5. Find two consecutive even numbers whose product is 120

25

6. If one of the roots of the equation x2 + bx + c = 0 is twice the other and their sum is 15, find
b

Solution: Class Discussion

Assignment 2.2 1. If p(x) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x − 5, find (i) p(−1) (ii) p(−2)

36
 2. Find the unkown constants in the following:
(i) x3 + 2x2 + x + 5 ≡ (x − 1)(Ax2 + Bx + C) + D
(ii) 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 4 ≡ A(x − 1) + B(x − 1)(x + 1) + Cx(x2 − 1) + D
(iii) (x − c)3 ≡ x3 = ax2 + bx + 8
PU

3. Find (a) p(x) + q(x) (b) p(x) − q(x) if (i) p(x) = x6 − 10x2 + 1, q(x) = 3x4 − 7x2 + 8
N

4. If α and β are the roots of x2 − 4x + 1 = 0, show that α6 + β 6 = 2702

LN

5. Find the equation whose roots are (α − 1)2 and (β − 1)2 if α and β are the roots of
x2 + qx + r = 0
SE

6. Find r if the equation (7r + 1)x2 + (5r − 1)x + r = 1 has:

RI

i. distinct real roots

ES

ii. conicient real roots

CO

iii. imaginarry roots

7. Show that the roots of the equation (x − a)(x − b) = k 2 are always real if a, b and k are
PY

real.
RI

Bibliography
G

INTRODUCTORY
H
T

UNIVERSITY
RE

MATHEMATICS
SE

I
RV

Algebra, Trigonometry and Complex Numbers

ED

Edited by Prof. J. C. Amazigo

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25

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