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Chapter 1
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SETS, RELATIONS AND SEQUENCE

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Chapter Overview
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We start this chapter with set as we did in Ordinary General Level Mathematics. We will then
introduce special sets namely ordered power sets, ordered pairs and Cartesian products. Then
a discussion is given to binary relations or relations.The chapter will be concluded with set
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of numbers, sequence and series in which again emphasis will be on arithmetic and geometric
progressions and arithmetic and geometric series. Hence by the end of this you should be able
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to do the following:
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1. describe a set
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2. perform algebra of set

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3. draw venn diagrams

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4. define a relation
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5. find domain, range, source and target sets of a relation

6. describe set of numbers

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7. define a sequence and perform relevant calculations with respect to sequence

8. Use Principle of Mathematical Induction to do some prrofs

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1.1 Elementary Set Theory

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Definition 1.1 A set is a well defined collection of objects.

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The objects which make up the set are called members or elements of the set. Generally
we denote sets with capital(upper case) letters A, B, . . ., Z and the elements with small(lower
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case) letters a,b, . . .,z. Note that the elements need not always be a letter.
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1.1.1 Membership and Description of a Set

We described sets in two ways namely:

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(i)Listing or Roaster Method:In this method, if possible one directly names each element
of the set separated by commas enclosed between braces. Examples are V = {a, e, i, o, u},
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E = {2, 4, 6, . . . , 100}. That is set of English Vowels and positive even integers lees than or
equal to 100 respectively.
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(ii) Set Builder or Specifier Notation: Here the quality or property of the elements are
given in between braces. Thus we have
V = {x : x is an Englis Vowel} and E = {y/y is an even integer ≤ 100}.
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1.1.2 Equality of Sets

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A set S is said to be equal to another set T if they have same elements. I.e. for all objects
x ∈ S, then x ∈ T and vice-versa or x ∈ S if and only if(iff or ⇔)x ∈ T . Otherwise S ̸= T .
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Hence
{a, b, 2, 3} = {2, a, 3, b}- order of elements immaterial or does violate equality of sets.
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{c, 2, c} = {2, c, 2, c, c, 2, 2, c} - repetition of elements immaterial or does not violate equality of

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sets
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{a, b} = {2, b}.

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1.1.3 Subsets
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If every elements of a set S is an element of a set T , then S is called a subset of T (and T is a

superset of S) and this is denoted by S ⊂ T (S is contained or smaller or included in T ). And
T ⊃ S (T contains or is bigger than or includes S)
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For example,
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DEDE or DEED ⊂ LED

ADD ⊂ DAD
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CAT ⊈ HAT
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Proper Subset: If Set A is a subset of Set B, but Set A is not equal to Set B, then A is said
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to be a proper subset of B, denoted as A ⊂ B.

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Improper Subset: If Set A is a subset of Set B, and Set A is equal to Set B, then A is said
to be an improper subset of B. This is denoted as A ⊆ B.
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Trivial Subset:Is a set who is always a subset of any given set X. The empty set and the
given set X is the only trivial subsets of any given set X.
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Remark 1.2
(i) Two seat A and B are equal if and only if (⇔) they are subsets of each other. I.e. A = B ⇔
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A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A (ii) the inclusion property satisfies:

(◦)A ⊂ A( reflexive property or reflexivity)
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(◦◦)A ⊂ B, B ⊂ C, then A ⊂ C( transitive property or transitivity)

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1.1.4 Algebra of Sets

(a) Empty Set: Is a set which has no element. It is usually denoted by ϕ or {}. For example,
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the set of female Vice-Chancellors of the University of Nigeria from 1960 to 2024.
(b). Union of Sets; The union of two or more sets is a set comprising all the elements which
appears in at least of the sets whose union is being found. Hence if A and B are two sets,
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then the union of A and B is given by

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A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} (1.1)

If χ is a any non empty collection of sets, the union of all sets in χ, is the set of all elements
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S S
which are elements of at least a set in χ and is denoted by {A : A ∈ χ} or A. Hence
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A∈χ
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[ [
χ= {A : A ∈ χ} = {x : x ∈ A for some A ∈ χ} (1.2)
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(c). Intersection of Sets; The intersection of two or more sets is a set comprising all the elements
common to the sets. Hence if A and B are two sets, then the union of A and B is given by
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A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A andr x ∈ B} (1.3)

For any non empty collection F of sets , the set of all elements which are elements of every set
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T T
of F is the intersection of all sets in χ, and is denoted by {A : A ∈ F} or A. Therefore
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A∈F
\ \
F= {A : A ∈ F} = {x : x ∈ A ∀ A ∈ F} (1.4)
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(d) Complement of a Set: If A and B are sets, then A’s complement with respect to B or A
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difference B or A minus B denoted by A\B or A − B is defined as

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A − B = {x ∈ A : x ∈
/ B} (1.5)

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That is those elements in A which are not in B.

(e) Symmetric Difference: The symmetric difference of two sets A and B denoted by A △ B is
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given by

A △ B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A) (1.6)
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Remark 1.3 (i) A − B ̸= B − A

(ii) A △ B = B △ A
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Example 1.4
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If A = {a, e, i}, B = {a, e, p, t}, C = {p.e, w}, D = {p, a, u}. Find (i) A ∪ C (ii) B − D (iii) A ∩ B
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(iv) D ∩ C (v)A △ C (vi) F (vii) F, where F = {A, B, C, D}.
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Solution: Class Discussion

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Definition 1.5
(i)Cardinality or Cardinal Number of a set: Is the number of element in a set. If A
is a set, we denote the cardinality of A by n(A).
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(ii)Finite and Infinite Sets: A set whose cardinality is known or a positive whole num-
ber; otherwise the set is infinite.
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(iii)Equivalent Set: Two sets are equivalent if they have the same cardinality.
(iv) Disjoint Sets: Two or more sets are disjoint if their intersection is empty.
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(f) Venn Diagram: : Is pictorial representation of sets using ovals or circles which
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intersect if the sets are not disjoint. Below is an illustration of venn diagrams with the inter-
pretation of the the shaded regions.
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Venn Diagram and Interpretation of Shaded Region

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(ii.) A − B (iii.) B − A

A B A B
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(iv.) A ∪ B (v.) A ∩ B

Venn Diagram and Interpretation of Shaded Region

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A B A B
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(vi.) A′ (vii.) B ′
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A B A B
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(viii.) (A ∪ B)′ (ix.) (A ∩ B)′

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1.1.5 Special Sets

(i) Power Set : Is a set comprising all the subsets of a given set, denoted by P(A) for a set
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A and n(P(A)) = 2n(A) .

(ii) Ordered Pairs: Given the objects a, b{a, b} = {b, a} is an unordered pair of a and b if order is
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ignored.But (a, b) in which a and b are the 1st and 2nd coordinates respectively is called an
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ordered pair of a and b. Two ordered pairs are equal if and only if they are equal coordinate

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wise or corresponding coordinates are equal. I.e. (a, b) = (c, d) ⇔ a = c and b = d

(c) Cartesian Product of Sets: The Cartesian product of two nonempty sets A and B denoted
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by A × B is defined by
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A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B} (1.7)

and
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B × A = {(b, a) : b ∈ B, a ∈ A} (1.8)
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Remark 1.6
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(i) A × B ̸= B × A, since (a, b) ̸= (b, a)

(ii) n(A × B) = n(A) · n(B)
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Example 1.7
1. If X = {a, 2, 3}, find P(X).
2. Find (i)A × B (ii) B × A if A = {b, c, e}, B = {1, 2}
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Solution: Class Disxussion

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Assignment 1.1
If A = {1, 2, a, b, c, d}, B = {2, 3, a, c, d, e, f }, C = {2, 4, c, d, h}, D = {1, a, 2, b, 3, c},
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E = {1, a, b}
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1. Describe the following sets by listing the members.

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(i) (B ∩ C) (ii) (B ∪ C ∪ E) (iii) (D − A)

(iv) (A \ B) ∪ D (v) (A ∪ B) ∩ D (vi) (A ∩ D) − (C ∪ B)
(vii) (A \ C) × (D − A)
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2. Find (i) P(E) (ii) P(B ∩ D) (iii) P({A, C, D})

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3. Answer ’yes’ or ’no’ to each of the following justifying your answer.

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i. Is A ∪ B = C ∪ D?
ii. Is d ∈ (A − D) ∪ (D − C)?
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iii. Does (a, d) ∈ (D × A)?

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iv. Is (B × C) ∩ (C × B) = ∅?
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v. Is (C × E) ∩ (E × C) = ∅?

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4. Represent the following in a venn diagram.

(i) E = {a, b.c.d.e.f.g}, F = {b, c, d, f, 1, 2}, G = {a, d, e, f, 2, 3, 4}

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(ii) H = {2, 3, 4, 8, 9, b, u, v, x}, I = {3, 4, 8, b, u, w} J = {3, 8, a, b, c, u, x, w}

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1.2 Binary Rations or Relations

Ordered pairs are the elements of the Cartesian product of two nonempty sets.Hence relation
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is a relationship between sets of values. More formally, a relation from a set X to a setY is a
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subset of the Cartesian product X × Y. The Cartesian product X × Y is the set of all ordered
pairs (a, b) where x ∈ X and y ∈ Y Having defined relations we will discuss domain, range,
source and target sets of a relation and composition of relations. Then we will define inverse of
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a relation and placed a restriction on relation to get a function. We define the types of function
and gives the condition for the inverse relation f −1 to be a function
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Definition 1.8 A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

1.2.1 Domain and Range of a Relation

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If R is a relation whose elements are ordered pairs, the set comprising the 1st coordinate of
members of R is called the domain of R, denoted by dom(R), while the set made up of the
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2nd coordinate of the members of R is called the range of R, which we denote by rng(R).
Note well that R ⊂ dom(R) × rng(R).
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1.2.2 Source and Target Sets of a Relation

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If R is a relation, any set S containing dom(R) is called a source set, while any set T
containing rng(R) is called a target set or codomain of R.
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Notation;If R ⊂ S × T and a ∈ S, b ∈ T, which implies (a, b) ∈ R denoted by aRb is read

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a is R- related to b or a is related to b under R. aRb is the negation of aRb.

In case a set B is both S and T , we say R is a relation on B and a good example of this is the
identity relation defined by
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IB = {(x, x) : x ∈ B}
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1.2.3 Inverse Relation

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If R is a relation, the inverse of R denoted by R−1 is the relation comprising those ordered pairs
got by interchanging the 1st and 2nd coordinates of members of R.
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Example 1.9
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If U = {0, 1, 2, · · · , 9}. Define a relation on R on U by xRy iff y = 2x + 1.

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(a)List all the elements of R.

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(b) Find (i) dom(R) (ii) rng(R) (iii) R−1 (iv) S, T

Solution: Class Discussion
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1.2.4 Composition of a Relation

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If S and T are relations then

S ◦ T = {(x, y) : for somez ∈ rng (T ) ∩ dom (S) (x, z) ∈ T and (z, y) ∈ S}

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is called the composite of S and T or S composition T read ’S composed with T ’

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Example 1.10
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Let S = {(1, c), (s, 2), (3, cat), (4, this), (1, b)}, T = {(b, 1), (at, 2), (apple, 4)}.
Find (i) S ◦ T (ii) T ◦ S
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1.2.5 One to One, Onto and Bijective Relation

Injective Relation : A nonempty relation R is said to be injective or one to one iff R

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does not have distinct ordered pairs with the same 2nd coordinate.
T, S −1 , U −1 , but V = {(and, a), (apple, a), (cat, b), (bat, b)}, T −1 are not one to one.
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Surjective Relation : A nonempty relation R is said to be onto or sujective if range of

is equal to the codomain of R.
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Bijective Relation: A nonempty relation R is said to be bijective if it is both injective

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and surjective.
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1.2.6 Functions
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A nonempty relation in which there is no distinct ordered pairs with the same 1st
coordinate element is called a function. ExampleS, U, T −1 and S −1
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Notation;
f
f : A → B or A →
− B
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is read as f is a function from A to B or a function defined on A with values in B.

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One to One or Injective Function: A function f : A → B is said to be one to one(1 − 1)

or injective if
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f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b ∀ a, b ∈ A (1.9)

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Onto or Surjective Function: A function f : A → B is said to be onto or surjective iff

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rng(f ) = B.

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Bijection or Bijective Function: A f : A → B is said to be a bijection or bijective

function if it both one to one and onto.
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Inverse of a Function:If f : A → B is a function, the inverse relation f −1 is always a relation

and is a function if f is one to one.Moreover f −1 : B → A is function if f is a bijection.
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Thus the relation F = {(a, a), (d, and), (e, f ire), (g, dog), (x, f ox)} is a function with A =
dom(F ) = {a, e, d, g, x} and
rng(F)={a,and,fire,dog,fox}. F : A → B ≡ F : {a, e, d, g, x} → {a, and, f ire, dog, f ox} is one
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to one and onto, hence a bijection. However F : {a, e, d, g, x} → {a, and, f ire, dog, apple, dozen}
is one to one but not onto.
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Assignment 1.2
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1. Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {c, e, g, 2, 5, 7}

Let R = {(a, a), (a, g), (a, 1), (b, 4), (e, 2)}
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S = {(a, c), (b, c), (b, 2), (d, e), (d, 5), (1, 2), (2, 2)}
T = {(e, e), (g, 2), (g, 3), (c, d), (c, c)} be relations from A to B.
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Answer ’yes’ or ’no’ in each case, giving brief reasons.

(i) Is a R-related to g? (ii) Is b S-related to 5? (iii) Is 3 T -related to g? (iv) Is
4 R−1 -related to b?
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(v) Is A a source set of R? (vi) Is B a source set of S? (vii) Is A a target set of

R? (viii) Is A a target set (or codomain) of T ? (ix) Is T a relation on B? (x) Is
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S a relation on (A ∪ B)? (xi) Is R a one-to-one relation? (xii) Is S a one-to-one rela-

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tion? (xiii) Is S a function? (xiv) Is R−1 a function?

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2. Figure 1.1 is an arrow diagram of a relation R ⊂ {a, b, c, d, e} × {and, apple, but, egg, cat}.
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i Describe R by the listing method.

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ii Describedom(R) by listing its members.

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iii Is R a function?

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iv Draw an arrow diagram for R−1 .

3.Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {c, e, g, 2, 5, 7}

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Let R = {(a, a), (a, g), (a, 1), (b, 4), (e, 2)}
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S = {(a, c), (b, c), (b, 2), (d, e), (d, 5), (1, 2), (2, 2)}
T = {(e, e), (g, 2), (g, 3), (c, d), (c, c)} be relations from A to B.
Describe the following sets by listing the members.
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(i)dom(T ) (ii)) range(S) (iii) R−1 S ◦R (iv)T ◦S (v) R ◦T (vi) (R ◦S)◦T (vii) Ro(SoT )
viii) R ◦ R−1 (xix) R−1 ◦ R
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1.3 Set of Numbers,Sequence and Series

We are quite familiar with numbers from our pre-primary, primary to secondary schools. It is
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obvious that these numbers are not necessarily of one type. They are of various types and no
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concrete effort has been made before now to classify them all these while.
Therefore we classify these numbers into negative integers, positive integers, integers, ratio-
nal number, irrational numbers, real numbers and complex numbers.Next we introduce one
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of the methods of proof in mathematics, which is the Principle of Mathematical Induc-

tion(PMI).Then we define sequence and study Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) and Geometric
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Progression (G.P.).
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1.3.1 Set of Numbers

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Here we give a brief introduction to set of numbers as follows:

{· · · , −2, −1} - Set of negative integers which we denote by N̄
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{1, 2, · · · , } - Set of positive integers or natural numbers or counting numbers de-

note by N
N̄ ∪ {0} ∪ N = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 · · · } - Set of integers denoted by Z
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{ ab : a, b ∈ Z, b ̸= 0 } - Set of rational numbers denoted by Q

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Remark 1.11 (i) Every rational number is a fraction but the reverse need not be the case.
(ii) x ∈ Q if: (◦)x ∈ Z ( i.e. every integer is a rational number) To see this set b = 1 in the
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definition Q
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(◦◦) is a terminating decimal e.g. 0.0125, 5.0628 etc.

. (◦ ◦ ◦) is a non-terminating but re-occurring decimal e.g. 4.012345012345012345012345 · · ·
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Verification:

x = 4.012345012345012345012345 · · · (1.10)
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1000000x = 4012345.012345012345012345 · · · (1.11)

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(1.2) − (1.1) ⇒ 999999x = 4012341

4012341
⇒x =
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999999

1337447
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= ∈Q
333333
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(iii) b ̸= 0 in the definition of Q because for now we cannot divide with zero and zero as a divisor

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has quotient as infinity(symbol ∞) or undefined.

√
{π, e, 2, etc}- set of irrational numbers denoted by Q′
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Q ∪ Q′ -set of real numbers denoted by R

{a + bi : a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1} - set of complex numbers denoted by C
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Remark 1.12
N⊂Z⊂Q⊂R⊂C
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1.3.2 PMI-Principle of Mathematical Induction

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PMI-Principle of Mathematical Induction Let n ∈ N be a variable and p(n) is a statement which

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is either true or false. If it can be shown that

(i) p(1) is true and
(ii) whenever p(k) is true, p(k + 1) is also true, then it follows that p(n) is true for all n ∈ N
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Example 1.13
Use PMI to prove:
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(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = 12 n(n + 1)
(ii) the sum of the squares of the 1st n odd integers is 13 n(2n − 1)(2n + 1)
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i.e. 12 + 32 + · · · + (2n − 1)2 = 13 n(2n − 1)(2n + 1)

(iii) 52n + 3n − 1 is an integer multiple of 9.
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Class Discussion
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1.3.3 Sequence
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Definition 1.14 A sequence is a magenta function whose domain is the set of natural
numbers, N
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I.e.
f : N → X, X ̸= ϕ
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Hence
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f (1) = x(1) ≡ x1
f (2) = x(2) ≡ x2
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.. .. ..
. . .
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f (n) = x(n) ≡ xn
.. .. ..
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. . .

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∴ {x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , · · · } = {xn }∞
n=1

In the sequel we limit ourselves to the simplest type of sequence namely: Arithmetic Progression
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and Geometric Progression.

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Definition 1.15 (i) Arithmetic Progression (AP): This is a sequence whose successive terms
is got by addition of a constant called the common difference, d.
(ii) Geometric Progression (GP): This is a sequence whose successive terms is got by mul-
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tiplication with a constant called the common ratio, r.

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In the sequel,let u1 = 1st term, n = number of terms, l=last term. Then for:
(i) Arithmetic Progression(AP), we have that:
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u1 = a
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u2 = a + d
u3 = a + d + d = a + 2d
u4 = a + 2d + d = a + 3d
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.. ..
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un = a + (n − 1)d (1.12)
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Equation (1.12) is the formula for the nth term of an arithmetic progression.
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(ii) Geometric Progression(GP), we have that:

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u1 = a
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u2 = ar
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u3 = ar · r = ar2
u4 = ar2 · r = ar3
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.. ..
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un = ar(n−1) (1.13)
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Equation (1.13) is the formula for the nth term of a geometric progression.

Remark 1.16 Let x, y, z be three consecutive terms of a sequence. Then the sequence is:
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x+z
(i) an AP if: d = following term minus preceding term = y − x = z − y ⇒ y = 2
(middle term
arithmetic mean of extreme terms)
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y z √
(ii) a GP if: r = following term divide by preceding term = x
= y
⇒y= xz(middle term
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geometric mean of extreme terms)

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Example 1.17
Find the (i) 12th term (ii) number of terms for the sequences:
(◦){−2, −4, −6, · · · , −100} (◦◦){1, 12 , 14 , · · · , 1024
1
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}
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Solution: Class Discussion

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Example 1.18
Find the 7th and 10th terms of u : {1, 2, · · · } → R such that u(1) = 1, u(2) = 2 and for
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n > 2, u(n) = u(n − 1) + u(n − 2).

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Solution: Class Discussion

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1.3.4 Series
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The result got by adding the terms of a sequence is called a series. We consider series
resulting from AP and GP, which are Arithmetic Series and Geometric series respectively.
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(i) Arithmetic Series:

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If a, d, r, l are as in 1. 3.3 above and sn = sum of the first n-terms. Then the sum of an
arithmetic series is by equation (1.14)
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n n
sn = (a + l) = [2a + (n − 1)d] (1.14)
2 2
Verification :sn = u1 + u2 + · · · + un
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= a + a + d + · · · + a + (n − 2)d + a + (n − 1)d · · · (I)

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= a + (n − 1)d + a + (n − 2)d + · · · + a + d + a · · · (II)

(I) + (II) ⇒ 2sn = 2a + (n − 1)d + · · · + 2a + (n − 1)d = n[2a + (n − 1)d](n times)
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n
⇒ sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
n
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= [a + a + (n − 1)d]
2
n
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= (a + l)
2
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(ii) Geometric Series. The sum of a geometric series is given by two equations of equation (1.15)
below;
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
a(rn − 1)
(i) |r| > 1


r−1


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
sn = (1.15)
a(1 − rn )


 (ii) |r| < 1


1−r
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Verification :sn = u1 + u2 + · · · + un
= a + ar + · · · + arn−2 + arn−1 · · · (I)
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rsn = ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 + arn · · · (II)

  
+
(i) (II) − (I) ⇒ rsn − sn = 
ar ar2 + · · · + 
ar
n−1
+ arn − [a + 
ar ar
+ ··· + n−2
ar
+ n−1
]
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⇒ sn (r − 1) = a(rn − 1)
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a(rn − 1)
⇒ sn = ((1.15)(i))
r−1
  
(I) − (II) ⇒ sn − rsn = a + ar ar
+ ··· + n−2
ar
+ n−1 +
− [
ar ar2 + · · · + 
ar
n−1
+ arn ]
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⇒ sn (1 − r) = a(1 − rn )
a(1 − rn )
⇒ sn = ((1.15)(ii))
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1−r
Example 1.19
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Evaluate:
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i 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 100
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ii 1st 15 terms of 1 − 3 − 7 − · · ·
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iii 1st 9 terms of 1 − 23 + 94 − · · ·

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iv 1 + 12 + 14 + · · ·
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Assignment 1.3
1. Show that the following is a rational number: (i) 3.060123060123060123060123 · · ·
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2. Use PMI to show that:

(a) (i) n(n + 1)(n + 2) is an integer multiple of 3 and 6
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(b)( 72n+1 + 1 is an integer multiple of 8.

(c) 32n + 22n+2 is an integer multiple of 5.
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3. For each of the following sequences, write the indicated terms

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a. u : N → R where u(n) = remainder obtained by dividing n by 7. 2nd, 20th and 57th terms.

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b. u : N → P(N where u(n) = {n, n + 1}. 0-th and 217 - th-term.


u(0) = 1
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4. For the sequence u : N → R, where u(n)= u(n−1)

n
,n≥1
a.Determine the 2nd, 3rd and 4th terms.
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∞
b. Describe the series corresponding to the sequence (un )n=0 in the expanded form and sigma
notation.
c. Determine the 0-th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th partial sums of this series.
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1.3.5 Chapter Summary

1. Sets
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a. Sets are represented with capital letters and its elements with small letters.

b. Sets are described in two ways namely: (i) Listing or Roaster Method (ii) Set Builder
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or Specifier Notation.

c. Two sets are equal if they contain the same element(s).

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d. Equivalent sets are two or more sets with same cardinality or cardinal number.
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e. The inclusion (⊂) satisfies the reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties
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f. Two or more sets are disjoint if their intersection is empty.

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g. If A and B are sets, then

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(i) A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
(ii) A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
(iii) A \ B = {x ∈ A : x ̸ B}
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(iv) A∇B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)

h. n(P(X)) = 2n(X)
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i. A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}

2. Relations
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a. A relation is a set of odered pairs

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b. The set comprising the first coordinate entry of a relation is called the domain denoted
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by dom(R)

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c. The set comprising the second coordinate entry of a relation is called the domain which
we denote by rng(R)
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d. A set containing domain of a relation is called a Source set

e. A set containing range of a relation is called a Target set or codomain
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f. A relation in no two distinct ordered pairs has the first entry is called a function
g. S ◦ T = {(x, y) : for somez ∈ rng (T ) ∩ dom (S) (x, z) ∈ T and (z, y) ∈ S}
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(a) Set of Numbers

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i. {· · · , −2, −1} - Set of negative integers which we denote by N̄

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ii. {1, 2, · · · , } - Set of positive integers or natural numbers or counting numbers

denote by N
iii. N̄ ∪ {0} ∪ N = {· · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 · · · } - Set of integers denoted by Z
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a
iv. { : a, b ∈ Z, b ̸= 0 } - Set of rational numbers denoted by Q
b √
v. {π, e, 2, etc}- set of irrational numbers denoted by Q′
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vi. Q ∪ Q′ - set of real numbers denoted by R

vii. {a + bi : a, b ∈ R, i2 = −1} - set of complex numbers denoted by C
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viii. N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C
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(b) PMI-Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let n ∈ N be a variable and p(n) is a statement which is either true or false. If it
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can be shown that

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i. p(1) is true and

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ii. whenever p(k) is true, p(k + 1) is also true, then it follows that p(n) is true for
all n ∈ N
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(c) Sequence and Series

Let u1 = a i.e. 1st term, n = number of terms,l =last term, d =common difference,
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r =common ratio.
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a. Let x, y, z be three consecutive terms of a sequence. Then the sequence is:

y z
i. a GP if: r = following term divide by preceding term = x
= y
⇒ y =
√
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xz(middle term geometric mean of extreme terms)

b. n-th term of:
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A. an Arithmetic Progression is un = a + (n − 1)d

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B. a Geometric Progression is un = arn−1

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c. The sum of the first n of the first n terms:  n

 [2a + (n − 1)d]

 2
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A. of Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) is sn =

 n
(a + l)


2
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
a(rn − 1)
, |r| > 1


 r−1

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
B. of a Geometric Progression (G.P.) is sn =
a(1 − rn )


, |r| < 1


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
1−r
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Bibliography

INTRODUCTORY
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UNIVERSITY
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MATHEMATICS
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I
H

Algebra, Trigonometry and Complex Numbers

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Edited by Prof. J. C. Amazigo

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