Network Architecture

OSI Model
TCP/IP Model
Introduction
• Computer networks are designed in a highly structured way to reduce
their design complexity.
• Most networks are organized as a series of layers or levels.
• Each layer clearly defines various data communication functions and
logical operations.
• Each level is functionally independent of the others but builds on its
predecessor.
• In order to function, higher levels depend on correct operation of the
lower levels.
Introduction Cont.
• The network architecture thus can be defined as the set of layers and
protocols.
• The communication between two layers at the same level of two
different computers is called virtual communication. Here, each layer
passes data and control information to the layer immediately below
it, until the lowest layer (layer 1).
• At layer 1, information from one computer is physically transferred to
layer 1 of the other (physical communication).
• The interface between each pair of adjacent layers defines which
operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one.
Types of Models/Architectures
• There are two main models/ architectures in Networking
1. ISO Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
2. Transmission Control protocol/ Internet protocol (TCP/IP)
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
• When the computers were connected first in a networked way to transfer
info between them, moving info was not in an ordered way and there were
lot of confusions in the same.
• So International Organization for Standardization(ISO) recognized the need
for a standard pattern of networking.
• Thus OSI was created in early 1980s and it is being followed today.
• OSI layering basically uses divide and conquer approach wherein one big
problem is spilt and seen as 7 different layers.
• Dividing the problem to layers makes the task look simpler and in case of a
problem with one of the layers, it can be easily isolated and identified
which makes the fixing easier.
• Lower layers are generally a combination of hardware and software. The
upper layers are predominantly software.
The seven layers of the OSI Model
Data Format in
7
Each layer
6

4
Layers and
their numbers
3

2
2

Data format in
each layer
Principles of the OSI model
• Layered Architecture:
• Principle: The OSI model is organized into distinct layers, with each layer performing
specific functions. Each layer provides services to the layer above it and utilizes
services from the layer below it.
• Significance: Layering simplifies the design and maintenance of complex systems. It
allows for modularity and independence between layers, enabling changes or
updates to one layer without affecting others.
• Encapsulation:
• Principle: Each layer adds its own header (and sometimes trailer) to the data it
receives from the layer above. The resulting package, known as a PDU (Protocol Data
Unit), is then passed down to the next layer.
• Significance: Encapsulation helps in maintaining the separation of concerns between
layers. It also provides a structured way to include control information as data moves
through the layers.
Cont.
• Data Flow:
• Principle: Data flows down the layers on the sending side and up the layers on the
receiving side. At each layer, certain functions are performed, and the modified data
is passed to the next layer.
• Significance: This principle ensures that each layer performs its specific role in the
communication process. It also facilitates the understanding of how data is
processed as it traverses through the network stack.
• Protocol Suites:
• Principle: Communication across networks often involves multiple protocols working
together. A combination of protocols from each layer forms a protocol suite.
• Significance: The use of protocol suites allows for flexibility and interoperability.
Different layers can be implemented independently, and as long as they adhere to
the same set of protocols, they can communicate seamlessly.
Functions of Each Layer: 1) Physical Layer
Main Function: Concerned with physical transmission of data over the
network.
Other subfunctions that of the physical layer that support main
function of physical layer
• The physical layer defines the type of encoding technique such as
Manchester encoding and Non-Return to Zero(NRZ)
• Layer 1 devices view a network as a physical topology (as opposed to
a logical topology).
• Concerned with synchronization of bits: i.e whether to use
synchronous or asynchronous
• The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half- duplex, or full-duplex.
Physical layer Cont. Sub-functions
• Defines multiplexing strategy:
• Multiplexing allows multiple communications sessions to share the same
physical medium.
• Defines bandwidth usage: There are two approaches to bandwidth
usage which are:
• Broadband: Broadband technologies divide the bandwidth available on a
medium (for example, copper or fiber-optic cabling) into different channels.
• Baseband: Baseband technologies, in contrast, use all the available
frequencies on a medium to transmit data. Ethernet is an example of a
networking technology that uses baseband.
Functions of Each Layer: 2) Data Link Layer
Main function: The data link layer transforms the physical layer to a
reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network
layer).
• The data link layer, is concerned with packaging data into frames and
transmitting those frames on the network, performing error detection/
correction, uniquely identifying network devices with an address, and
handling flow control.
• These processes are collectively referred to as data link control (DLC). It has
two sublayers MAC and LLC.
• Layer 2 devices view a network as a logical topology.
Functions of Each Layer: 3) Network Layer
Main Function: Serves the Transport layer by adding address information to
the data packets, and routing it to its destination.
Other sub-functions:
• Logical addressing: Although the data link layer uses physical addresses to
make forwarding decisions, the network layer uses logical addressing to
make forwarding decisions.
• Switching: Switching, at its essence, is making decisions about how data
should be forwarded they include: packet switching, circuit switching and
message switching.
• Route discovery and selection- Determining best route to follow in sending
data between devices
• Connection services: connection services facilitates for flow control and
error control.
Functions of Each Layer: 4) Transport Layer
Main function: Manages data transfer over the network to ensure reliability.
It ensures that data units are delivered free of errors, in sequence, and
without loss or duplication.
Other sub-functions
• Service-point addressing: Facilitates delivery from a specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other.
• Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number.
• These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
Transport layer Cont.
• Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless
or connection oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent
packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine.
• A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport
layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all
the data are transferred, the connection is terminated
Functions of Each Layer: 5) Session Layer
Main Function: Sets up data transmission sessions, maintains the
session, and tears down the session between two communicating
devices on the network
• Setting up a session: Examples of the procedures involved in setting
up a session include:
• Checking user credentials (for example, username and password)
• Assigning numbers to a session’s communications flows to uniquely identify
each flow
• Negotiating services required during the session
• Negotiating which device begins sending data
Session Layer Cont.
• Maintaining a session: Examples of the procedures involved in
maintaining a session include:
• Transferring data
• Reestablishing a disconnected session
• Acknowledging receipt of data
• Tearing down a session: A session can be disconnected based on
mutual agreement of the devices in the session.
• Alternately, a session might be torn down because one party
disconnects (either intentionally or because of an error condition).
Functions of Each Layer: 6) Presentation layer
Main Function: Defines data formats to be exchanged & adds
formatting, display and encryption information to the data being sent.
• Data formatting involves determining the data format to use in
formatting text.
• Encryption refers to converting data from plain text to cipher text
using encryption algorithms
• Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
Functions of Each Layer: 7) Application layer
Application layer: This is where user applications are run. It provides
network services such as file sharing, distributed processing, file
transfer, and network management to users.
• It also generates requests for transmission of data or opening of
received information
Other Sub-Functions
• Application services: Examples of the application services residing at
the application layer include file sharing and e-mail.
• Service advertisement: Some applications’ services (for example,
some networked printers) periodically send out advertisements,
making the availability of their service known to other devices on the
network.
How data is transmitted in the OSI Model
THE TCP/IP MODEL
Introduction to TCP/IP Model
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore,
the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI
model.
• The ISO developed the OSI reference model to be generic, in terms of what
protocols and technologies could be categorized by the model.
• However, the vast majority of traffic on the Internet (and traffic on
corporate networks) is based on the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication
protocols.
• It was developed by the DoD (Department of Defense) in the 1960s. It is
named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely,
TCP and IP.
• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet
Protocol.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model
Mapping of TCP/IP and OSI Model
Functions of Each layer in the TCP/IP Model
• Network interface: The TCP/IP stack’s network interface layer
encompasses the technologies addressed by Layers 1 and 2 (physical
and data link layers) of the OSI model.
• Internet: The Internet layer of the TCP/IP stack maps to Layer 3 (the
network layer) of the OSI model.The Internet layer of the TCP/IP stack
focuses on IP as the protocol to be routed through a network.
• Transport: The transport layer of the TCP/IP stack maps to Layer 4
(the transport layer) of the OSI model.The two primary protocols
found at the TCP/IP stack’s transport layer are TCP and UDP.
Functions of Each layer in the TCP/IP Model
• Application: The biggest difference between the TCP/IP stack and the
OSI model is found at the TCP/IP stack’s application layer.
• This layer addresses concepts described by Layers 5, 6, and 7 (the
session, presentation, and application layers) of the OSI model.
• Application layer protocols in the TCP/IP stack are identifiable by
unique port numbers .e.g Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which
is the protocol commonly used by web servers, uses a TCP port of 80.
• NB/ Ports numbered 1023 and below are called well-known ports,
while ports numbered above 1023 are called ephemeral ports .The
maximum value of a port is 65,535.
 Comparison of The OSI Model and The TCP/IP
Model
• Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols.
• In both models the layers up through and including the transport
layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent
transport service to processes wishing to communicate.
• In both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented
users of the transport service.
• OSI Model has 7 layers while TCP/IP has 4 layers.
 Comparison of The OSI Model and The TCP/IP
Model cont.
• The protocols in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP
model and can be replaced relatively easily as the technology
changes.
• The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection-
oriented communication in the network layer, but only connection-
oriented communication in the transport layer
• The TCP/IP model has only one mode in the network layer
(connectionless) but supports both modes in the transport layer
 The End

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