Lecture Set 3:

Optical Communication Systems

Thas A Nirmalathas
nirmalat @ unimelb . edu . Au

Contact me with a subject line starting

[UoJGuestLecture]
 This Lecture
• We would like to study
– the behaviour of laser when they are modulated with
information signals

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide2
 Optical Modulation
T0= 1 / f0

Modulation frequency fm << optical

Tb= 1 / fm
carrier frequency f0
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide3
 Direct Modulation of Lasers
• How can we encode information on to the laser output /
optical signal?
• By imposing information onto the driving current
• How fast can laser response to
L modulation signal
Light Output • How fast can we modulate the
laser?
• Modulation bandwidth /
response issue
I • Limiting factors?
Modulation • Need to know the transient
im (t) characteristics of lasers
Ibias
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 Direct Modulation
• Direct Modulation
Modulating Light Source Modulated Output
Input Signal
Bias Current
Bias Tee

Modulation Bias
Signal Light
Current
Driver Driver

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 Laser Rate Equations
• Describe complex nonlinear device behaviour (but not perfect)
• Relationships between photon densities and carrier densities
• What can the rate equations tell us?
– threshold current, carrier density, photon density
– small-signal amplitude and frequency modulation response
– turn-on and turn-off times for digital modulation
– trade-offs in device performance through choice of device parameters
• Important device parameters
– injected current (density)
– material gain and gain suppression
– losses due to device material and facet reflections
– other electron and photon losses

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 Complete Laser Rate Equations
• Coupled differential equations
Contribution from Depletion due to spontaneous
Injected current recombination
rate of change in
dN J N
the carrier density = - - vg g (N ) S Depletion due to
(N- carriers per dt qd te stimulated
unit volume) recombination
Fraction of photons having same
energy contributed by spontaneous
rate of change in
dS S Gb N emission
the photon = - + + G vg g (N ) S
density
(S- photons per
dt tp te
unit volume) Contribution
Loss of photons due to from stimulated
Intrinsic and mirror losses emission
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 Laser Dynamics

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide8
 dN
Carrier Density (I)
dt
• Rate of change of carrier density over time influenced by
– rate of injected electrons (applied current)
– rate of random recombination (spontaneous emission)
– rate of light-induced recombination (stimulated emission)
• Injected current density
I - Injected current,
Carrier density
I J J - Transverse current density,
injection rate =
qV qd V - Cavity volume,
d - Thickness of active layer

• Spontaneous recombination
– determined by lifetime of carriers at thigher
e energy state,

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide9
 dN
dt N - Carrier Density (II)
• Stimulated recombination
– determined by photon density, carrier density and material gain
– optical gain - pseudo-linear relationship between g and N

Stimulated v g g( N )S » v g a 0 ( N - N 0 )(1 - eS)S

recombination rate
Optical gain, g (m-1)
g (N) » a (N - N0 ) Gain constant, a (m2)
a0
a = » a0 (1 - eS )
1 + eS
Transparency Gain suppression coefficient e (m3)
carrier density, N 0 (m-3)
Group velocity v g (m/s)

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 dS
dt Photon Density (II)
• Rate of change of photon density over time influenced by
– rate of coupled spontaneous emission
– rate of photon loss through cavity losses
– rate of stimulated emission
• Coupled spontaneous emission Spontaneous emission
– determined by rate
Gb N
• spontaneous carrier recombination te
G
• optical confinement factor, b
• spontaneous emission factor (fraction of spontaneous
emission entering into the laser mode) 10-5<b<10-3
tp S
• Cavity loss-induced photon loss Photon loss rate tp
– determined by photon lifetime
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide11
 dS
dt Photon Density (II)
Stimulated emission
– determined by
• Gain of the material (g(N))
• Photon density at the lasing frequency (S)
• Optical confinement factor (G),
Stimulated Emission Rate

G v g g ( N ) S » G v g a0 ( N - N 0 )(1 - eS ) S

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide12
 Steady State (I)
• Steady-state calculations dN dS
= 0 =
require dt dt
Gb N S J N
G v g g( N ) S + - =0 - - v g g( N ) S = 0
t e (N ) t p q d t e (N )

Gb N
S ss =
(
t e 1 / t p - Gv g a ( N - N 0 ) )
• Since S ³ 0, N is limited by upper
bound 1
N £ No +
• Which is called threshold carrier density Gv g at p
1
N th = N o +
Gv g at p

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
Rate Equation at Steady-State:

dN J N dS GbN S There is an upper bound for the carrier density and this upper bound
= - - vg g (N )S = Gvg g (N )S + - is called the threshold carrier density, Nth and it is given by:
dt qd t e dt te t p 1
N th = N o + (3)
Gv g at p
dN dS dS
At steady-state: = =0 , so looking at =0
dt dt Looking at the rate equation for the
dt
Gb N S dN
0 = Gv g g ( N )S + - carrier density at steady-state, =0
te tp dt
I N
Gb N S = th + v g g ( N th ) S SS (4)
= - Gv g g ( N )S qV te
te tp
And from (2)
Gb N æ 1 ö 1
= S ç - Gv g g ( N )÷ - Gv g g ( N th ) = 0
te çt ÷ tp
è p ø (5)
Gb N 1
Gv g g ( N th ) =
te tp
S= (1) Substitute (5) into (4):
1
- Gv g g ( N ) I N S
tp = th + SS
At steady-state, we expect SSS >= 0, therefore from (1) qV t e Gt p
1
- Gv g g ( N ) ³ 0 S SS I N
tp = - th
Gt p qV t e
1
Gv g g ( N ) £
tp æ I N ö
S SS = Gt p ç - th ÷ (6)
Gv g a ( N - N o ) £
1 è qV t e ø
tp
æ I I ö
1 = Gt p ç - th ÷
N - No £
Gv g at p è qV qV ø
1 (2) Gt p
N £ No +
Gv g at p
= ( I - I th )
qV A Nirmalathas 2016
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas Optical Communications systems
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide14
Therefore the optical output power at steady-state is given by: Given that we know that:
1 vg æ 1 ö
Pout = S SS ´ hu ´ V ´ ´ ln ç ÷ (7)
2 L è Rø 1
= v g ( a i + a mirror ) and
Substituting SSS from Equation (6) into (7) then: tp
1 vg æ 1 ö Photon escape rate from laser cavity
Pout = S SS ´ hu ´ V ´ ´ ln ç ÷ h D = hi
2 L è Rø Photon generation rate
Gt p 1 vg æ 1 ö v ga mirror
= ´ hu ´ V ´ ´ ln ç ÷ ´ ( I - I th ) (8) = hi
qV 2 L è Rø v g ( a i + a mirror )
Gt p vg æ 1 ö
= ´ hu ´ ln ç ÷ ´ ( I - I th )
qL 2 è Rø then (9) can be simplified to the following:
Rearranging Equation (8), we are able to get:
1 æ 1ö
ln
Gt p vg
æ 1ö hu L çè R ÷ø
Pout = ln ç ÷ ´ ( I - I th )
´ hu ´ Pout = ´ ´ ( I - I th )
qL 2 è Rø 2q 1
1 æ 1ö Gt p v g
ln (9)
hu L çè R ÷ø hu
= ´ ´ ( I - I th ) = h ( I - I th )
2q 1 2q D
Gt p v g
assuming hi = G = 1.

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications systems
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide15
 Steady State (II)
• Total power at the output of the laser can be expressed as

vg
Pout = S ss ´ hn ´ V ´ ln(1 / R)
2L
Account for
photons which
Photon volume, L- manage to
Energy per length
density escape from
photon w-width, d- laser cavity
depth

• Popt is proportional to I-Ith

• For hD, see lecture 3
• Here G incorporated into
hD, and hi assumed to be 1

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide16
 Steady State - L-I Curve
Normalised
due to photon density
• N “clamped” at Nth as stimulated emission
current increases
• S increases linearly as
current increases from
threshold
Threshold
• Simplified equations do current
not accurately model N
&S Nth
just below threshold
Normalised
due to carrier density
spontaneous emission Normalised current density

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 Typical Response to a Turn-On
Photon generation • N < Nth, few photons – spontaneous emission
• N > Nth, sudden increase of photons – stim. emission
• Stim. Emission depletes carrier density; N < Nth
Carriers/Photons

Photon density decreases; N increases

Steady-state
values

• N > Nth, photon increases– stim. emission increases

N decreases ..

• The process carries on until both photon and

carrier densities stabilise
Carrier generation time
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
University of Melbourne :
 Wide Pulse Input Response
Region A
• initially S is small
• so (dS/dt) ~ 0

• dS/dt only
B C significantly
increased when net
A gain is positive,
D 1
G v g g(N ) - > 0
tp
• time delay for N to
reach threshold is td,
turn-on delay
Optical Communications Systems
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide19
 Wide Pulse Input Response
Region B
• N does not stop at Nth
since S is still low

• once N > Nth, net gain is

positive, S increases rapidly
& exceeds steady-state value
B C
• as S increases carriers are
A depleted so dN/dt goes
D
negative, thereby bringing N
back down, which in turn
affects S

•classical 2nd order system -

relaxationOptical
oscillation
Communications Systems
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 :
University of Melbourne LectureSet3_slide20
 Wide Pulse Input Response
Region C
• laser operating in
steady-state

Region D
when current drops,
B C carrier density also
drops, and net gain is
A highly negative
D
photon density reduces
to zero rapidly, so turn-
off period is very short
period independent of
signal levels
Optical Communications Systems
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016
:
University of Melbourne
LectureSet3_slide21
 Small-Signal Analysis
• Similarly, apply small perturbation to injected current, and study
perturbations induced in N and S, defined by the rate equations
• Bias laser by applying current density of Jss then add small signal,
j’, at angular frequency w
J (t ) = J ss + j ¢ e j w t

• Results in perturbations of N and S around steady-state values

N (t ) = N ss + n e jw t S (t ) = S ss + s e j w t
• Apply J, N, S representations to rate equations,
J ss + j¢ e j w t N ss + n e j w t
jw ne jw t
= - - v g a (N ss - N 0 + n e j w t ) (S ss + s e j w t )
qd te
jw t
+
jwse jwt = - ss
S se
(
+ Gv g a N ss - N 0 + ne jwt ( S ss + se jwt )
tp
)
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide22
 Small Signal Modulation Response
• Define Transfer function
s( jw ) wn2
M ( jw ) = = qd Gt p 2 gS ss
j ' ( jw ) wn - w 2 + jw 2a wn @
0 tp
• Small Signal modulation response
M ( jw ) wn2 -3dB
= 2
M (0) wn - w 2 + jw 2a
M ( jw ) 1
= 1
M ( 0)
éæ w 2 ö æ 2aw ö
2 2
ù 2
n w3dB
êçç1 - 2 ÷÷ + çç 2 ÷÷ ú Modulation Frequency
êëè wn ø è wn ø úû

• Resonance occurs at w= wn
• Small signal modulation response has asymmetrical peak
values vs modulation frequency
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016
University of Melbourne
 Laser Parasitics
• Modulation bandwidth of laser can be severely
degraded by internal (chip) and external (packaging)
parasitics

– packaging parasitics - bond wire inductance, stray

capacitance to ground
– chip parasitics - semiconductor resistance, junction
capacitance (for both forward and reverse-biased
junctions), structure dependent

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide24
 Improve Modulation Bandwidth
• Aim - increase the electrical bandwidth of the laser, in order to transmit signals
at higher frequencies (i.e. greater capacity)
• Reduce parasitics
- Laser chip parasitics
- Driving circuits parasitics
• Parameter manipulation for increase in wn
– Increase optical gain, g
• decrease transparency doping level in active region or decrease laser
temperature
• use quantum well structure - better define states
– Increase photon density Sss
• narrow active region or tight optical field confinement
• bias laser well above threshold
– Reduce tp
• reduce cavity length or increase mirror losses
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide25
 Frequency Chirp
• When the laser current is directly modulated, the laser may experience
dynamic line broadening

• Changes in the carrier density in the active region result in changes in the
refractive index, which leads to changes in the instantaneous optical
frequency - frequency chirp

• When the injection current is varied

Þ Carrier density varies
ÞRefractive index varies
ÞEmission wavelength varies with time
ÞFrequency Chirp
• Combined with fibre dispersion, frequency chirp limits the speed and and
length of transmission of optical signals
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide26
 Red and Blue Frequency Shifts
• Two main areas of interest - turn-on and turn-off, where the carrier
density changes significantly
– turn-on -- N(t) > Nth , so f(t) > fss Þ BLUE SHIFT (to lower wavelengths)
– turn-off -- N(t) < Nth , so f(t) < fss Þ RED SHIFT (to higher wavelengths)

BLUE
SHIFT

RED
SHIFT

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide27
 Laser Driver Circuits
• Current source to determine the bias point (operating point) Idc
• Voltage to current amplifier to generate sufficiently large
modulation current Iac
• Low noise design so that output power is not subjected to the
influence of noise
• Stability of current sources against temperature changes
• Two modes of biasing possible – constant output power or
constant current modes

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide28
 LD Driver Building Blocks

Input
amplifier
Laser Driver

Bias
Control
Detector
Amplifier

Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems:
University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide29