‫كلية الحاسبات والذكاء االصطناعي‬ ‫جامعة سوهاج‬

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS:
“HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE”

2023-2022
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1.1 Introduction

In 1967, John Kemeny (computer pioneer, president of Dartmouth

College) said, "Knowing how to use a computer will be as important as
reading and writing". At that time, most people did not believe such a
statement could ever be true. Today, the validity of Kemeny’s
prediction is apparent. The number of computer systems has increased
dramatically since 1964. Small computer systems called
microcomputers or personal computers, have made computing
available to almost everyone in society. Given the increasing use and
availability of computer systems, the knowledge of using a computer
will continue to be an important if not essential skill in the future.

Today, we live in an information society where knowledge

workers channel their energies to use and provide a variety of computer-
based information services. The term "knowledge worker" was coined
by Peter Drucker some thirty years ago to describe someone who adds
value by processing existing information to create new information
which could be used to define and solve problems. Examples of
knowledge workers include lawyers, doctors, diplomats, law makers,
marketers, software developers, managers, bankers…The knowledge
worker’s job function revolves around the use, manipulation, and

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dissemination of information. As compared to production workers,

knowledge workers utilize their intellectual skills to convert their ideas
into products, services, or processes.

Cyberphobia and Computer Competency

If you’ve got cyberphobia, the fear of computers, computer

competency is a sure cure. Computer competency will allow you to be
an active and effective participant in the emerging information society.
By the end of this course you should:

 Feel comfortable using and operating a computer system.

 Be able to interact with the computer – i.e., generate input to the

computer and obtain output from it. Input is data entered to a
computer system for processing. Output is the presentation of the
results of processing (for e.g., a printed résumé or a tax return).

 Be an intelligent consumer of computers and computer equipment,

collectively called hardware. Smart computer shoppers usually get
what they need, not what salesmen tell them they need.

 Be an intelligent consumer of software. Software refers to a collective

set of instructions, called programs that can be interpreted by a
computer. The programs cause the computer to perform desired
functions, such as playing “Super Mario”, thegeneration of graphics,
typing a memo, or browsing the World WideWeb for example.

 Be able to make the computer work for you. The computer competent
person knows what hardware and software is required to solve
various problems.

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 Be conversant in computerese, the language of computers and

information technology.

 Understand the impact of computers on society, now and in the

future.

 Understand the importance of computer security, and knowing how

to protect your data and your identity online.

1.2 What is a Computer and what does it do?

"What is a computer?" Technically speaking, computer is any

counting device. But in the context of modern technology, computer is
defined as an electronic device that accepts input, is capable of
interpreting and executing data and programmed commands through
arithmetic and comparison operations, storing data and instructions, and
producing output (see Figure 1-1 below). Computation operations refer
to arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. Comparison operations include greater than (>), less than
(<), equal to (=), greater than or equal to (≥), less than or equal to (≤),
The stored program concept allows you to use your computer for one
task, such as word processing, and then easily switch to a different type
of computing task, such as editing a photo or sending an email message.
It is the single most important characteristic that distinguishes a
computer from other simpler and less versatile devices, such as
calculators.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Figure 1-1: Basic computer system

The computer’s power derives from its ability to perform the

operations mentioned above very quickly, accurately, reliably and
storage capability.

Speed: Computers perform various operations by executing

instructions. The speeds at which these operations are performed are
measured in milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds, and
picoseconds (one thousandth, one millionth, one billionth, and one
trillionth of a second, respectively).

Accuracy: Zero errors. Computers are amazingly accurate. Errors do

occur in computer-based information systems, but the vast majority of
these errors can be traced to a human error – either inputting incorrect
data, or creating incorrect programs. (GIGO – Garbage In, Garbage
Out).

Reliability: Computers are the most reliable workers when it comes to

repetitive tasks. No matter how many times you ask a computer to
calculate 456789+16739283, it will always give you the same result.

Storage: Computers have total and instant recall of data and an

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

extremely high storage capacity to store data in any form that can be
digitized, whether text, numbers, graphics, audio, or video.

1.3 Computers in Society

It is virtually impossible to list all the ways in which computers are

used today. Let’s take a quick look at some of the many ways in which
computers are used in our society.

1.3.1 Computers in Business

Were the power to computers ever shut off, business and industry
would almost instantly grind to a halt. Computers have become so
deeply embedded in information processing and communication
systems, that almost no activity would be possible without them.

Transaction processing. Most business activities involve

transactions with suppliers, employees, or customers. Computers can
make these transactions possible and allow instantaneous processing of
these transactions. Advantages of the use of computers in business are
increased productivity, improved decision making and cost reduction in
terms of reduced labor and decreased overstocking of inventory.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Financial analysis. Financial analysis is performed throughout the

company; from top management on down. People can analyze
investments, sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of the business
using numbers and graphs.

1.3.2 Computers in the Home

The lines between work, play, and education are beginning to

disappear as resources once available only at work or school become
available in the home. From the comfort of your home you can research
school or work assignments, exchange e-mail, join special interest
groups, download files, play games, or make airline reservations. Home
shopping and banking are growing areas of computing. You can visit
online stores, view electronic catalogs, and do online shopping.

Some families have an Internet appliance, which is a special type of

computer whose sole function is to connect to the Internet from home.
The set-top box is an example of an Internet appliance. A set-top box
sits on top of or next to a TV set and allows the home user to access the
Internet and navigate Web pages with a device that resembles a remote
control.

1.3.3 Computers in Education

Computers are rapidly becoming the most amazing teaching tool

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ever invented. They can pace instruction differently for each student,
animate important concepts, and use interactivity to involve students in
the learning process. Educational software has become a major
influence at all levels from elementary schools to universities.
Elementary schools are using computers to provide children with new
and exciting approaches to learning through the use of CAL (computer
aided learning) software where the children can learn various subjects
through the use of computer educational games that make learning fun.
Secondary schools are using computers to deliver multimedia
educational programs and to enable kids to explore the Web for
information.

At colleges and universities, computers are used to deliver long

distance education to students anywhere in the world, and to incorporate
interactivity into the material through the use of discussion boards,
online evaluation and others.

1.3.4 Computers in Entertainment

Information technology isn’t limited to the areas where you would

most expect to find it, such as business and industry. It’s also being
widely used in the entertainment and arts worlds. From making movies

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like ‘Toy Story’, the first all-digital animated feature film, to modern
dance to professional sports, computers are at work.

Animation. In earlier days, Bugs Bunny cartoons for example were

laboriously hand-drawn in the hundreds of thousands of frames needed
for each cartoon, but today, computers are doing much of the repetitious
work.

In movies, computers are widely used to create special effects. They

are also extensively used behind the scenes to edit film during the
production process. Music software allows the creation and editing of
recorded music.

1.3.5 Computers in Science and Engineering

Some of the earliest users of information technology were

scientists, engineers and mathematicians. In medicine, physicians use
computers to understand the human body, to diagnose disorders, to
monitor patients and even to assist while performing major surgeries.

In an attempt to better understand earthquakes, scientists use

computers to gather and plot data.

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Large computer systems you might not see!

Many of your daily activities are actually interactions with

computers that you don’t see.

Airline reservations. When you call to make an airline reservation,

a travel agent enters your request into a terminal that is connected to a
mainframe computer. The terminal then displays all the flights
available, the times they depart and arrive, and their fares. If you make
a reservation, your request is entered into the computer’s database, and
a seat is reserved for you. You can also interact with the mainframe
computer through your PC or mobile phone.

Banking. When you go to a bank and make a transaction such as a

withdrawal or a deposit, the teller enters your transaction into the
terminal that is connected to a mainframe computer. The computer
processes your transaction, updating your account balance and
displaying your current account balance on the terminal. When you
make a withdrawal from a bank’s automatic teller machine, a computer
dispenses the money and charges the withdrawal against your account.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Weather forecasting. When you watch or listen to a weather

forecast, you are interacting with the output of a massive and powerful
system of computers that compile and analyze data from sensors all
over the world.

Small computers you might not see!

Danny Hillis, founder of Thinking Machines, has been quoted as

saying, “I went to my first computer conference at the New York Hilton
about 30 years ago. When somebody there predicted the market for
microprocessors would eventually be in the millions, someone else said,

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

‘Where are they all going to go? It’s not like you need a computer in
every doorknob!’ Years later, I went back to the same hotel. I noticed
the room keys had been replaced by electronic cards you slide into slots
on the doors. There was a computer in every doorknob!”

These chips, called embedded microprocessors, are widely used in

many systems built into your favorite electronics, traffic lights, your
house, your car, and even your appliances. Chips and software are
embedded in the product to add functions that would otherwise not be
possible without them. Today's cars use dozens of embedded chips to
control fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, braking, acceleration,
climate control and many other basic functions that once were purely
mechanical. Houses use embedded chips in the thermostats of the hot
water heater, the heating system, microwaves, washing machines, TV
remote, in the security system if you have one and many more.

1.4 The Information Processing Cycle

The activities involved in the generation of information together

comprise the information processing cycle. They are input, processing,
output, storage and retrieval, and distribution and communication.

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Data is required for all computer processing. It refers to the raw

facts (numbers and words), given to a computer during the input
operation. Information refers to data that has been processed into a
form that has meaning and is useful. This can be expressed as: Data +
Meaning = Information.

Input. During the input stage, you enter information

into the computer. The most common input devices
are the keyboard, scanner, mouse, microphone,
video camera and web camera. The data you input
can be text, numbers, images, videos or sounds.

Distribution. Data and information Processing. Once information is in

can be printed and distributed or the computer, it can be processed.
directly distributed from one For example, the computer can
computer to other computers. Two compare, sort, or do arithmetic
popular ways to do so are to send operations on numbers, or let you
documents as attachments to e-mail edit text, images or sounds.
or to post them on a web site.

Storage. Programs and data that

are not currently being used are Output. To see (or hear)
normally stored so they can be what the computer has
loaded back into the computer at processed, it has to be
any time. Typically, these are output to a screen, printer,
stored on disks or tapes of some or speakers.
kind.

For example, consider a typical market survey that requests a

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sample of the public to answer some questions about a new product.

The questionnaires are input to a system, processed (classified - for e.g.,
according to sex, or age group, computed - for e.g., calculation of totals,
averages, statistics) and analyzed.

Individually, a completed questionnaire would not tell the company

very much, only the views of one consumer. In this case, the individual
questionnaires are data.

Once they have been processed, and analyzed, the resulting report
is information. This information has meaning to the company. They
can use this information to make meaningful decisions regarding the
new product.

The production of information by processing data on a computer is

called information processing or electronic data processing. During
the output operation, the information that has been created is put into
some form, such as a printed report, that people can use. The
information can also be stored in an electronic format for future use.

1.5 What is Information Technology?

The phrase information technology (IT) refers to the input,

processing, storage and the delivery of information, and the processes
and devices that make all this possible.

Information technology is based on:

1. Hardware

2. Software

3. Communications

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

The term hardware is applied to any of the physical equipment in a

computer system. Hardware includes not only the computer and devices
such as screens and printers, but also all the elements used to tie the
systems together. For example, the telephone wires or cablesconnecting
computer systems. The term software refers to instructions or programs
that guide the hardware in the performance of its duties. The term
communications refers to the wired or wireless links requiredto transfer
information from one computer to another.

The twin advances of computer technology and communications

technology together make up the foundations of information
technology. IT has had a significant impact on office technology and
office automation.

• Office Technology

Digital copiers, laser printers, and faxing systems are getting faster,
cheaper, more sophisticated, and delivering better quality output all the
time. What were previously viewed as standalone machines, have now
become integral components of the IT infrastructure.

• Office Automation
The most important components of office automation are:

Component Use

Word Processing Manipulating text, eg., letters and reports

Spreadsheets Manipulating numbers, eg., budgeting,sales

reports

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Databases Storing information efficiently, and in away

that makes it more accessible for everyone,
eg., a database of customer
names and addresses

Networks Allowing instantaneous communication

eg., chat and e-mail; and the exchange and
sharing of information resources eg.,
databases, printers, scanners, disk space.

Office automation can affect businesses in various ways:

1. Routine processing: Data can now be processed in larger

volumes, at greater speed and with greater accuracy than with
manual systems.

2. Less Paper: There might be less paper in the office (but not
necessarily so)

3. Management information: Managers are likely to have access

to more accurate, reliable and up-to-date information to aid them
in decision making

4. Customer service: Office automation can result in better

customer service. Customers could be served better and faster if
the staff has on-line access to the organization’s data files.

1.5.1 Digital Technology

We are living in a digital world. The evidence is everywhere. For

e.g., digital technologies have revolutionized the communications,
information processing and television industries. The term "digital"

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refers to any technology that breaks data or information down into tiny
parts, representing each part as a series of zeroes and ones.

The baseline of digital technology is a coding system with only two

numbers—1 and 0—hence the term binary. Each of these 1’s and 0’s
is called a bit (binary digit). In the digital world bits are things; they
take up space; they take time to move from one place to another. A
collection of bits can be described and counted, much like anything. The
most common way to count the bits in a system is by “byte” or eight
bits.

Almost anything - text, sound, speech, film, graphics, animations,

music can be digitized, and whatever can be digitized can be presented
on a computer and transmitted over a network.

Advantages of using Digital Technology:

➢ Rapid access to the information from remote locations.

Information in a digital format can be transmitted quickly and
cheaply.

➢ Information in a digital format can be copied much more

accurately without distortion, and manipulated much more easily
than analog information.

➢ Because digital images can be compressed, the amount of digital

data that can be sent over a particular communication channel
greatly exceeds the amount of analog data that can be sent over
the same channel. This is what has made it possible for us to send
and receive photographs, music and videos over networks.

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1.5.2 Digital Convergence

For two decades or so, industry sages have heralded the coming age
of converging digital technology. High-technology industries, ranging
from computers to wireless communications and consumer electronics,
are currently being transformed by a process known as "digital
convergence," that is, the trend toward growing interoperability among
various products and technologies, and their enhanced ability to
exchange information with each other.

With digital convergence, we are moving away from standalone

pieces of equipment to integrated systems that can communicate with
each other. Convergence is being driven by three underlying trends. The
first is proliferation of digital data, which provides a common base
for handling diverse types of information – numbers, words, music,
pictures, video and more – using the same devices, processing
techniques and media.

The second is widespread connectivity, which helps bring diverse

information together, and extends the value and capabilities of a device
beyond its out-of-the-box functionality. The third is continuous
advances in technology, from battery life to processor speed.

In the days of the first computers, transaction and company data

were the first types of information digitized. Then came text, opening
the world to word processing, followed by audio CDs and finally video.
Having all forms of information in the digital domain has given rise to
numerous convergence opportunities.

Personal Computers and Entertainment

A major area of interest is the merging of the PC and entertainment.

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There are numerous devices that transmit photos, music and videos
from the PC to the home stereo/home theater system. Persons might
stream home movies from the PC in their den to their flat-screen
television in their living room, or wirelessly access music files from any
spot in the house. In 2002, Microsoft introduced the Windows XP
Media Center Edition, a Windows version specifically designed for PCs
that function as digital media hubs (connecting to TVs and music
systems, as well as functioning as storage tanks for music files and
photos). This concept uses the Internet as input, the PC as organizer and
the home theater as output. Exactly how and where we want to hear,
listen and manage all this is evolving.

Data and Voice

Data used to travel over voice (telephone) networks, starting in the

1960s. Increasingly, voice is traveling over data networks. Billions have
been spent by private enterprises and telecom carriers to develop voice
over IP (VoIP) networks using the Internet's IP protocol. Voice over IP
is a telephone service that uses the Internet as a global telephone
network. Starting in the mid-1990s, advertiser-supported, free
telephone service from PC to PC or between phones and PCs using the
public Internet became popular, especially for international calls. Call
quality over the Internet, however, can be erratic because the Internet
provides no guarantee of quality of service. However, when an
organization has control over its network, quality can be excellent.

Wireless and Handheld

There is a convergence of wireless transmission for portable phones

and cellphones that enable them to also connect to the LAN if they pick

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up a Wi-Fi signal in the vicinity. Numerous functions are now

combined, such as the cellphone/PDA and cellphone/camera/music
player. It bundles up a mobile phone with a digital camera and a music
player into a single gadget. Tiny video camcorders also function as still
cameras, voice recorders, digital music players, Webcams and even
external storage drives.

Consider the automobile, via wireless connections, automobiles will

be able to access GPS data to pinpoint a person’s location or to provide
street-by-street maps.

That sets up a collision of three massive industries. In one corner

stands the computer and software business. In another is the
consumer-electronics sector. The third camp is the communications
industry. All three groups will have a hand in building the digital
wonders that are headed our way.

1.5.3 Basic Types of Computer Systems

Based on their usage, computers can be split into:

1) General Purpose Computers: Such computers perform a wide

variety of processing tasks. These are the most common.

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2) Dedicated or Special Purpose Computers: Fundamentally,

these computers are same as a general purpose, but programmed
for a specific purpose. They are used in a variety of consumer
products, microwaves, telephones, washing machines, etc.

There are 4 major categories of computers: supercomputers,

mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers.
Computers are generally classified according to their size, speed,
processing capabilities and price.

1. SUPERCOMPUTERS

Supercomputers are the heavyweights in the computing world.

These systems perform heavy calculations using hardware and
software that is on the cutting edge of technology. These systems
often require special liquid or gas cooling to keep them running,
incorporate hundreds or thousands of processors, frequently require
a large amount of physical space and a dedicated team of
professionals to keep the system running. The thousands of
processors are all designed to work in parallel. Only government
agencies, the U.S. military and a select few corporations and
universities own supercomputers because they are exceedingly
expensive. They are used for problems requiring complex
calculations. These systems are often custom designed to perform
specific types of tasks such as graphics rendering, image
enhancement (NASA JPL), or mathematical analysis.
Supercomputers push the limits of current computer and electronic
circuit design and are frequently so huge that they occupy a whole
building or series of rooms.

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Keep in mind that a computer falls into the supercomputer

category if it is, at the time of construction, one of the fastest
computers in the world. Twenty years ago, a supercomputer was
defined as any device capable of performing one million
calculations per second or more. Today's desktop computers have
the power to perform billions of operations per second.
Supercomputers today claim trillions of calculations per second.

2. MAINFRAMES

In the early days of computing, mainframes were huge computers

that could fill an entire room or even a whole floor! As the size of
computers has diminished while their power has increased, the term
mainframe has fallen out of use in favor of enterprise server. You'll
still hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe
the huge machines processing millions of transactions every day.
Mainframe is an older term used to refer to a large, powerful
computer which performs the bulk of the data processing within an
organization and is accessed using terminals, PCs or mobile phones
as the user interface. All major processing is done at the main

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computer system to which the device is attached.

Mainframe computers can support hundreds or thousands of

users, handling massive amounts of input, output, and storage, and
processing transactions at a very high rate. Mainframes usually
require a specialized environment including separate air
conditioning and electrical power.

Mainframes are generally used by businesses or governments to

provide centralized storage, processing and management for large
amounts of data. They are used in large organizations, typically in
a multi-user environment, where many users need access to shared
data and programs. For example, in government organizations,
banks, universities, research organizations etc. Mainframes are also
used as e-commerce servers, handling transactions over the Internet.
The price of a mainframe computer typically starts at several
hundred thousand dollars and can easily exceed $1 million.

3. MINICOMPUTERS

Until the late 1960s, all computers were mainframe computers,

and they were expensive – too expensive for all but the larger
companies. Large companies shelled out $1.5 million and more for

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mainframe computers with less power than today’s $500 PCs. In the
late 1960s, computer vendors introduced smaller, slightly less
powerful computers that were more affordable for smaller
companies. The industry dubbed these small computers
minicomputers, or simply minis. The term was used until recently,
when the distinction between minis and mainframes began to blur.
Today the term is seldom used. Smaller mainframes are called mid-
range servers now. They are larger than microcomputers.

4. MICROCOMPUTERS

The first microcomputer was developed in 1971. The earlier

microcomputers could be clearly differentiated from computers in
other categories because its CPU consisted of a single chip called a
microprocessor. But today, with the advances in technology, just
about every computer – no matter how large or small – uses one or
more microprocessors as its CPU. Therefore, the use of a
microprocessor is no longer a distinction between microcomputers

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and other computer categories. We can categorize microcomputers

into the following categories:

• personal computers,

• handheld computers,

• workstations,

• videogame consoles,

Personal computers

A personal computer is a type of microcomputer designed to

meet the computing needs of an individual. It typically provides
access to a wide variety of computing applications such as word
processing, photo editing, and email. They are general-purpose
machines and frequently have networking capability. They are also
frequently used as stand-alone computers, in contrast to mainframes
which are designed specifically for the multiuser environment.
Personal computers are available as:

• desktop computers,

• portable computers (laptops)

• desktop replacement laptops

- notebooks

- ultrabooks

- netbooks

- tablets

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Desktop Computers

Desktop computers, those used by most

individuals, are designed to be permanently
positioned on a desk and runs on power from an
electrical wall outlet.

Portable computing (Laptop Categories)

Desktop replacement laptops

They are also called gaming laptops, media

center laptops or business laptops. They are
basically large, bulky laptops with everything
you can find in a desktop computer. They have large screens,
powerful graphics cards, and high storage capacities. They don’t
offer much in the way of battery time. With all this power in a
portable package, needless to say, desktop replacements are rather
expensive (US$2000 and up).

For example, the MSI offers a Core i7 processor, 6GB DDR3

RAM, GeForce GTX580M graphics card with 2GB VRAM, 1TB
HDD and a Blu-Ray drive.

Dell, Razer and Alienware also offer such high powered laptops
with similar performance. So, if you’re looking for the highest
computing power in portable form and aren’t concerned with
battery life, a desktop replacement laptop is for you.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Notebook Computers

These are smaller, lighter and less powerful

than the desktop replacement laptops.
Notebook (also referred to simply as laptop)
computers are used by people who need the
power of a desktop system, but also portability. These days, a
notebook laptop refers to a mid to large size laptop. The notebook
incorporates the screen (14” – 17”), keyboard, storage and
processing components into a single portable unit. Common input
devices used in laptop computers are the keyboard, and pointing
device such as a mouse, trackball or touchpad.

Ultrabook Computers

The term “Ultrabook” was basically coined by Intel (Intel

trademark) and all Ultrabook run on Intel processors. They were
released in mid-2012. They are ultrathin (less than 0.8”),lightweight
laptops (2 - 3 lbs), with 13 – 14” screens, provide goodperformance
while not compromising on battery life (5 hours and up). These
categories of laptops usually don’t have much storage capacity or
expansion slots. They usually have only SSD’s (Solid State Storage
drives) or an SSD in tandem with a small regular HDD(Hard Disk
Drive). To minimize power consumption, size and weight, power
efficient processors and RAM modules are used thatoffer good, but
not as fast performance like the desktop replacements. Not all
ultrabooks come with optical drives, though some of them do.

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An example for an ultrabook is the Dell

XPS 13, which has a dual-core Intel Core i5
processor running at 1.6GHz, 4GB DDR3
RAM, 128GB SSD and Intel integrated
graphics. It weighs around 1.3kg, has a claimed battery backup of 8
hours and costs about US$1000. Apple had also come out with its
laptop similar to the ultrabook, called Apple MacBook Air.

It uses the MacOS X. Other major computer manufacturers like

Acer, Dell, Asus, LG, Toshiba, Fujitsu, HP, Lenovo, Sony, and
Samsung have also come out with their ultrabooks. If you want
portability and battery life at the cost of good performance, then get
yourself an ultrabook.

Netbook Computers

They are sometimes also called mini-laptops. Netbooks feature

small screens (10” – 11”), low powered processors and less storage
capacity. They often also come without optical drives, with small
keypads and weigh approximately 1 to 2 pounds. However,
netbooks have a long battery life and are frequently used in
educational environments. Netbooks usually run on the Intel Atom
platform or the AMD Fusion platform. Although most modern
netbooks run on Windows 7 Starter, netbooks running on higher
versions of Windows 7 are available as well.

One of the best and most popular netbook

series is the Asus Eee PC series. The Asus Eee
1016P offers a single core Intel Atom N455
processor running at 1.6GHz, 2GB DDR2

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RAM, Intel Integrated graphics, 250GB HDD and features a 10inch

screen. It runs on Windows 7 Professional. Most netbooks however,
have only 1 GB RAM capacity.

With a netbook, you can perform daily tasks such as word

processing and spreadsheet management, surf the web, watch
movies, listen to music and do most things, just not very system
intensive things like video editing, gaming or heavy multi-tasking.

Netbooks aren’t meant for system intensive tasks. Most netbooks

have a battery life of around 6 – 8 hours. They are also much cheaper
than the ultrabook, with a price range of US$250-300.

For people on the go who just need the basic functions of a

computer but need more flexibility than a tablet, a netbook should
serve their needs. However, netbooks are now being discontinued
by manufacturers, as they are being replaced by the new, more
capable tablets and ultrabooks that are becoming thinner, lighter and
more powerful.

Tablet Computers

A tablet computer is a portable computing

device (weighing less than 1 pound), usually
between 7” and 11”, featuring a touch-sensitive
screen, that can be used as a writing or drawing
pad, and runs a mobile, or modified phone OS, like Google’s
android. Examples of Tablets are Apple’s iPad, RIM’s Blackberry
Playbook, Amazon’s Kindle Fire and Barnes and Noble’s Nook.

Since they use a mobile OS like android, they have huge

appstores. Apps are most plentiful for Apple iPad, followed closely

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

by Android devices. While the Kindle Fire and the Nook are
essentially e-readers with direct access to the Amazon and Barnes
and Noble libraries respectively, they are also small Android tablets.

Priced under $200, a 7" e-reader with wi-fi may be all you need
if you have access to a wireless network or hotspot, don't need a
camera, and you're just web browsing, checking email, and social
networking. More powerful tablets (for eg., larger screen, camera)
are available at higher prices.

Netbooks serve the same functions but generally include a

camera, and start at $249. They also have more storage space than
tablets and can run the same software your PC runs. Tablets,
however, have better displays than netbooks, and run apps -
software applications usually designed specifically for mobile
devices. Ultraportable laptops, or ultrabooks, are pricey compared
to tablets but they are full-fledged laptops with normal size
keyboards, thin cases, fast processors and high resolution displays.

Handheld computers

A handheld computer such as a Palm PDA (Personal Digital

Assistant), iPhone or a Blackberry, feature a small keyboard or
touch sensitive screen and is designed to fit into a pocket, run on
batteries, and fit in the palm of your hand.

PDAs are almost obsolete, as they have been

replaced by the increasing functionality of smart
phones. Handheld computers lack the power of a
desktop or notebook PC, but offer features for users
who need limited functions and small size. They

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

have very small keyboards, so they cannot be easily used for word
processing or other applications that require you to enter a lot of
data.

Workstations

The term “workstation” has two meanings.

Computers advertised as workstations are
usually powerful desktop computers
designed for specialized tasks. Some
workstations may contain more than one
microprocessor to increase its processing
speed, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for creating
and displaying 3-D and animated graphics. They are used mainly by
scientists, engineers, and people who work with graphics, such as in
medical imaging, computer-aided design, and game development.
They are more expensive than the everyday personal computers. A
second meaning of the term “workstation” applies to an ordinary
personal computer that is connected to a network.

Videogame Console

A videogame console such as Nintendo’s

GameCube, Sony’s PlayStation, or Microsoft’s
Xbox, is a computer, but videogame consoleshave
not been considered a computer category because
of their history as dedicated game devices
that connect to a TV set and provide only a pair of joysticks for input.

Today’s videogame consoles, however, contain microprocessors

that are equivalent to any found in a fast-personal computer, and they

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

are equipped to produce graphics that rival those on sophisticated

workstations. Add-ons such as keyboards, DVD players, and Internet
access, make it possible to use a videogame console to watch DVD
movies, send and receive email, and participate in online activities, such
as multiplayer games. A videogame console however, is not a
replacement for a personal computer.

1.6 Generations of Computers

In the early days, man used to count with his fingers and
manipulate numbers manually. But technological developments
demanded faster computing devices. This led to the development of
computers.

Examples of early calculating devices are:

• Abacus:

- Was used in 5000BC for counting & calculations.

- Consists of a frame with some bars fixed across it.

- Each bar had some beads which could be moved along each
bar.

• Pascal’s Calculator:

- Was used in 1942 after a French mathematician &

philosopher Blaise Pascal devised the calculating machine.

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major

technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate, smaller in size, cheaper, more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

First Generation [1940-1956]: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for

circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very
expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal
of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often
the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine
language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem
at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output
was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-

generation computing devices. The UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
Computer) was the first commercial computer delivered to a business
client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Fig. 1.2: ENIAC-Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Second Generation [1956-1963]: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes andushered

in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was invented in 1947 but did not see
widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far
superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great
deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still
relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary

machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this
generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation [1964-1971]: Integrated Circuits (ICs)

The development of the integrated circuit (IC) was the hallmark

of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and
placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Instead of punched cards and printouts,

users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced
with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation [1971-Present]: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth

generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single
silicon chip. What in the first generation
filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel
4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls - on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and
in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved
out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as
more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked

together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of
the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of
GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Fifth Generation [Present and Beyond]: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial

intelligence, are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular
and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years
to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices
that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization.

1.7 The birth of the personal computer (PC)

A keyboard, video monitor and memory were attached to the

microprocessor and the MICROCOMPUTER, also known as the
Personal Computer (PC) was born! Its price is low and no computer
operator is between the user and the PC.

PCs were made possible by 2 technical innovations in the field of

microelectronics: the integrated circuit (IC); and the microprocessor.

The IC permitted the miniaturization of computer-memory circuits

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

and the microprocessor reduced the size of a computer’s CPU to the

size of a single silicon chip. These factors lowered a computer’s price
making it affordable to both home and business users.

Evolution of the PC

The first desktop size system specifically

designed for personal use appeared in 1974; it
was offered by MITS. The computer was called
Altair, retailed for slightly less than US$ 400.
Computing was now made available to
individuals and small companies.

Altair was designed around the Intel 8080 microprocessors. The

first major electronics firm to manufacture and sell personal computers,
Tandy Corporation (Radio Shack), introduced its model in 1977.
Cassette tape was used to store the information at that time.

Around 1975, two young engineers - Stephen Wozniak and Steven

Jobs started a new computer manufacturing company named Apple
Computers. They introduced inexpensive data storage and color
graphics into their microcomputers. Apple Computers went on to
become the fastest-growing company in U.S. business history.

In 1981, IBM tossed its hat into the personal

computer ring with its announcement of the IBM
Personal Computer, or IBM PC. By the end of
1982, 835,000 PCs had been sold. Less than four
months after IBM introduced the PC, Time
Magazine named the computer "man of the year".

When software vendors began to orient their products to the IBM

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

PC, many companies began offering IBM-PC compatibles or clones

which were somewhat cheaper than the brand name IBM PC, but had
the same architecture as IBM PC and could run any software that could
run on IBM PC. IBM-PC compatibles are manufactured by companies
such as Dell, Lenovo, etc. that are compatible with the original brand
name IBM-PCs. The term personal computer (PC) is applied to
microcomputers whose design is similar to IBM’s first microcomputer.

In 1984, Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh desktop

computer with a very “friendly” graphical user interface which made
computers easy and fun to use. Graphical User Interface (GUI) has
changed the interaction between human and computer from a command
driven interface to the now familiar WIMP interface – Windows, Icons,
Menus, and Pointing Devices.

Microsoft introduced Windows, a GUI for IBM PC compatible

computers in 1985; however, Windows did not enjoy widespread
acceptance until 1990 with the release of Windows 3.0. Though the 2
main competitors in the microcomputer market were originally Apple
and IBM, today’s PC market consists of a number of manufacturers –
IBM, Apple, Dell, Acer, HP, Gateway, Lenovo, Compaq, Samsung,
Toshiba etc.

1.8 Personal Computer System

A computer system has four fundamental components:

a) input

b) processor

c) output, and

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

d) storage

These four components together constitute the hardware of the

computer. Hardware refers to those components of the computer that
you can see and touch – not just from the outside, but inside the system
unit as well.

 Data can be entered to a computer system for processing (input) via

a keyboard, a microphone (for voice and sound input), or a point
and draw device, such as a mouse.

 The processor provides the intelligence for the computer system,

performing all computation and logic operations.

 Output (the results of processing) can be routed to a monitor, audio

speakers, or a printer.

 Storage of data and software in a computer system is either

temporary or permanent. Random access memory (RAM)
provides temporary storage of data and programs during
processing. Disks and tapes provide permanent storage for data

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

and programs.

Devices like printers, various permanent storage devices, monitors,

scanners, microphones, etc. are referred to as peripherals.

In addition to the hardware, we also have the software. Computers

can’t operate without instructions – step by step procedures that tell
them what to do and when to do it. These instructions, are called
programs or software, and are usually written by specialists called
programmers. There are basically two types of software:

o systems software, and

o applications software.

Systems software includes the operating system which is probably

the most important software on your computer. Without this software
your computer is totally useless. A popular operating system on today’s
computers is Microsoft’s MS Windows, of which there are different
versions. Windows Vista is the most recent. Microsoft recently
announced that it will call its next-generation operating system
"Windows 7." The system is scheduled to be officially released later
this year (2009). Other operating systems are MacOS (running on Apple
computers), DOS, UNIX and Linux.

The term platform refers to the underlying hardware and software

for a system. For example, the platform might be a Pentium 4 processor
running Windows XP. The platform could also be machines running
UNIX operating system on an Ethernet network. The platform defines
a standard around which a system can be developed. Once the platform
has been defined, software developers can produce appropriate software
and managers can purchase appropriate hardware and applications.

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

When purchasing additional hardware and software for your

system, it is important to know what platform your system is running
on. This will ensure that the new hardware and software are compatible
with, and will work on the existing hardware and operating system of
your computer. There are 2 main PC platforms

o Windows (IBM-PC and IBM-PC compatibles), and

o Macintosh (Apple computers)

Applications software allows you to perform different tasks.

Tasks that you work on with a computer are called applications, and the
programs or software that you use to perform them are called
application programs or applications software. For example, an
application could be writing a letter, and the general category of
application program that you use for this application is a word
processing program. Microsoft’s MS Word is a specific example of
such word processing software. The application program you use
depends on the task you want to perform. There are application
programs today for practically anything you can think of – in areas of
business, personal, desktop publishing, communications,
entertainment, etc.

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 CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER COMPONENTS
2.1 Introduction

A computer is an electronic device that has the ability to store,

retrieve, and process data, and can be programmed with instructions that
it remembers. The physical parts that make up a computer (the central
processing unit, input, output, and memory) are called hardware.

Programs that tell a computer what to do are called software. A set

of instructions that perform a particular task is called a program,
software program, or software. Peripherals are any hardware device
connected to a computer, any part of the computer outside the CPU and
working memory. Some examples of peripherals are keyboards, the
mouse, monitors, printers, scanners, disk and tape drives, microphones,
speakers, joysticks, plotters, and cameras.

2.2 Monitor

The computer monitor is an output device that displays input on a

screen and is very similar to a television monitor. When the computer
wants to display something, it calculates how it needs to change the
color and brightness of the different pixels, and changes the values in
the video memory.

Dr.-Ing. Samy Sadek 43

 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Controls for the monitor are located on the monitor itself. The
monitor has an ON/OFF Button/Switch (which powers only the
monitor) and an indicator light (green or amber). A green indicator light
denotes that the monitor is on.

An amber light indicates that the computer is in “sleep” mode.

Software in newer computers automatically shuts the monitor down
when the computer is shut down – the monitor is put in a “sleep” mode
and the indicator light turns amber. When the monitor light is amber, if
the computer is booted up, the monitor will automatically come on
when you move the mouse or press any key on the keyboard.

No indicator light indicates that the monitor is off. If you turn your
monitor off with the switch, there will be no indicator light. When you
boot up your computer, you will have to turn the monitor on by pressing
the ON/OFF switch.

Monitor Resolution refers to the number of dots on the screen or

pixels. It is expressed as a pair of numbers that give the number of dots
on a line (horizontal) and the number of lines (vertical). Four resolutions
commonly used today:

• 640 × 480 PIXELS (VGA) (SVGA) – images are larger for

visually impaired students.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

• 800 × 600 PIXELS (SVGA) – most web sites are designed to be

viewed at this setting.

• 1024 x 768 PIXELS (SVGA)

• 1280 × 1024 PIXELS (SVGA)– images are smaller, but more

information can be displayed.

The smaller the pixels, the clearer and sharper the picture appears
on the monitor. Most monitors come with a .28 dot pitch. This is the
standard for monitors. Do not buy a monitor if the dot pitch is more than
.28. The smaller the dot pitch, the better the monitor.

2.3 System Unit

The computer is a machine that processes data according to a set of

instructions that are stored internally either temporarily or permanently.
The computer has either external or internal peripherals attached to it.

1. CD/DVD-drive– Player or reader that reads data from a CD ROM

or DVD disk.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

2. USB ports allow USB devices to be connected to each other with

and transfer digital data over USB cables.

3. MIC AND HEADPHONE ports allow you to record and control

sound in real time

4. POWER SWITCH Turns the computer on and off. Whenever the

computer is turned off, always wait at least 60 seconds before
turning it back on again.

5. RESET BUTTON – Allows you to reboot (restart) your system

without having to power down the entire computer. Rebooting the
system in this manner reduces stress on the system components.
This button is used ONLY when the computer has “frozen” and will
not accept any commands.

6. POWER INDICATOR – Located in the center of the power

switch. A green light indicates the computer is on.

7. HARD DISK DRIVE ACCESS INDICATOR – Turns green

when the computer is accessing your hard drive, either retrieving or
storing information.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

2.4 Internal Components of a Computer

1. Motherboard

Sometimes called the system board or main board, the motherboard

is the main circuit board of a PC. The motherboard is the central nervous
system and circulatory system, plus much more, all rolled into one. The
motherboard typically contains the processor (or CPU), BIOS (basic
input/output system), memory, mass storage interfaces, serial and
parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to
communicate with standard peripheral devices, such as the display
screen, mouse, keyboard and disk drive. Collectively, some of the chips

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

which reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's

chipset.

2. Chipset

The chipset controls the system and its capabilities. All components
communicate with the processor through the chipset - it is the hub of all
data transfer. The chipset uses the DMA controller and the bus
controller to organize the steady flow of data that it controls. The chipset
is a series of chips attached directly to the motherboard, and is usually
second in size only to the processor. Chipsets are integrated (soldered
onto the motherboard) and are not upgradable without a new
motherboard.

3. BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

An integral part of the PC, the BIOS is the program a microprocessor

uses to get the computer started after you turn it on. It also manages the
data flow between the computer's operating system and attached
peripheral devices.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

4. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU is the computer's control center. Think of it as the brain

that does all the thinking (computation). It reads instructions from your
software and tells your computer what to do. The actual CPU is about
1.5 inches square, yet it is the most critical part of the computer.

The speed at which the CPU processes information internally is

measured in MegaHertz (MHz) and GigaHertz (GHz). 1 GHz is equal
to 1,000 MHz. Generally, processors with higher MHz or GHz enhance
your ability to run creative, entertainment, communication, and
productivity applications. MegaHertz— One million cycles per second
— used to measure the speed of a CPU chip.

5. ROM (Read Only Memory)

A type of memory chip that does not lose

information, even when the power is turned off. Once
data is programmed into the ROM chip, its contents
cannot be altered. For example, ROM BIOS chips are

49
 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

used to store information for starting up your computer.

6. RAM (Random Access Memory)

This memory is available for storing data and programs currently

being processed and it is erased automatically when the power is turned
off. RAM can be accessed without touching preceding bytes.

 DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module), a device that adds memory to

a computer

 RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random-Access Memory)

Developed by Rambus Corporation, the narrow, high-performance

channel also offers performance and capacity scalability through the
use of multiple channels in parallel. Capable of providing up to 1.6
GB/sec bandwidth per channel. RDRAM is able to load a new
stream of data before the previous stream has completed, resulting
in less waiting time and therefore faster access speeds.

 SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory).

SDRAM synchronizes itself with the processors bus and is capable

of running at 133 MHz. SDRAM enables a system to run
applications and temporarily store documents that are being worked
on.

 SIMM (Single In-Line Memory Module)

A narrow circuit board that contains RAM (also called DRAM)

memory chips. The more RAM chips you add to the computer, the
faster it operates and the more programs you can run at the same
time. Depending on the computer, SIMMs may need to be installed
in multiples of two or four.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Byte – Bytes are used to measure both computer memory (RAM)

and the storage capacity of floppy disks, CD-ROM drives, and hard
drives. BYTE One character. A character can be a number, letter or
symbol.

Note that:

 A byte consists of 8 bits.

 KILOBYTE (1KB=210B): Approximately one thousand
characters, or one page of double-spaced text.
 MEGABYTE (MB=220B): Approximately one million
characters, or one novel.
 GIGABYTE (GB=230B): Approximately one billion characters,
or one thousand novels.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

7. Cache

Cache (pronounced cash) is a block of high-speed memory where

data is copied when it is retrieved from the RAM. This storage of key
instructions enables a performance improvement in the processor. Intel
processors incorporate level 1 (L1) and level 2 (L2) caches. There are
two groups of extremely fast memory chips that allow the computer to
operate faster:

 Internal cache (L1) is built into the CPU, and

 External cache (L2) resides on the motherboard. The L2 cache is

an area of high-speed memory that improves performance by
reducing the average memory access time. L2 cache is also
called SRAM.

 Both L1 and L2 store data recently used by the CPU. When the
CPU needs data, it first checks the fastest source — L1. If the
data is not there, the CPU checks the next-fastest source — L2.
If the data still cannot be found, a time-consuming search of the
slower RAM is required.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

2.5 Back Panel and Cables

The ports that connect the peripherals to the computer are located on
the back panel of the computer. Newer computers have ports that are
color-coded with their appropriate cables. Speaker cables plug into
headphone jacks on the back panel and are also color-coded. The back
panel may have small icons on the ports showing the correct cables
(example –monitor for monitor cable). It is important that all cables are
inserted completely and securely in their port (pins screwed in all the
way) or the peripheral will not function properly.

Once all peripherals have been connected to the computer, it may be

useful to label each cable and it's appropriate port. When the computer
is stored for the summer it will be very easy to reconnect cables in the
fall. Two successful methods used to code cables and ports include
colored dots using nail polish (red mouse cable, red dot on mouse port,
pink printer cable, pink dot on printer port, etc.) and numbering cables
and ports (1 & 1, 2 & 2, etc.).

When attaching or removing cables from the computer it is

important to be very careful. The cables are connected with "pins" that
can easily be bent or broken. Don't try to remove cables by "wiggling"
from side to side. Pull cables directly out to avoid damaging the pins.

The following figure is a diagram of the ports on the back of the

computer. Included are pictures of the cable connectors for different
peripherals attached to the computer.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

3. Parallel Port

1. Mouse Port

2. Keyboard 6. Video Port

4. USB
5. Serial Port

Mouse Cable & Ports Keyboard Cable & Ports Printer Cable

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) is a processor-independent

standard for system-level interfacing between a computer andintelligent
devices including hard-drives, floppy disks, CD-ROM, printer,
scanners and many more.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a new technology theoretically

capable of connecting a very large number of external devices on a
computer. USB give the PC user a no-hassle way to connect a new
digital joystick, a scanner, a set of digital speakers, a digital camera, or

54
 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

a PC telephone to their computer.

Add the feature of "hot-swapping" so that you don't need to shut

down and restart your PC to attach or remove a peripheral. Just plug it
in and go! To remove a USB device, single click the hardware button
in the system tray, the “Remove Hardware” window opens. Select the
device you wish to disconnect, click the “Stop” button then remove the
device.

2.6 Storage devices

When working on the computer, all work is entered into the

computer's memory. To store your work for future retrieval, you must
“save” your work to a storage device before turning the computer off.
When your work is saved, it creates a computer “file”. The most
common storage devices are hard disks.

If you only save your work on the hard disk, you run the risk of
losing your data, either through viruses, which attack the hard disk, or
to hard disk failure or crashes. It’s very important to back up your
important files onto other media, such as flash disks.

1. Hard drive –- The primary device that a computer uses to store

information. Most computers come with one or two hard drives,
called drive C and drive D, located inside the computer case. The
terms hard drive and hard disk are used interchangeably. Today's

55
 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

hard disks provide fast retrieval and can hold several gigabytes of
information as compared to megabytes on floppy disks.

The Read/Write Heads are energy converters: they transform

electrical signals to magnetic signals, and magnetic signals back to
electrical ones again. They are in essence tiny electromagnets that
perform this conversion from electrical information to magnetic and
back again. There is normally one head for each surface used on the
drive.

If the heads contact the surface of the disk while it is at operational

speed, the result can be loss of data, damage to the heads, damage
to the surface of the disk, or all three. This is usually called a head
crash, two of the most frightening words to any computer user. :^)
The most common causes of head crashes are contamination getting
stuck in the thin gap between the head and the disk, and shock
applied to the hard disk while it is in operation.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

2. CD-ROMS— Compact disks can store

approximately 650-800 MB of data or 74-80
minutes of music. Most software programs
today are shipped on CD-ROMs instead of
floppy disks. All computers today come with
CD-ROM drives that are part of the computer’s multimedia
configuration. They are connected to a sound card, which provides
the computer with stereo speaker capabilities, allowing for musical
CD-ROMs to also be played on your computer.

3. DVD disks — DVD (abbreviation for Digital

Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) is a digital
optical disc data storage format invented and
developed in 1995 and released in late 1996. The
medium can store any kind of digital data and was widely used for
software and other computer files as well as video programs
watched using DVD players. DVDs offer higher storage capacity
than compact discs while having the same dimensions

4. USB/Flash Drive (Jump/Thumb Drive) - is a

plug-and-play portable storage device that uses flash
memory and is lightweight enough to attach to a key
chain. A keychain drive can be used in place of a
floppy disk, Zip drive disk, or CD. When the user
plugs the device into their USB port, the computer's operating
system recognizes the device as a removable drive.

Unlike most removable drives, a keychain drive does not require

rebooting after it's attached, does not require batteries or an external

57
 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

power supply, and is not platform dependent. Several keychain

drive manufacturers offer additional features such as password
protection, and downloadable drivers that allow the keychain drive
to be compatible with older systems that do not have USB ports.
Keychain drives are now available in capacities up to 2 terabytes,
depending on manufacturer, in a corresponding range of prices.

2.7 INPUT DEVICES

The original input device was the punched card, a technology

that predates computers by many years. Stiff paper cards were prepared
by punching holes in specific locations and then fed into a computer to
input information.

The most common input devices for modern computers are the
keyboard and mouse. Keyboards have been part of personal computers
from the beginning. Originally, computer operating systems and
applications were very text-based. A keyboard enabled a user to input
text to operating systems and applications such as word processers.
They are still essential for inputting text into word processed and other
documents.

1. Keyboard – The computer receives most of its input from the user
via the keyboard that is very similar to the typewriter keyboard. The
keyboard is connected by a cable to the keyboard port on the back
of the computer. There are extra keys on the computer's keyboard
that are not found on a normal typewriter. Following is an
explanation of the function of these keys. The exact manner in
which the keys function depends on the software program.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

BACKSPACE KEY– Deletes the character just to the left of the

cursor (or insertion point) and moves the cursor to that position.

DELETE KEY– Sometimes labeled Del, deletes the character at

the current cursor position or to the right of the insertion point, or
deletes the selected object, but does not move the cursor.

ARROW KEYS – four arrow keys for moving the cursor or

insertion point right, left, up, or down. Moving the arrow keys does
not delete any characters on the screen.

CAPS LOCK KEY – A toggle key that, when activated, causes

all alphabetic characters to be uppercase.

HOME – moves the cursor to the top left corner of the screen or
to the beginning of the file, but it can have other meanings
depending on which program is running.

END – moves the cursor to the end of the line, the end of the page,
or the end of the file depending where the cursor is located on the
page and on which program is running.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

ENTER – Used to enter commands or to move the cursor to the

beginning of the next line. Sometimes labeled Return instead of
Enter.

RETURN KEY – Another name for the Enter key.

ESC – Short for Escape, this key is used to send special codes to
devices and to exit (or escape) from programs and tasks.

FUNCTION KEYS – Special keys labeled F1 to Fx, x being the

number of function keys on the keyboard. These keys have
different meanings depending on which program is running.

CTRL KEY – Short for Control, this key is used in conjunction

with other keys to produce control characters. The meaning of each
control character depends on which program is running.

ALT KEY – Short for Alternate, this key is like a second Control
key

PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN – moves the cursor up or down a

set number of lines usually one page or screen at a time. Often
abbreviated PgUp and PgDn.

NUMERIC KEYPAD – A separate set of keys on some keyboards

that contain the numbers 0 through 9 and a decimal point arranged
as on an adding machine. Numeric keypads make it easier to enter
large amounts of numeric data. For the keypad to function as
numbers, the NUM LOCK must be on (Num Lock light is green).

INSERT – Changes between insert mode and overstrike mode in

word processing programs. In insert mode, all characters typed are
placed at the cursor position (or to the right of the insertion point).

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

With each new insertion, characters to the right of the cursor are
pushed to the right of the insertion point to make room for the new
characters. If insert mode is turned off, typing then overwrites
existing characters instead of inserting the new ones before the old
ones. This is often called overwrite mode. Most PC keyboards have
an Ins or Insert key that lets you switch back and forth between
insert and overwrite modes.

NOTE: If the keyboard freezes, restarting by pressing the Reset

button will not correct the conflict; you MUST shut down. Use
your mouse to save work prior to shutting down then press the
Power button on the desktop/tower.

KEYTROKES TO KNOW?

1. Enter – pressing this key is the same as left clicking the mouse
button.

2. Ctrl + Esc or Windows Logo Key – pressing these two keys, Ctrl
+ Esc, simultaneously, or pressing the Windows Logo Key, will
bring up the Start menu. Use the arrow keys to navigate the Start
menu, especially to shut down.

3. Shift + Alt + Spacebar – when a window is in the “Restore” mode,

it may sometimes shift on the screen so that you cannot locate the
buttons on the title bar to close, minimize or maximize the window.
Pressing these three keys will open a window, with a choice of
“Maximize”. Arrow down and select Maximize and the window
will open to a full screen with the buttons showing.

Ctrl + Alt + Delete – whenever the computer “locks up” (freezes)

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

and the mouse or keyboard will not work, pressing these three keys
simultaneously will first go into the Welcome Screen and then you
can go into the Task Manager which contains a list box of
applications that are running. Highlight the program that is “not
responding” and may be causing the problem and choose “End
Task.” to close the program.

NOTE: Closing the program will cause all data entered since the
last save to be lost.

4. F1—Displays Help information for the active object or the window

as a whole.

5. F2—Rename a selected item. A bold rectangle appears around the

title creating a text box and the title is highlighted. Type the new
name and press Enter. Press ESC to cancel.

6. F3—Opens the Find All Files dialog box.

7. Alt + F4— Closes the active application window. Once all open
windows are closed, pressing these keys again will open the “Shut
Down Windows” dialog box.

8. Print Screen—Copies an image of the screen to the Windows

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Clipboard.

9. Alt + Print Screen—Copies an image of the active window to the

Windows Clipboard.

10. Windows Logo Key + M—Minimizes all open windows. The

keyboard focus goes to the least recently selected icon on the
desktop.

2. Mouse – The mouse is a pointing device attached

to the computer that controls the movement of the
cursor on the screen. It allows the user to execute
commands using point & click and click & drag
techniques. As the user moves the mouse across the pad, the cursor
moves across the screen.

The computer mouse was developed to help computer users

navigate around a graphical user interface such as Microsoft
Windows, Macintosh OS, or Ubuntu Linux. A mouse makes it faster
to load programs, open documents and place your cursor where you
want it or select objects within an application. Extensions of the
mouse include the trackball, joystick, touchpad and touchscreen
display.

The mouse should always be used with a mouse pad to provide a

smooth surface for mouse movement and to help keep the mouse
from damage. If you "run out of room" on the pad, simply pick up
the mouse and move it to the opposite edge and continue movement.

The PC mouse has two buttons (left and right) and newer mice have
a scroll wheel between the two. Mouse commands are executed by
"clicking". The term “click” refers to the left mouse button. The

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

phrase to "click" means to select (a screen object) by moving the

mouse pointer to the object's position and clicking a mouse button
by pressing it down once, and them immediately releasing it.

Executing commands (i.e. opening a folder, opening a file, opening

a program) requires a double click, meaning that you must click the
left mouse button twice in rapid succession. There is a timed rhythm
to double clicking and the mouse must NOT move between clicks.

Shift Click refers to clicking the mouse button while holding the
Shift key down.

Click and Drag is also used more generally to refer to any operation
in which the left mouse button is held down while the mouse is
moved. Placing the mouse arrow on an object and holding down the
left mouse button while moving it, the object can by moved to a new
location by “dragging”. Some newer mice also include a scroll
wheel for scrolling through long documents.

Right Click refers to clicking the right mouse button which reveals
a context menu, because it changes based on the status of the item
you clicked – the type of file, for example. The context menu may
display actions such as Open, New, Print, Copy, Paste, Delete, Send
To, Create Shortcut and Properties (to see an item's settings, and so
on) all dependent upon where you right click, on a file or on a blank
space in a window.

Multimedia Input Devices

More recently, input devices have been developed to take

advantage of the multimedia capabilities of modern computers. These
include scanners that allow you to scan and input graphic images;

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

sound cards and microphones that allow you to input audio files;
digital cameras and video capture cards that allow you to input
photographic images and video; and graphic tablets that allow you to
draw directly into your computer graphics applications.

Multimedia devices, together with the Internet and othernetworks,

have enabled us to use computers to communicate with othersusing text,
audio and video.

Specialized Input Devices

Computers in places such as banks and

retail stores make use of such specialized
input devices as card readers and barcode
scanners. A card reader reads electronic
information that is embedded in bank cards, credit cards or other
information cards. The card reader sends the information to a computer
CPU which then processes the information by enabling a financial
transaction or displaying information on a screen.

A barcode reader is a type of optical scanner that reads the barcode of

an item and sends that information to the CPU. The barcode is used to

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

gather information about the item, such as price and to use that
information to prepare a receipt or to track inventory.

2.8 OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are computer hardware that receive information

from the CPU and present that information to the computer user.
Common examples of output devices include computer monitors,
printers and speakers.

Output for graphics

Computer graphics can be displayed using a monitor or a display

projector connected to the graphics output port. Original computer
graphics systems were capable of displaying only one color and used a
monochrome monitor that could display 80 columns and 25 lines of
text. Modern graphics cards are circuit boards that attach to the
computer’s main board and are capable of much higher-end graphics
such as 3-dimensional and full-screen video. The following subunits
make up a graphic card:

o Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) – a processor dedicated to

graphics functions such as graphics acceleration and 3-
dimensional graphics.
o Video Bios – a basic program that governs the operation of the
graphics card and provides instructions so that the computer can
interact with the graphics card.
o RAMDAC – a set of instructions for displaying information on
analog monitors.
o Video ports – for attaching monitors or other display equipment.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Computer monitors have evolved with the increased graphics

capabilities of computers, to the point now where monitors are capable
of displaying high-definition video. The most common types of displays
are:

1) CRT Monitors – use a cathode ray

tube to send a stream of electrons onto
a screen coated with phosphor. The
screen glows when struck by the
electrons. CRT monitors are still used in many desktop
computer systems. CRT monitors typically present excellent
image contrast and the viewing angle is very good compared to
other types of monitors.
2) LCD Monitors – liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) use two pieces of polarized glass
with a liquid crystal trapped between
them. The screen is lit from the back and
the crystals align to allow varying levels
of light to pass through. LCD monitors require much less
thickness than CRT monitors and are therefore typically used
on laptop systems. Also, since they take up less space, generate
less heat and use less electricity, they are becoming the monitor
of choice for desktop systems as well.
3) Display projectors – display the
computer graphics by sending light
from a metal halide bulb through a
prism that separates the light into its red, green and blue
components and then projecting the image onto a wall or

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

screen. These projectors have the advantage of creating a large

display that can be viewed by an audience.

Computer displays are characterized by the following:

• Screen size: the size of the viewable area of the screen,

measured from one corner to the opposite corner
• Aspect ratio: the comparison of the width of the display to
height. Historically computer monitors had a 4:3 aspect
ratio, the same as traditional television sets. Widescreen
LCD monitors typically have an aspect ratio of 16:9 or
16:10
• Color depth: the number of bits used to describe the color
of a single pixel. High end displays can produce 16.8
million different colors
• Dot pitch: a measure of the distance between dots of color
on a display
• Refresh rate: the number of times each second at which
the display draws the data it receives (i.e. the screen
refreshes). A high refresh rate is important to prevent
flickering and eye strain while using the computer

Output for sound

Computers have been equipped with sound chips and internal

speakers from very early in their development but because of the
limitations of the hardware, the types of sounds that could be played
were simple “beeps”. The audio suffered from low volume and
distortion which required other system processes to stop while the
sound played.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Modern computer systems use sound cards

either attached to or integrated with the computer
main board. These sound cards usually come with
their own memory and therefore don’t take away
processing resources from the main computer. The sound cards have
ports for attaching speakers, headphones, microphones and other
devices such as media players. Modern sound cards, when accompanied
by high-end speaker systems, are capable of very good sound
reproduction.

Output for print

Printers are output devices that produce a

hard copy of electronic documents on print
media (usually paper or transparencies). Like
computers, printers have evolved to support
such features as high-definition graphics, full-
color reproduction and photography. Printers are classified by the type
of print technology they use. The most common types of printers are:

• Toner-based printers – such as laser printers, use toner to

produce an image either in color or shades of grey. Laser printers
have good print quality, good print speed and a low cost per page
compared to other print technologies. The high-end color laser
printers are capable of producing photographic-quality images, but
at a relatively high cost.
• Liquid-ink printers – such as color inkjet printers, work by
propelling droplets of ink onto a page. They are the most common
type of printer for the consumer because of their low cost and

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excellent print quality.

Note: some devices act as both input and output devices. An example
is the touch screen monitor, which has a graphics output function and
a touch pad input function.

2.9 OVERALL COMPUTER CARE

Taking proper care of the computer is essential in keeping it

working properly. The following is a list of "dos" and "don'ts" for
computer care.

 Cover the computer when not in use to keep dust away from it. An
old sheet is an excellent cover for your computers. Plastic dust
covers are not recommended as they retain heat and do notallow
for the computer to cool down properly, forming moisture.
Moisture can damage the internal components of the computer.
 Position the computers away from air-conditioner vents, heater
vents and chalkboards.
 Keep all food and drinks away from the computer.
 Never place foreign objects into the computer or its drives.
 Plug all computer components into a surge protector.
 Keep all magnets away from the computer or disks. Magnets will
erase all data!

Care of individual components

1. System Case—The system case should be cleaned annually to

prevent excessive buildup of dust. The best way to clean the outside
of the case is just to wipe it with a damp cloth (don't spray liquids

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

right on the case). The inside can be cleaned either by blasting with
compressed air or using a small vacuum with a PC cleaning
attachment. Check Positioning: Make sure the case hasn't over time
been pushed into a place where it shouldn't be. For example, some
desktop machines tend in time to be pushed back to the very back
of the desk where they might cause the power supply fan to be
blocked by a wall. There should always be air space behind the
computer so the fan can cool the computer.

2. Power Supply Fan—The power supply's chief enemy is

overheating, and this is usually caused by excessive dust and dirt
coating the components and clogging the power supply fan. The
power supply fan should be inspected, approximately quarterly, to
make sure that it is providing good ventilation and that it is not
gummed up with dirt. Either using a vacuum cleaner with a small
tip attachment can clean it or blowing it out with an air duster
(remove case cover and blow out otherwise simply spreading the
dust inside the case which can cause other problems).

3. Monitor—The monitor screen should be cleaned weekly since dust

accumulates more quickly on the surface of a monitor than
elsewhere because of the static charge generated by many monitors.
The best way to clean the screen is just to wipe it with a slightly
damp, soft cloth; companies will try to sell you fancy wipes but they
are not generally necessary (and some can leave annoying
smudges). Once a year, it is a good idea to clean the dust off the
outside of the case. Doing this helps keep the monitor looking good
and improves cooling. Make sure that the monitor's cooling vents
are never blocked off. The monitor should always be turned off if it

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

will not be in use for one or two hours.

4. Keyboard—Keep Food and Drink Away: The number one enemy

of keyboards is not dust, but in fact food and drink. Check the Cable
and Connector: Make sure that the keyboard cable is not caught on
anything or pinched between desk drawers, etc., to prevent damage.
There should be slack in the cable as well; if the keyboard cable is
too tight this can damage the cable, connector, or worst of all, the
plug on the motherboard where the keyboard connects to it.

5. Mouse—Clean the Mouse Regularly: It should be cleaned on a

monthly basis. This includes cleaning the mouse ball, and also the
rollers on the inside of the unit. If the ball becomes dirty then it
doesn't roll properly, and the cursor won't move smoothly. Check
the Cable and Connector: Make sure that the mouse cable is not
caught on anything on the workplace to prevent damage. There
should be slack in the cable as well.

SHUTDOWN

To shut down your computer, click the Start button, then click
Shut down (Shortcut: press these two keys Alt + F4 simultaneously).
It is imperative that you shut down the computer properly. Failure to do
so could cause damage or loss of data.

If the computer "freezes", it may be

necessary to restart (also known as "reboot")
the computer using alternate means. Pressing
Ctrl+Alt+Delete takes you to the Windows
lock screen containing several options. In the
lower right-hand corner, there is a red button with an arrow next to it.

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 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Clicking this button opens a list of shutdown options, as you can see in
the image to the right. To restart your computer using this menu:

 Click the red arrow to open the menu.

 Select Restart to reboot your machine.

If using Ctrl+Alt+Delete doesn’t restart your computer, you need to

reboot your computer by pressing the reset button in front of your
computer. Alternatively, if your machine is frozen, press and hold the
power button for five seconds. This action is known as a ‘hard reset’.

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 CHAPTER THREE

NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

3.1 Information Representation

Computers are information processing tools that give meaning to

raw data. Data should be represented in a form that permits efficient
storage and ease of manipulation (although these two goals might be
conflicting at times). In data communications, we are also concerned
with issues such as security, error detection and error correction.

Data are usually represented in some form of code for compactness

and uniformity. For instance, a ‘yes’ response may be represented by
‘Y”, and a ‘no’ by ‘N’; the four seasons by ‘S’ (spring), ‘M’ (summer),
‘A’ (autumn) and ‘W’ (winter). We can see that the choices are rather
arbitrary. In real-life, codes are used for identification purposes, such as
the Singapore NRIC1 number and the NUS2 student’s matriculation
number. Computers are also number crunching devices. Numeric
values are represented in a form that eases arithmetic computations and
preserves accuracy as much as possible.

The atomic unit of data is the bit (binary digit), stemming from the
fact that the elementary storage units in a computer are electronic
switches where each switch holds one of the two states: on (usually
represented by 1), or off (0), as shown below.

ON OFF

Figure 3-1 Two states of a switch.

Ultimately, all data, numeric or non-numeric, are represented in

1
NRIC: National Registration Identity Card
2
NUS: National University of Singapore

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

sequence of bits of zeroes and ones. Eight bits constitute a byte (a nibble
is half a byte, or four bits, but this is rarely used these days), and a word,
which is a unit for data storage and transfer, is usually in multiples of
byte, depending on the width of the system bus. Computers nowadays
typically use 32-bit or 64-bit words.

00: Spring

01: Summer

10: Autumn

11: Winter

Figure 3-2 Representing four states using two switches (two bits).

A sequence of bits allows for a range of representations. Storage

units can be grouped together to provide larger range of representations.
For convenience, we shall refer to these representations as values,
though they may represent non-numeric data. For example, the four
seasons could be represented by two switches, to cover a range of four
values 00, 01, 10 and 11, as shown below.

In general, N bits can represent up to 2N distinct values.

Conversely, to represent a range of M values, the number of bits
required is log 2 M  .

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

1 bit → represents up to 2 values (0, 1)

2 bits → represents up to 4 values (00, 01, 10, 11)

3 bits → represents up to 8 values (000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111)

4 bits → represents up to 16 values (0000, 0001, 0010, …, 1110, 1111)

32 values → requires 5 bits

40 values → requires 6 bits

64 values → requires 6 bits

100 values → requires 7 bits

1024 values → requires 10 bits

3.2 Positional Numerals

Different numeral systems have emerged in civilizations over the

history. They can be roughly categorized as follows:

 Non-positional numeral systems

 Relative-position numeral systems

 Positional numeral systems

Non-positional systems are position-independent and include those

of the Egyptian and Greek. In the Greek numeral system, more than 27
symbols are used, such as  for 1,  for 30, and  for 500, and so 531
would be written as . The Egyptians drew different symbols for

powers of ten, for example, for 1, for 10, and for 100. Hence, 531
would be depicted as .

The Roman numeral system includes different symbols for some

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basic values: I (1), V (5), X (10), C (50), and M (100), but employs
complicated rules on relative positioning of symbols to represent other
values. For instance, IV is 4 but VI is 6. The systems described above
are not well suited for computations. The problem is overcome by the
elegant positional notation, where each position carries an implicit
weight. The familiar Arabic decimal numeral is one such system.

In the decimal system, the positional weights are powers of ten. In

general, a decimal number (an an-1 … a0 . f1 f2 … fm) has the value

(an  10n) + (an-1  10n-1) +…+ (a0  100) + (f1  10-1) +

(f2  10-2) +…+ (fm  10-m)

For example, 28.75 = (2  101) + (8  100) + (7  10-1) + (5  10-2)

3.3 Bases of Number Systems

The base or radix of a number system is the number of digits

present. The decimal numeral system has a base or radix of 10, where
the set of 10 symbols (digits) is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. The weights
are in powers of ten.

Number systems on other bases are defined likewise. For instance,

a base-four number system consists of the set of four symbols {0, 1, 2,
3} with weights in powers of four. Hence, a base-four number 123.1,
also written as (123.1)4 for clarity, has the value (1  42) + (2  41) + (3
 40) + (1  4-1) or 16 + 8 + 3 + 0.25 or 27.25 in decimal, or (27.25)10.
Listing base-four integers in increasing value yields 0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11,
12, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 30, 31, 32, 33, 100, 101, 102, 103, 110,…, etc. In
general, a base-b number (an an-1 … a0 . f1 f2 … fm)b has the value

(an  bn) + (an-1  bn-1) +…+ (a0  b0) + (f1  b-1) + (f2  b-2) +…+ (fm  b-m)

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

The point that separates the integer part and fraction part is known
as the radix point. The weights are in powers of b. The above forms the
basis for conversion of a base-b number to decimal.

We may also adopt the computationally more efficient Horner’s

rule to convert a base-b integer to decimal. This method simply factors
out the powers of b, by rewriting (an  bn) + (an-1  bn-1) +…+ (a0  b0)
as (((an  b) + an-1)  b + …)  b + a0. For example, (123)4 = ((1  4) +
2)  4 + 3 = 27. For fractions, we may adopt the same method by
replacing multiplication with division.

Special names are given to number systems on certain bases. If you

think that the base is a small value, you are wrong. The Babylonians
used a sexagesimal system with base 60!

Table 3-1 Bases of Positional Numeral Systems

Base Name Base Name

2 Binary 9 Nonary
3 Ternary 10 Decimal (or Denary)
4 Quaternary 12 Duodecimal
5 Quinary 16 Hexadecimal
6 Senary 20 Vigesimal
7 Septimal 60 Sexagesimal
8 Octal (or Octonary)

For a base b that is less than ten, the symbols used are the first b
Arabic symbols: 0, 1, 2, …, b–1. For bases that exceed ten, more
symbols beyond the ten Arabic symbols must be introduced. The
hexadecimal system uses the additional symbols A, B, C, D, E and F to
represent 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, respectively.

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

The binary number system is of particular interest to us as the two

symbols 0 and 1 correspond to the two bits that represent the states of a
switch. The octal and hexadecimal number systems are also frequently
encountered in computing.

Examples: Convert the following numbers into their decimal

equivalent.
(1101.101)2 = (1  23) + (1  22) + (1  20) + (1  2-1) + (1  2-3)
= 8 + 4 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.125 = 13.625
(572.6)8 = (5  82) + (7  81) + (2  80) + (6  8-1)
= 320 + 56+ 2 + 0.75 = 378.75
(2A.8)16 = (2  161) + (10  160) + (8  16-1)
= 32 + 10 + 0.5 = 42.5
(341.24)5 = (3  52) + (4  51) + (1  50) + (2  5-1) + (4  5-2)
= 75 + 20 + 1 + 0.4 + 0.16 = 96.56

3.4 Decimal to Binary Conversion

One way to convert a decimal number to its binary equivalent is the
sum-of-weights method. Here, we determine the set of weights (which
are in powers of two) whose sum is the number in question.

Examples: Convert the following decimal numbers to their binary

equivalent using sum-of-weights.
(9)10 = 8 + 1 = 23 + 20 = (1001)2

(18)10 = 16 + 2 = 24 + 21 = (10010)2

(58)10 = 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = 25 + 24 + 23 + 21 = (111010)2

(0.625)10 = 0.5 + 0.125 = 2-1 + 2-3 = (0.101)2

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

We observe that multiplying a number x by 2n is equivalent to

shifting left the binary representation of x by n positions, with zeroes
appended on the right. For example, the value (5)10 is represented as
(101)2, and (40)10 (which is 5  23) is (101000)2. Similarly, dividing a
number x by 2n is equivalent to shifting right its binary representation
by n positions. This may help in quicker conversion.

The second method deals with the integral portion and the fractional
portion separately, as follows:

 Integral part: Repeated division-by-two

 Fractional part: Repeated multiplication-by-two

Repeated Division-by-Two

To convert a decimal integer to binary, we divide the number

successively by two until the quotient becomes zero. The remainders
form the answer, with the first remainder serving as the least significant
bit (LSB) and the last remainder the most significant bit (MSB). The
example below shows how (43)10 is converted into its binary equivalent.

2 43 Rem

21 1  LSB

10 1

5 0

2 1

1 0
(43)10 = (101011)2
0 1  MSB

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

Repeated Multiplication-by-Two

To convert a decimal fraction to binary, we multiply the number

successively by two, removing the carry in each step, until the
fractional product is zero or until the desired number of bits is collected.
The carries form the answer, with the first carry serving as the MSB and
the last as the LSB. The example below shows how (0.3125)10 is
converted into its binary equivalent.

Carry

0.3125  2 = 0.625 0  MSB

0.625  2 = 1.25 1

0.25  2 = 0.5 0

0.5  2 = 1.0 1  LSB

(0.3125)10 = (0.0101)2

3.5 Conversion Between Bases

Decimal to Base-R Conversion

We may extend the repeated-division and repeated-multiplication

techniques to convert a decimal value into its equivalent in base R:

 Integral part: Repeated division-by-R

 Fractional part: Repeated multiplication-by-R

Conversion between Binary and Octal/Hexadecimal

There exist simple techniques for conversion between binary

numbers and octal (or hexadecimal) numbers. They are given below.

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 Binary → Octal: Partition (from the radix point outwards) in

groups of 3; each group of 3 bits corresponds to an equivalent
octal digit.

 Octal → Binary: Expand each octal digit into an equivalent group

of 3 bits.

 Binary → Hexadecimal: Partition (from the radix point

outwards) in groups of 4; each group of 4 bits corresponds to an
equivalent hexadecimal digit.

 Hexadecimal → Binary: Expand each hexadecimal digit into an

equivalent group of 4 bits.

Examples: Conversion between binary and octal/hexadecimal.

(10 111 011 001 . 101 11)2 = (2731.56)8

(2731.56)8 = (010 111 011 001 . 101 110)2

(101 1101 1001 . 1011 1)2 = (5D9.B8)16

(5D9.B8)16 = (0101 1101 1001 . 1011 1000)2

Octal and hexadecimal notations are commonly encountered in

computing literature as they provide more compact writing compared
to binary notation, and they can be easily converted into binary form.

3.6 Arithmetic Operations on Binary Numbers

Arithmetic operations on binary numbers are similar to those on

decimal. The example below shows the multiplication of two binary

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numbers. The multiplicand (11001) is multiplied with every bit of the

multiplier (10101), and the partial products are then added, as shown
below.

1 1 0 0 1

 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 0 1

+ 1 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

Binary addition is performed in the same manner as in decimal. The

examples below compare addition in the two systems.

Binary: Decimal:

1 1 0 1 1 6 4 8

+ 1 0 0 1 1 + 5 9 7

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 4 5

The addition is performed column by column, from right to left. At

each column three bits are added: one bit from each of the two numbers,
and a carry-in bit. The column addition generates the sum bit, and a
carry-out bit that is propagated to the next column to its left as the carry-
in. Table 3-3 shows the eight possible outcomes of a column addition.

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Table 3-3 Bit addition table

0 + 0 + 0 = 0 0
0 + 0 + 1 = 0 1
0 + 1 + 0 = 0 1
0 + 1 + 1 = 1 0
1 + 0 + 0 = 0 1
1 + 0 + 1 = 1 0
1 + 1 + 0 = 1 0
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 1

Carry-in Sum
Carry-out

Subtraction is performed in a similar fashion.

Binary: Decimal:

1 0 0 1 0 8 2 3

– 0 1 1 0 1 – 3 9 7

0 0 1 0 1 4 2 6

Like addition, the subtraction is performed column by column.

However, unlike traditional method where we might progressively
‘borrow’ from a few columns before returning to the column we are
currently working on, we adopt the ‘borrow-in’ and ‘borrow-out’ concept
that allows the information to be propagated one column at a time. Table
3-4 shows the eight possible outcomes of a column subtraction. A column
subtraction generates a difference bit and a borrow-out bit that becomes
the borrow-in of the next column to its left.

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Table 3-4 Bit subtraction table

0 0 – 0 = 0 0

0 0 – 1 = 1 1

0 1 – 0 = 0 1

0 1 – 1 = 0 0

1 0 – 0 = 1 1

1 0 – 1 = 1 0

1 1 – 0 = 0 0

1 1 – 1 = 1 1

Difference
Borrow-in
Borrow-out

3.7 Negative Numbers

Till now, we have only considered unsigned numbers, which are

non-negative values. We shall now consider a few schemes to represent
signed integers (positive and negative values). The four common
representations for signed binary numbers are:

 Sign-and-magnitude

 Excess

 1’s complement

 2’s complement

(i) Sign-and-Magnitude

The sign-and-magnitude representation employs a prefix bit to

indicate the sign of the number, followed by the magnitude field. A

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positive value has a sign bit of 0 while a negative value a sign bit of 1.
Figure 3-3 shows how the value –75 is represented in an 8-bit sign-and-
magnitude scheme. We may write the value as (11001011)sm.

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

Figure 3-3 An 8-bit Sign-and-Magnitude representation of –75.

An 8-bit sign-and-magnitude representation allows values between –

127 (represented as (11111111)sm) and +127 (represented as
(01111111)sm) to be represented. There are two representations for zero:
(00000000)sm and (10000000)sm. In general, an n-bit sign-and-
magnitude representation can cover this range of values [–(2n–1 – 1), 2n–
1
– 1]. To negate a value, we invert the sign bit.

(ii) Excess

The excess system (also known as biased system) is another popular

system in use for negative numbers. To represent a value, a fixed bias
is added to this value, and the binary representation of the result is the
desired representation. For example, assuming a 5-bit excess system, if
the bias chosen is 16, then it is called the excess-16 system. In the
excess-16 system, the value –16 is represented as (00000)ex16 (since –16
+ 16 = 0), and the value 3 would be represented as (10011)ex16 (since 3
+ 16 = 19).Since the excess system is just a simple translation of the
binary system, (00000)ex16 would represent the most negative value
(which is –16), and (11111)ex16 would represent the largest positive
value (which is 15).

The bias is usually chosen so that the range of values represented has
a balanced number of positive and negative values. Hence we pick 16

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as the bias for a 5-bit excess system, resulting in the range of [–16, 15].
(Sometimes we pick 15 as the bias, which results in the range [–15, 16].)
For a 4-bit system, a reasonable bias would be 8 (or sometimes 7). In
general, for n bits, the bias is usually 2n-1. Table 3-5 shows the 4-bit
excess-8 system.

Table 3-5 The 4-bit Excess-8 system

Value Excess-8 Value Excess-8

–8 0000 0 1000

–7 0001 1 1001

–6 0010 2 1010

–5 0011 3 1011

–4 0100 4 1100

–3 0101 5 1101

–2 0110 6 1110

–1 0111 7 1111

(iii) 1’s Complement

For positive values, the ones’ complement representation is identical

to the binary representation. For instance, the value 75 is represented as
(01001011)2 in an 8-bit binary system, as well as (01001011)1s in an 8-
bit 1’s complement system. What about negative values? Given a
number X which can be expressed as an n-bit binary number, its negated
value, –X, can be obtained in 1’s complement form by this formula:

–X = 2n – X – 1

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For example, 75 is represented as (01001011)2 in an 8-bit binary

system, and hence –75 is represented as (10110100)1s in the 8-bit 1’s
complement system. (Note that 28 – 75 – 1 = 180 whose binary form is
10110100.)

We observe that we can easily derive –X from X in 1’s complement

by inverting all the bits in the binary representation of X. Note also that
the first bit serves very much like a sign bit, indicating that the value is
positive (negative) if the first bit is 0 (1). However, the remaining bits
do not constitute the magnitude of the number, particularly for negative
numbers.

An 8-bit 1’s complement representation allows values between –

127 (represented as (10000000)1s) and +127 (represented as
(01111111)1s) to be represented. There are two representations for zero:
(00000000)1s and (11111111)1s. In general, an n-bit 1’s complement
representation has a range [–(2n–1 – 1), 2n–1 – 1].

To negate a value, we invert all the bits. For example, in an 8-bit 1’s
complement scheme, the value 14 is represented as (00001110)1s,
therefore –14 is represented as (11110001)1s.

(iv) 2’s Complement

The two’s complement system shares some similarities with the

ones’ complement system. For positive values, it is the same as the
binary representation. The first bit also indicates the sign of the value
(0 for positive, 1 for negative).

Given a number X which can be expressed as an n-bit binary

number, its negated value, –X, can be obtained in 2’s complement form
by this formula:

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–X = 2n – X

For example, 75 is represented as (01001011)2 in an 8-bit binary

system, and hence –75 is represented as(10110101)2s in the 8-bit 2’s
complement system. (Note that 28 – 75 = 181 whose binary form is
10110101.)

Again, we observe that we can easily derive –X from X in 2’s

complement by inverting all the bits in the binary representation of X,
and then adding one to it.

An 8-bit 2’s complement representation allows values between –

128 (represented as (10000000)2s) and +127 (represented as
(01111111)2s) to be represented, and hence it has a range that is one
larger than that of the 1’s complement representation. This is due to the
fact that there is only one unique representation for zero: (00000000)2s.
In general, an n-bit 2’s complement representation has a range [–2n–1,
2n–1 – 1].

To negate a value, we invert all the bits and plus 1. For example, in
an 8-bit 2’s complement scheme, the value 14 is represented as
(00001110)2s, therefore –14 is represented as (11110010)2s.

Comparisons of Sign-and-Magnitude and Complements

Table 3-6 compares the sign-and-magnitude, 1’s complement and 2’s

complement schemes of a 4-bit signed number system.

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Table 3-6 Sign-and-Magnitude, 1’s complement and 2’s complement

Sign-and- 1’s 2’s Sign-and- 1’s 2’s

Value Value
Magnitude Comp. Comp. Magnitude Comp. Comp.

+7 0111 0111 0111 –0 1000 1111 -

+6 0110 0110 0110 –1 1001 1110 1111
+5 0101 0101 0101 –2 1010 1101 1110
+4 0100 0100 0100 –3 1011 1100 1101
+3 0011 0011 0011 –4 1100 1011 1100
+2 0010 0010 0010 –5 1101 1010 1011
+1 0001 0001 0001 –6 1110 1001 1010
+0 0000 0000 0000 –7 1111 1000 1001
–8 - - 1000

3.8 Codes
Our preceding discussion has been on the various representations
for numeric values with the objective of easing arithmetic operations.
However, we recognize that we are too accustomed to the decimal
number system, whereas the ‘natural’ choice for computer
representation is the binary number system, and the conversion between
the two systems can be costly.

If arithmetic computations are not our concern, we may devise some

coding schemes to represent decimal numbers. These schemes support
quick conversion between the code and the value it represents, with the
objective for data communications.

We shall discuss a few popular coding schemes such as BCD,

Excess-3, 84-2-1, 2421, and the Biquinary codes. These codes are used
to represent the ten decimal digits.

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(i) BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)

The BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) represents each decimal digit

using a 4-bit code with weights 8, 4, 2 and 1. Hence it is also known as
the 8421 code.

For example, the decimal number 294 would be represented as

0010 1001 0100 in BCD, with a 4-bit BCD code for each decimal digit
in the number. (For negative values, the negative sign ‘–’ is to be coded
separately and is not within the scope of BCD coding).

Some codes are unused: 1010, 1011, …, 1111. These codes are
considered as errors. The BCD code offers the advantage of ease of
conversion to its decimal equivalent. Performing arithmetic operations
on BCD codes however, are more complicated and best avoided. BCD
codes are useful for interfaces such as keypad inputs.

(ii) Excess-3 Code

The Excess-3 code uses a bias value of three. Hence the codes for
the ten digits 0, 1, …, 9 are 0011, 0100, …, 1100 respectively. The
decimal number 294 would be represented as 0101 1100 0111.

(iii) 84-2-1 Code

The 84-2-1 code uses the weights of 8, 4, -2 and -1 in the coding.

The decimal number 294 would be represented as 0110 1111 0100.

(iv) 2421 Code

The 2421 code uses the weights of 2, 4, 2 and 1 in the coding.

According to the weights, certain digits may have alternative codes. For
instance, the digit 3 could be represented as 0011 or 1001. However, we
pick the former in the standard 2421 coding, so that the codes for the

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first five digits 0 – 4 begin with 0, whereas the codes for the last five
digits 5 – 9 begin with 1. The decimal number 294 would be represented
as 0010 1111 0100.

(v) Biquinary Code

The Biquinary code (bi=two, quinary=five) uses seven bits. The

first two bits are either 01 (for representations of the first five digits) or
10 (for representations of the last five digits), and the following five bits
consist of a single 1. The Biquinary code has error-detecting capability.
As an example, the decimal number 294 is represented as 0100100
1010000 0110000. Note that this code has wights (5043210),
respectively.

Comparison of Decimal Codes

Table 3-7 compares the common decimal codes. Note that the
codes for the first five digits all begin with 0, while the codes for the
last five digits begin with 1. Other codes exist, such as the 5211 code.

Table 3-7 BCD, Excess-3, 84-2-1, 2421 and Biquinary Codes

Decimal BCD Biquinary

Excess-3 84-2-1 2421
digit 8421 5043210
0 0000 0011 0000 0000 0100001
1 0001 0100 0111 0001 0100010
2 0010 0101 0110 0010 0100100
3 0011 0110 0101 0011 0101000
4 0100 0111 0100 0100 0110000
5 0101 1000 1011 1011 1000001
6 0110 1001 1010 1100 1000010
7 0111 1010 1001 1101 1000100

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8 1000 1011 1000 1110 1001000

9 1001 1100 1111 1111 1010000

The following are some definitions:

 A weighted code is one where each bit position has an associated

weight. The BCD, 84-2-1, 2421 and Biquinary codes are all
weighted codes.

 A self-complementing (or reflective) code is one in which the codes

for complementary digits are also complementary to each other.
For instance, the Excess-3 code for digit 2 is 0101, while the code
for digit 7 (the complement of 2) is 1010 (the complement of
0101). The Excess-3, 84-2-1 and 2421 codes are self-
complementing.

 A sequential code is one in which each succeeding code value is

one binary value greater than its preceding code value. The BCD
and Excess-3 codes are sequential.

(vi) ASCII Code

Apart from numerical values, computing devices also handle

textual data comprising characters. The character set includes letters in
the alphabet (‘A’ … ‘Z’, ‘a’ … ‘z’), digits (‘0’ … ‘9’), special symbols
(‘+’, ‘$’, ‘.’, ‘;’, ‘@’, ‘*’, etc.) and non-printable characters (control-A,
backspace, control-G, etc.).

The ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange) character set is a commonly used standardized code that
uses 7 bits, plus a parity bit for error detection. Table 3-8 shows the
ASCII character set. Each character has a unique ASCII value. The

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ASCII value of character ‘A’, for example, is (1000001)2 or (65)10.

Table 3-8 The ASCII Character Set

MSBs

LSBs 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 O RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL

3.9 Gray Code

We shall conclude this chapter with a special code – the Gray

code. The Gray code is neither a decimal code, nor is it an arithmetic
code created for the purpose of computation.

The essential feature of a Gray code is that there is only a single bit
change from one code value to the next. The sequence is circular. This
feature makes the Gray code suitable for error detection applications.

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With the above feature in mind, the following two sequences are
examples of 2-bit Gray codes:

Sequence #1: 00 → 01 → 11 → 10 → (back to 00)

Sequence #2: 00 → 10 → 11 → 01 → (back to 00)

Other sequences can be derived from the above two sequences, by

choosing one of the code values as the first code value in the cyclic
sequence. Among all the valid Gray code sequences, we adopt the first
sequence above as the standard 2-bit Gray code sequence. Table 3-9
shows the standard 4-bit Gray code sequence. The binary sequence is
shown alongside the Gray code sequence for comparison.

Table 3-9 The Standard 4-bit Gray Code

Decimal Binary Gray code Decimal Binary Gray code

0 0000 0000 8 1000 1100
1 0001 0001 9 1001 1101
2 0010 0011 10 1010 1111
3 0011 0010 11 1011 1110
4 0100 0110 12 1100 1010
5 0101 0111 13 1101 1011
6 0110 0101 14 1110 1001
7 0111 0100 15 1111 1000

 Binary-to-Gray Conversion

The algorithm to convert a binary value to its corresponding

standard Gray code value is as follows:

1. Retain the MSB.

2. From left to right, add each adjacent pair of binary code bits to

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get the next Gray code bit, discarding the carry.

The following example shows the conversion of binary number

(11101)2 to its corresponding standard Gray code value, (10011)Gray.

 Gray-to-Binary Conversion

The algorithm to convert a standard Gray code value to its

corresponding binary value is as follows:

1. Retain the MSB.

2. From left to right, add each binary code bit generated to the Gray
code bit in the next position, discarding the carry.

The following example shows the conversion of the standard Gray

code value (10011)Gray to its corresponding binary value, (11101)2.

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Quick Review Questions:

3-1. Convert the binary number 1011011 to its decimal equivalent.

a. 5 b. 63 c. 91

d. 92 e. 139

3-2. What is the weight of the digit ‘3’ in the base-7 number 12345?

a. 3 b. 7 c. 14

d. 21 e. 49

3-3. Which of the following has the largest value?

a. (110)10 b. (10011011)2 c. (1111)5

d. (9A)16 e. (222)8

3-4. If (321)4 = (57)10, what is the decimal equivalent of

(321000000)4?

a. 57  104 b. 57  106 c. 57  44

d. 57  46 e. 574

3-5. Convert each of the following decimal numbers to binary (base

two) with at most eight digits in the fractional part, rounded to
eight places.

a. 2000 b. 0.875 c. 0.07 d. 12.345

3-6. Convert each of the decimal numbers in Question 3-5 above to

septimal (base seven) with at most six digits in the fractional part,
rounded to six places.

3-7. Convert each of the decimal numbers in Question 3-5 above to

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octal (base eight) with at most four digits in the fractional part,
rounded to four places.

3-8. Convert each of the decimal numbers in Question 3-5 above to

hexadecimal (base sixteen) with at most two digits in the
fractional part, rounded to two places.

3-9. Which of the following octal values is equivalent to the binary

number (110001)2?

a. (15)8 b. (31)8 c. (33)8

d. (49)8 e. (61)8

3-10. Convert the binary number (1001101)2 to

a. quaternary b. octal c. decimal d. hexadecimal

3-11. What is (1011)2 × (101)2?

a. (10000)2 b. (110111)2 c. (111111)2

d. (111011)2 e. (101101)2

3-12. Perform the following operations on binary numbers.

a. (10111110)2 + (10001101)2

b. (11010010)2 – (01101101)2

c. (11100101)2 – (00101110)2

3-13. In a 6-bit 2’s complement binary number system, what is the

decimal value represented by (100100)2s?

a. –4 b. 36 c. –36

d. –27 e. –28

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

3-14. In a 6-bit 1’s complement binary number system, what is the

decimal value represented by (010100)1s?

a. –11 b. 43 c. –43

d. 20 e. –20

3-15. What is the range of values that can be represented in a 5-bit 2’s
complement binary system?

a. 0 to 31 b. –8 to 7 c. –8 to 8

d. –15 to 15 e. –16 to 15

3-16. In a 4-bit 2’s complement scheme, what is the result of this

operation: (1011)2s + (1001)2s?

a. 4 b. 5 c. 20

d. –12 e. overflow

3-17. Assuming a 6-bit 2’s complement system, perform the following

subtraction operations by converting it into addition operations:

a. (011010)2s – (010000)2s

b. (011010)2s – (001101)2s

c. (000011)2s – (010000)2s

3-18. Assuming a 6-bit 1’s complement system, perform the following

subtraction operations by converting it into addition operations:

a. (011111)1s – (010101)1s

b. (001010)1s – (101101)1s

c. (100000)1s – (010011)1s

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3-19. Which of the following values cannot be represented accurately

in the 8-bit sign-and-magnitude fixed-point number format
shown in Figure 2.4?

a. 4 b.–29.5 c. 20.2

d. –3.75 e. 12.25

3-20. What does 1 110 1001 represent in this floating-point number

scheme: 1-bit sign, 3-bit normalized mantissa, followed by 4-bit
2’s complement exponent?

a. 0.125 × 29 b.–0.125 × 29 c.–0.75 × 2-1

d.–0.75 × 2-6 e.–0.75 × 2-7

3-21. How to represent (246)10 in the following system/code?

a. 10-bit binary b. BCD c. Excess-3

d. 2421 code e. 84-2-1 code

3-22. The decimal number 573 is represented as 1111 0110 1011 in an

unknown self-complementing code. Find the code for the
decimal number 642.

3-23. Convert (101011)2 to its corresponding Gray code value.

a. (101011)Gray b. (010100)Gray c. (110010)Gray

d. (111110)Gray e. (43)Gray

3-24. Convert (101011)Gray to its corresponding binary value.

a. (101011)2 b. (010100)2 c. (110010)2

d. (111110)2 e. (010101)2

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Answers to Quick Review Questions:

3-1. (c) 3-2. (e) 3-3. (c) 3-4. (d)

3-5. (a) (2000)10 = (11111010000)2

(b) (0.875)10 = (0.111)2

(c) (0.07)10 = (0.00010010)2

(d) (12.345)10 = (1100.01011000)2

3-6. (a) (2000)10 = (5555)7

(b) (0.875)10 = (0.606061)7

(c) (0.07)10 = (0.033003)7 or (0.033004)7

(d) (12.345)10 = (15.226223)7

3-7. (a) (2000)10 = (3720)8 (b) (0.875)10 = (0.7)8

(c) (0.07)10 = (0.0437)8 (d) (12.345)10 = (14.2605)8

3-8. (a) (2000)10 = (7D0)16 (b) (0.875)10 = (0.E)16

(c) (0.07)10 = (0.12)16 (d) (12.345)10 = (C.58)16

3-9. (e)

3-10. (a) (1031)4 (b) (115)8 (c) (77)10 (d) (4D)16

3-11. (b)

3-12. (a) (101001011)2 (b) (01100101)2 (c) (10110111)2

3-13. (e)

3-14. (d)

3-15. (e)

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3-16. (e)

3-17. (a) (001010)2s = (10)10 (b) (001101)2s = (13)10

(c) (110011)2s = –(13)10

3-18. (a) (001010)1s = (10)10 (b) (011100)1s = (28)10

(c) overflow

3-19. (c)

3-20. (e)

3-21. (a) (0011110110)2 (b) (0010 0100 0110)BCD

(c) (0101 0111 1001)Excess-3 (d) (0010 0100 1100)2421

(e) (0110 0100 1010)84-2-1

3-22. 642 = 0100 0000 1001

3-23. (d)

3-24 .(c)

Exercises:
3-25. Perform the following number system conversions:

(a) 11010112 = ?16 (d) 10100.11012 = ?10 (g) 12510 = ?2

(b) 67.248 = ?2 (e) 71568 = ?10 (h) 143510 = ?8

(c) DEAD.BEEF16 = ?8 (f) 15C.3816 = ?10

3-29. Add the following pairs of unsigned binary numbers (unsigned

numbers are non-negative values), showing all carries:

(a) 110101 (b) 1110010

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+ 11001 + 1101101

3-31. Write the 8-bit sign-and-magnitude, 1’s-complement, and 2’s-

complement representations for each of these decimal numbers:

+18, +115, +79, –49, –3, –100.

3-33. Convert the following binary numbers into standard Gray codes:

(a) 010112 (b) 1011012 (c) 101011112

3-34. Convert the following Gray codes in to binary numbers:

(a) 01011Gray (b) 101101Gray (c) 10101111Gray

3-35. Represent the decimal 4831 in the following coding schemes:

(a) BCD code

(b) Excess-3 code

(c) 2421 code

(d) 84-2-1 code

(e) ASCII (ASCII code for character ‘0’ is 4810, or 01100002.)

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 CHAPTER FOUR
COMPUTER NETWORKING
4.1 Introduction
Communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a
receiver. It refers to the means and methods whereby data is transferred
between processing locations through the use of communication systems.
Communication systems are defined as systems for creating, delivering and
receiving electronic messages. The communication system comprises of
the following

• A device to send the message

• The channel or communication media

• A device to receive the message

An information system is a system that comprises people, machines

and methods by which data is collected, processed, transferred and
distributed. The system may be manual or automatic. This study unit will
focus on the automatic system. An accounting information system
measures business activities (data), processes the data and communicates
usable information to decision makers.

4.2 What is a Network?

Before the evolution of networks, organizations made use of stand-
alone computer systems. Computers would be found in strategic places in
the organization but were not linked to each other. Stand-alone computers
are now used mainly by sole proprietors and for personal use.

Computer networks are now more accessible to organizations and

individuals on a large scale. Terminals are linked to a mainframe and this
gives users access to a central processing function. These terminals can be
linked via internal or external communication channels.

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 COMPUTER NETWORKING

A network consists of two or more computers linked together in order

to share resources, such as printers and CD-ROMs, exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. There are different configurations that can be
used to ensure connectivity. Configuration refers to the way that hardware
devices are connected to each other.

The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone

lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams. Fig 1 gives an
example of a network in an organization comprising a local area network
or LAN connecting computers with each other, the Internet, and various
servers.

Fig. 1 An example of a network

4.3 Why Network Computers?

The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources.
Computers networks allow people to share information, software, and
any resources, including hardware, more efficiently. For example:

 You can play a CD music from one computer while sitting on

another computer

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 You may have a computer with a CD writer or a backup system

but the other computer doesn’t have it; In this case, you can burn
CDs or make backups on a computer that has one of these but
using data from a computer that doesn’t have a CD writer or a
backup system

 You may have a computer that doesn’t have a DVD player. In this
case, you can place a movie DVD on the computer that has a
DVD player, and then view the movie on a computer that lacks a
DVD player

 You can connect a printer (or a scanner, or a fax machine) to one

computer and let other computers of the network print (or scan,
or fax) to that printer (or scanner, or fax machine)

 You can place a CD with pictures on one computer and let other
computers access those pictures

 You can create files and store them in one computer, then access
those files from the other computer(s) connected to it

Types of Computer Network

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on

their size:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network

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The Local Area Network (LAN) enables

multiple users in a relatively small geographical
area to exchange files and messages, as well as
access-shared resources such as file servers.
Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart.
It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school,
or building.

In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file

server. It stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the
software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network.
Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The
workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may have
additional software on their hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to
connect the network interface cards in each computer.

2. Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is usually the

interconnection between various LANs in a particular geographical area
like a metropolitan city like Sohag (see the figure below).

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3. Wide Area Network

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is

an interconnection of various LANs
through telephone network to unit
geographically distributed users.
Dedicated transoceanic cabling or
satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network.

Using a WAN, anybody in Egypt for example can communicate

with countries like Japan in a matter of minutes, without paying
enormous phone bills. For example when we log on to the Internet, we
become a part of a WAN. A WAN uses special communication tools
such as multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to
global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however,
a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.

4.4 Computer Networks configurations

Basically, there are two types of network configuration: peer-to-
peer networks and client/server networks. A network is referred to as
peer-to-peer if most computers are similar. Peer-to-peer networks are
more commonly implemented where less than 10 computers are
involved and where strict security is not necessary. All computers have
the same status, hence the term 'peer', and they communicate with each
other on an equal footing.

Files, such as word processing or spreadsheet documents, can be

shared across the network and all computers on the network can share
devices, such as printers or scanners, which are connected to any one

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computer. Other computers can access these resources but a computer

that has a particular resource must be turned on for other computers to
access the resource it has. For example, if a printer is connected to
computer A and computer B wants to print to that printer, computer A
must be turned on.

A computer network is referred to as client/server if (at least) one of

the computers is used to "serve" other computers referred to as
"clients". Besides the computers, other types of devices can be part of
the network. Client/server networks are more suitable for larger
networks. A central computer, or 'server', acts as the storage location
for files and applications shared on the network.

Usually the server is a higher than average performance computer.

The server also controls the network access of the other computers
which are referred to as the 'client' computers. Typically, teachers and
students in a school will use the client computers for their work and
only the network administrator (usually a designated staff member) will
have access rights to the server.

In a client/server environment, each computer still holds (or can still

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hold) its (or some) resources and files. Other computers can also access
the resources stored in a computer, as in a peer-to-peer scenario. One of
the particularities of a client/server network is that the files and
resources are centralized. This means that a computer, the server, can
hold them and other computers can access them. Since the server is
always On, the client machines can access the files and resources
without caring whether a certain computer is On.

Another big advantage of a client/server network is that security is

created, managed, and can highly get enforced. To access the network,
a person, called a user must provide some credentials, including a
username and a password. If the credentials are not valid, the user can
be prevented from accessing the network.

The client/server type of network also provides many other

advantages such as centralized backup, Intranet capability, Internet
monitoring, etc. Table 1 provides a summary comparison between Peer-
to-Peer and Client/Server Networks.

Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks

Easy to set up More difficult to set up
Less expensive to install More expensive to install
Can be implemented on a wide range of A variety of operating systems can be
operating systems supported on the client computers, but
the server needs to run an operating
system that supports networking
More time consuming to maintain the Less time consuming to maintain the
software being used (as computers must software being used (as most of the
be managed individually) maintenance is managed from the
server)

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Very low levels of security are High levels of security are supported,
supported or none at all. These can be all of which are controlled from the
very cumbersome to set up, depending server. Such measures prevent the
on the operating system being used deletion of essential system files or the
changing of settings
Ideal for networks with less than 10 No limit to the number of computers
computers that can be supported by the network
Does not require a server Requires a server running a server
operating system

Demands a moderate level of skill to Demands that the network

administer the network administrator has a high level of IT
skills with a good working knowledge
of a server operating system

Table 1: Peer-to-Peer Networks vs. Client/Server Networks

4.5 Components of a Network

In order to set up a computer network, relevant network hardware
and software are required.

Network hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface

cards and other equipment needed to perform data processing and
communications within the network. This section provides some
information on the following hardware components:

 File Servers

 Workstations

 Network Interface Cards

 Hubs/Concentrators

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 Switches

 Repeaters

 Bridges

 Routers

1. File Server

A File server is a high capacity computer that provides various

resources to the network. It is the heart of a network and must have the
following characteristics:

 It is a quite fast computer with a large amount of RAM and storage

space, a fast network interface card, and a tape back-up device

 It needs a network operating system such as Novell Netware,

Windows NT server, or Apple Share.

 It is able to control the communication of information between the

nodes on a network.

2. Workstations

A computer in a network is called a workstation or client. This

computer needs a network interface card to enable it to be connected to
the network backbone. It does not necessarily need floppy disk drives
or hard disks since files can be saved on the file server.

When you are planning to use a computer as a workstation as a

network, you should make sure that computer meets the necessary
requirements. In some cases, it may only meet the hardware
requirements without any software. In some cases, something could be
missing. If you decide to purchase brand new computers, as a reminder

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of what we reviewed in chapter one, here are the hardware requirements

the computer must meet:

 A processor with 2 gigahertz or higher processor clock speed

recommended; 1.6 GHz minimum required (single or dual
processor system); Intel Pentium/Celeron family, or AMD
K6/Athlon/Duron family, or compatible processor
recommended

 2 gigabytes (GB) of RAM or higher recommended (8 GB

minimum supported; may limit performance and some features)

 50 gigabytes (GB) of available hard disk space

 Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher-resolution video adapter and

monitor

 CD-ROM or DVD drive

 Keyboard

 Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

3. Network Interface Cards (NICs)

A network interface card (NIC) which is pronounced 'nick', is also

known as a network card. It connects the computer to the cabling, which
in turn links all of the computers on the network together. Each
computer on a network must have a network card. The three common
network interface connections are Ethernet cards, LocalTalk
connectors, Token Ring cards. Most modern network cards are 10/100
NICs and can operate at either 10Mbps or 100Mbps Only NICs
supporting a minimum of 100Mbps should be used in new installations

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schools. Most of these are internal, with the card fitting into an
expansion slot inside the computer and some build on the motherboard.

Fig 2. Network Interface Cards (NICs)

We mentioned that a network card could also be

used or installed externally. This can be done using
USB. Here is another example on the right.

4. Hubs/Concentrators

A hub is a device used to connect multiple devices, including PC,

printers, and scanners, to the network. It serves as a central meeting
place for cables from computers, servers and peripherals. To make this
possible, a hub is equipped with small holes called ports. They usually
have 4, 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports. The entire network shuts down if there
is a problem on a hub. Here is an example of commonly used hubs.

Fig 3. An 8- port Hub

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When configuring a hub, you connect an RJ-45 cable from the

network card of a computer to one port of the hub.

The function of a hub is to direct information around the network,

facilitating communication between all connected devices. However in
new installations switches should be used instead of hubs as they are
more effective and provide better performance.

5. Switches

Switches are the more recent technology and the accepted way of
building today's networks. They are essentially high-speed multi-port
bridges which are more efficient than with any other type of hub.

Fig 4. An example of 24 port Switch

With switching, each connection gets "dedicated bandwidth" and

can operate at full speed. As a result, a switch is often termed a 'smart
hub'. In contrast, a hub shares bandwidth across multiple connections
such that activity from one PC or server can slow down the effective
speed of other connections on the hub.

6. Repeaters

A repeater is a device that regenerates and amplifies

signals to create long-distance networks, as shown below.
They simply receive, amplify and rebroadcast the signals.

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They are used to overcome distance limitations. Repeaters can be separate

devices or they can be incorporated into a concentrator.

7. Bridges

A bridge is a device that links two homogenous packet-broadcast

local networks. A bridge is used to connect two or more networks using
the same address method or protocol. It is often used when LANs reach
their capacity of nodes. It accepts all packets from each network
addressed to devices on the other, buffers them, and retransmits them to
the other network. It also monitors and manages the traffic to maintain
optimum performance on both sides of the network.

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8. Routers

Like a hub, a router is another type of device

that acts as the central point among computers and
other devices that are part of a network. Here is an
example of a wired router on the right.

Routers are similar to bridges in that they link two or more

physically separate network segments, as show in the figure below. The
network segments linked by a router, however, remain logically
separate and can function as independent networks.

A router functions a little differently than a hub. In fact, a router

can be considered a little "intelligent" than the hub. Like a hub, the
computers and other devices are connected to a router using network
cables. To make this possible, a router is equipped with holes, called
ports, in the back.

Network Operating System

A network operating system is a supervisory software program

that resides on the server. It controls how the network operates by
defining who can use the network and how information and peripherals

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are shared among users. The most commonly used network operating
systems are from the Microsoft windows family, which include
Windows NT, Windows 2000 Server. Novel Netware, UNIX, LYNX
and others are not common in many institutions.

4.6 Network Media (Network Cables)

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves
from one network device to another. There are several types of cables
which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will
utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable
types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's
topology, protocol, and size. You need to understand the characteristics
of different types of cables and how they relate to other aspects of a
network in order for you to develop a successful network. In this
section, we discuss the following types of cables used in networks:

 Twisted Pair Cable

 Coaxial Cable

 Fiber Optic Cable

 Wireless LANs

The two most popular types of structured network cabling are twisted-
pair (also known as 10BaseT) and thin coax (also known as 10Base2).

1. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and

unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is
generally the best option for school networks (See the figure below).

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This cable looks like ordinary telephone wire, except that it has 8
wires inside instead of 4.

It consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular

spiral pattern to minimize the electromagnetic interference between
adjacent pairs. It is a low frequency transmission medium. This cable is
the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks,
because of its low cost and easy installation. It is also ideal for short
distance, usually less than 100 meters.

10BaseT cabling is available in different grades or categories.

Some grades, or "cats", are required for Fast Ethernet networks, while
others are perfectly acceptable for standard 10Mbps networks--and less
expensive, too. All new networks use a minimum of standard
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) Category 5e 10BaseT cabling because it
offers a performance advantage over lower grades. The
standard connector for UPT cable is an RJ-45 connector,
which looks like a large telephone modular connector.

2. Coaxial (Coax) Cable

Thin coax looks like the copper coaxial cabling that is often used
to connect a Video Recorder to a TV.

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It has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh. Both

conductors share a common center axial, hence the term "co-axial". It
can support a size of bandwidth of up to 400 MHz and can be used for
distances between 300 and 600 meters. Its major advantage is that it is
highly resistant to signal interference. Its major disadvantage is that it
is quite bulky and sometimes difficult to install.

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the
BNC (Bayone-Neill-Concelman) connector that is shown in the figure
below.

There are two types of coaxial cable namely thin coaxial which is
also referred to as thinnet and thick coaxial which is also referred to as
thicknet. The 10Base2 is the IEEE standard for Ethernet running on thin
coaxial cable.

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3. Fiber Optic

Fiber optics consists of a center glass core surrounded by several

layers of protective materials, see the figure below. Fiber optic’s major
advantage is that it is immune to environmental interference and has a
greater capacity (bandwidth of up to 2 Gbps).

It is used for distances up to 100 kilometers and carries information

at vastly greater speeds. It is also very small and lighter in weight than
other media. Its major limitation is that it is very expensive. It is
difficulty to install, hence requires highly skilled installers and
modifiers. Even with highly skilled personal adding additional nodes is
difficult.

4. Wireless

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are
wireless. The term 'wireless network' refers to two or more computers
communicating using standard network rules or protocols, but without the
use of cabling to connect the computers together. Wireless LANs use high
frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate
between the workstations and the file server or hubs.

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Fig 6: Home wireless LAN.

For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place

through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or by
satellite. A wireless local area network (WLAN) consists of two key
components: an access point (also called a base station) and a wireless
card. Information can be transmitted between these two components as
long as they are fairly close together (up to 100 meters indoors or 350
meters outdoors). Wireless LANs have several disadvantages. They
provide poor security, and are susceptible to interference from lights
and electronic devices. They are also slower than LANs using cabling.

1.7 Network Topologies

Networks have a physical and a logical topology. In this section,

the physical topology of a network is discussed. The physical topology
of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical

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topology which is the method used to pass information between

workstations.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The physical topologies that are commonly found in computer

networks are:

 Linear Bus

 Star

 Ring

 Daisy-Chain

1. Linear Bus (Trunkline)

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a
terminator at each end (as shown in the below figure). All nodes (file
server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

It is easy to connect a node to a linear bus and less expensive since

network structure requires less cable. Its major disadvantage is that the
entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable and it is
difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

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Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main
cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone
cable.
•
down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large
building.

2. Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network
hub or concentrator (as shown in the below figure). A separate cable
connects to each computer, and if one cable breaks, only a single computer
should be affected. The hub or concentrator manages and controls all
functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.

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Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator

before continuing to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages
and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for
the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;
however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing
devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost
of the concentrators.

3. Ring
In a ring network, each node connects to exactly two other nodes,
forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a
ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way
handling every packet

Token ring network was developed by IBM for IBM-compatible

computers. It employs a special coded message called a token that the
operating software passes in sequence to each computer on the network.
It has a bandwidth capacity of 4 or 16 Mbps using twisted pair cables.

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4. Daisy-Chain
The Daisy-Chain network is similar to a bus, except the electrical
signal is routed through each computer as it moves along the line. Thus,
it is not practical in multi-room network installations. It is mainly used
on the Macintosh network. Its major advantage is that it is easy to
install. The entire network shuts down if there is a problem on a node.
The Daisy-Chain network is very slow.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

INTERNET BASICS
5.1 What is the Internet?

The Internet stands for INTERnational NETwork. It is simply

millions of computers linked across the world by telecommunications –
telephone lines, cables, satellites, optic fibers, etc. This means that
countries with well-established communication systems are better able
to take advantage of the Internet.

The Internet was originally set up in the 1960s for use by the US
Department of Defense to decentralize its network of computers. In the
1980s, universities began using the system for transmitting data and
educational resources.

Since the development of the World Wide Web in 1991, the use of
the Internet has expanded rapidly. This has enabled the transfer of
photos, videos and sound, as well as text and made it much easier to
send information around the world.

5.2 Types of Information you can access

The Internet provides access to a wide variety of information

contributed by people throughout the world. On the Internet, a user can
access:

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 Documents, such as business plans, fact sheets, supplier

catalogues, legislation and statistics.

 Electronic books, journals and newspapers for news and current

awareness.

 Databases, such as Telephone directories, Census data and

commercial databases.

 Software and multimedia resources such as films and music.

 Social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace,

YouTube.

5.3 Moving through a Web page

 Use the scrollbar on the right sideof

the web page to move down or up
through the web page,

 Use the horizontal scrollbar on

the bottom on the page, to move from side-to-side, or

 You can use the vertical arrow keys, located on the

computer keyboard, to move down or up through the web
page.

Hyperlinks

On an Internet page, images, words or anything else can be set as

a link. Web links are also commonly known as hyperlinks. Hyperlinks
are underlined or bordered words and graphics that have web addresses
embedded in them. Hyperlinks are the basis of the Web’s versatility. By

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clicking a hyperlink, you jump to a particular page in a web site, or to a

different Web site altogether. By clicking on a hyperlink you are
“surfing the web”.

How do I know if I have found a hyperlink?

Kingston Library Service Kingston Library Service

non-hyperlink hyperlink

Any time you see the mouse pointer change to a pointing finger, it
signals a link (hyperlink) that you can follow by clicking on it. When
you click, the color of the link changes.

5.4 Internet Browsers

An Internet browser is a software program that you use to access the

Internet and view web pages on your computer. It converts HTML
(computer language) into text and graphics for you to view on the
screen. Some common internet browsers include: Internet Explorer,
Mozilla Firefox and Google Chrome.

Internet Explorer Mozilla Firefox Google chrome

Browsers allow you to move back and forwards between web pages,
store a list of your favorite sites, and refresh information on the screen.

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5.5 Internet Explorer Buttons

 BACK & FORWARD

These two buttons let you move between Web screens. The Back
button returns you to the previously displayed page, usually the most
recent page. Once you have moved back, the Forward button takes you
one page ahead. If you are looking at the most recently displayed page,
the Forward button will be inactive. An inactive button is grey.

 STOP

The STOP button stops the browser from loading the current
page. A great saver if you click when you didn’t mean to!

 REFRESH

All popular browsers have a button of this type. Some call it

Reload, some Refresh, but they all mean the same thing. Pressing the
Refresh or Reload button asks the Internet to send you the most up to

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date version of the screen at which you are currently looking.

It is also useful for looking at sites where information is frequently

updated, like the latest share prices or sporting results. Some sites may
indicate that they refresh automatically.

 HOME

After you surf around on the web, you may want to go back to the
site where you started. Click on Home. It will take you to the browser’s
preset home page. If you are using a computer in the library, “Library
Internet Policy Page” will be displayed when you click Home.

 FAVOURITES

Favorite is the name used by Internet Explorer for a place where

the Internet address of useful sites can be saved for later use.

To add a page to your collection of favourite pages:

1. Go to the Web page you want to add to your collection of favorite

pages.

2. On the Favorites menu, click Add to Favorites.

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3. Type a new name for the page if you want to.

4. To open one of your favorite pages, click the favorites menu on

the toolbar, and then click the page you want to open.

5. The same thing can be done by using the Favorites button which
is designated by a yellow star.

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 INTERNET BASICS

 TEXT SIZE

This allows you to change the size of the text on the screen. The
text size can be made larger or smaller by selecting View, then Text
Size and selecting the desired size from the six options.

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 INTERNET BASICS

 PRINT

Let’s make a paper copy of the current web page loaded in your
browser.

 PRINT PREVIEW

When you click on Print Preview, you will be shown how a web
page will look when you print a paper copy. It is a good idea to use this
before printing a web page.

5.6 Internet addresses (URLs)

An Internet address (sometimes called an URL or Uniform

Resource Locator or web address)

 Every resource available via the World Wide Web has a unique
address.
 When you are viewing a web page, the page's address appears in

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 INTERNET BASICS

the Address field in the browser.

http://www.heraldsun.com.au

Country code

World Wide Web Domain type

An Internet address typically starts with the “www” or “http”

followed by the name of the organization, a domain name: a suffix
which identifies the kind of organization it is. Some of the major domain
types that you will encounter are shown in the following Table.

Address Suffix: Organization type

.com / .co  commercial

.edu / .ac  colleges and universities

.net  network providers

.org  non-government organizations

.gov  government
.mil  military

The last part of a domain name contains a country code. For

example, Australia’s country code is au. A list of different country
domain extensions and their corresponding countries are shown below.

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 INTERNET BASICS

Code Country Code Country

us United States mx Mexico
ca Canada pl Poland
jp Japan pa Panama
de Germany ru Russia
nl Netherlands mx Mexico
it Italy ma Morocco
cz Czech Republic nz New Zealand
uk United Kingdom eg Egypt
cn China hk Hong Kong
fr France tr Turkey
sg Singapore ro Romania
il Israel id Indonesia
sa Saudi Arabia jo Jordan
lb Lebanon tn Tunisia
ae United Arab Emirates es Spain
ar Argentina gr Greece
au Australia in India
at Austria cl Chile

ENTERING A WEBSITE ADDRESS (URL)

To enter the website address (URL), the following steps are performed,

1) Click in the address bar.

2) Type the website address in. Addresses are not case sensitive.
Parts of the address are separated by full stop or slashes, with no
spaces. You do not have to type the text http:// - this appears
automatically. An address can be typed over by highlighting the

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text in the address bar.

3) Press the Enter button.

5.7 Communicating Using the Internet

The Internet offers a great alternative to conventional methods of

communication. It allows us to communicate quickly and easily with
friends and family from anywhere in the world. The most common and
widely used method of communication using the Internet is Email. E-
mail allows you to electronically send a letter directly to other people
and organizations. To use e-mail you will need the following:

(i) a web address for your service provider (e.g. www.hotmail.com)

(ii) your unique ID and password (you get this when you set up an
account your e-mail address to give to other people who wish to
communicate with you. Your e-mail address will look similar to:
[email protected]

Free web-based email services:

Name: Website address:

Hotmail www.hotmail.com

Google Mail www.gmail.com

Yahoo Mail www.mail.yahoo.com

Social networking sites – are websites that allow people to interact

with other users. These websites are a virtual community for people
interested in sharing information or just to "hang out" together. Two
popular sites are www.facebook.com and www.myspace.com.

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This year Kingston Library Service has launched its own social
network site Kingstonlibraries.net. Sign up to share your favorite
books, DVDs or music and to keep up to date about what's on at your
library.

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 INTERNET BASICS

Blogs – are websites that allow people to set up their own personal
pages or “blogs” on the site, which act like personal diaries. Blogs may
include descriptions of events and things along with materials such as
photos or video. A poplar blogging site is www.blogger.com.

5.8 Searching the Web

There are several ways of getting to a web page:

1. Typing in the exact address

2. Searching for the web site or information, usually on a Search
Engine, such as Google.
3. “Surfing” - clicking on hyperlinks and finding sites by chance.

Search Engines and Search Directories

Search Engines are computer programs (called robots or

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spiders) that constantly review information put on the Internet. There

are many search engines, but probably the best known is Google:
www.google.com.

Search Directories are selected lists of websites organized into broad

categories.

Yahoo Directory http://au.dir.yahoo.com/

Google Directory http://www.google.com/dirhp/

Basic Search

All Search Engines provide an area on the screen where you can
type in the word or words you wish to search for:

1. You send your request by typing in a word or group of words and

pressing Enter.
2. After a few seconds, the Search Engine will return from its search
and present you with a new screen known as the Results Screen.
3. The exact layout and format of the Results Screen will vary
according to the Search Engine you used, but generally you will
receive:
 The number of documents that 'matched' your query terms.
 A list of the first ten results (note: at the bottom of the screen you
will find a button to take you to the next ten).
 A Name or Title, a brief description that helps you identify
whether the reference found might contain the information you
required.
 The web address of the file (URL).
 A file size, so you can tell how large the document is and how

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long it will take to load.

Once you have read the list of references and found one that looks
promising, click on the highlighted title and your Browser will retrieve
that file for you from the Internet. When you have finished viewing the
site, click the Back button on your Browser to return to the results list.

Searching with Google

Type web address for Google in the Address bar. www.google.com.au

“I’m feeling lucky” button: automatically takes you to a single

website that Google thinks is the most relevant. Example of a results
page after Google has been searched for the “Melbourne Cricket
Ground”.

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 INTERNET BASICS

What you can find on the library website!

http://library.kingston.vic.gov.au

Books & More in Our Catalogue: Takes you to the library

catalogue

Online Resources: Free access to Encyclopedias, Full text journal

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 INTERNET BASICS

articles and Australian newspapers, online Computer books and Choice

magazine. Scroll down the list to make your selection from the
following topics:

 eAudio Books
 E-Books
 Encyclopedias
 Health
 Literature
 Computers
 For students
 Learning English
 Learning languages
 Music
 Newspapers & magazines
 Genealogy
 Science
 Statistics
 Building Codes

eAudiobooks

Hundreds of great titles to download and listen to. Includes Adult,

Young Adult and Junior books.

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 INTERNET BASICS

Student Resources

Websites and databases to assist students

Reviews

Read and write reviews for other users to enjoy.

Book Lovers

Websites to find out more about your favorite books and authors

Adult and Kids Activities

Select to see latest activities happening at your library

New books, DVDs, Music CDs, Audio Books

Select to view latest purchases on our catalogue

Your borrowing

Quick links under this heading to renew and check loans, borrowing
information and ways of keeping track of your loans

Library Thing

Get recommendations and share your reading experiences with other

people.

Your library service

Find out how to join the library, our opening hours, our collections,
policies and guidelines and information on the Home Library Service.

Helping you

Find links to Internet Access and booking, information about Computer

classes, Homework Club and suggested websites.

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 INTERNET BASICS

Ask a Librarian

From school projects to more involved queries, qualified librarians can

help you find authoritative, reliable information. Feel free to contact a
librarian either in person at one of our branches, by calling 1300 135
668, or online using our Ask a Librarian Form to submit an enquiry
(you'll be answered by email).

Telling us

You can fill in a form to add a Book Review to our webpage or you can
place a suggestion of an item for the Library to purchase.

Commonly Used Internet Terms

 Bookmarks: A feature of the Web browser that allows an individual

to store favorite URLs.

 Browser: The software required to access the hypertext links of Web

pages. Microsoft Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox are themost
widely-used browsers.

 Discussion List: Mailing Lists or Electronic Conferences operate

through E-mail. You subscribe or sign up to specific subject
discussion lists and regularly receive emails any time someone
sends a “post” or email to the discussion list.

 Facebook www.facebook.com

A popular social networking website where you can add photos and
information about yourself, send friends messages, and see what
your friends are doing.

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 INTERNET BASICS

 Flickr www.flickr.com

An online photo management and sharing application. Allows you

to store, sort, search and share photos and videos online.

 Home page: The first page or the main page of a website. Typically
provides introductory information and serves as an table of contents
to other information stored at the site.

 HTML or Hypertext Markup Language. The language used to create

web pages and which allows users to follow links between sites.

 HTTP or Hypertext Transfer Protocol. A set of instructions defining

how web pages are transferred between machines.

 ISP (Internet Service Provider) An organization providing access

to the Internet on a fee for service basis. Customers are generally
billed a fixed rate per month, but other charges may apply.

 Microblog A short blog about one's daily adventures, which evolved

into the extremely successful Twitter.

 Netiquette: A collection of good manners guidelines for network

applications such as email, telnet and newsgroups. Netiquette
information can be found in most guides to the Internet as well as in
the FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) of most Newsgroups.

 Newsgroups: Similar to discussion lists except you are not required

to subscribe to join in and they are often more fun than academic.

 Search Engines: An Internet tool, which searches web pages and

other Internet resources for criteria, which you provide.

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 Skype: Software that allows users to make voice calls over the
Internet. Calls made within Skype setting are free of charge.
Although skype also supports calls that connect to conventional
telephones, there are charges for those calls.
 Social Networking- A Web site that provides a virtual community
for people interested in a particular subject or just to "hang out"
together. Members create their own online "profile" with
biographical data, pictures, likes, dislikes and any other information
they choose to post. They communicate with each other by voice,
chat, instant message, videoconference and blogs.
 Spam (junk mail)
Unsolicited email sent indiscriminately to multiple individuals or
mailing lists. The mails are often of a commercial nature.
 URL: Uniform Resource Locator. The addressing system used by
the Internet so websites can be identified. It is like a house address.
 Virus: a harmful computer program that is downloaded from the
internet which can infect a computer.
 Web browser: See Browser Software
 Web Site: A “page” containing information written in HTML,
which may incorporate text, graphics and multimedia.
 Wiki: A wiki is a “collaborative” website that allows anybody to
add to, or edit, the information on the site.
 YouTube www.youtube.com
Watch video clips that others have added to the website. You add
your own clips for others to view.

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 CHAPTER SIX
MICROSOFT OFFICE WORD
Getting Familiar with Microsoft Office Word
Microsoft Word is a word processing software package. You can
use it to type letters, reports, and other documents. Here, you will learn
Microsoft Word basics. Although this tutorial was created for the
computer novice, because Microsoft Word is so different from previous
versions of Microsoft Word, even experienced users may find it useful.
This lesson will introduce you to the Word window. You use this
window to interact with Office Word. To begin this lesson, open
Microsoft Word. The Microsoft Word window appears and your screen
looks similar to the one shown here.

Note: Your screen will probably not look exactly like the screen shown.
In Office Word, how a window displays depends on the size of your
window, the size of your monitor, and the resolution to which your
monitor is set. Resolution determines how much information your
computer monitor can display. If you use a low resolution, less
information fits on your screen, but the size of your text and images are
larger. If you use a high resolution, more information fits on your screen,
but the size of the text and images are smaller. Also, Office Word,

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Windows Vista, and Windows XP have settings that allow you to change
the color and style of your windows.
The Microsoft Office Button
In the upper-left corner of the Office Word window is the
Microsoft Office button. When you click the button, a menu appears. You
can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing file, save a file,
and perform many other tasks.
The Quick Access Toolbar
Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar.
The Quick Access toolbar provides you with access to commands you
frequently use. By default, Save, Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick
Access toolbar. You can use Save to save your file, Undo to rollback an
action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have rolled
back.

The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. The Title bar
displays the title of the document on which you are currently working.
Office Word names the first new document you open Document1. As you
open additional new documents, Office Word names them sequentially.
When you save your document, you assign the document a new name.

The Ribbon
You use commands to tell Microsoft Office Word what to do. In
Microsoft Office Word, you use the Ribbon to issue commands. The
Ribbon is located near the top of the screen, below the Quick Access
toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs; clicking a tab displays
several related command groups. Within each group are
related command buttons. You click buttons to issue
commands or to access menus and dialog boxes. You may
also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner of

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a group. Clicking the dialog box launcher gives you access to additional
commands via a dialog box.

The Ruler
The ruler is found below the Ribbon.

You can use the ruler to change the format of your document
quickly. If your ruler is not visible, follow the steps listed here:

1. Click the View tab to choose it.

2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The
ruler appears below the Ribbon.
The Text Area
Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type
your document in the text area. The blinking vertical line in the upper-
left corner of the text area is the cursor. It marks the insertion point. As
you type, your text displays at the cursor location. The horizontal line
next to the cursor marks the end of the document

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The Vertical and Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars

The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up,
down, and across your window simply by dragging the icon located on
the scroll bar. The vertical scroll bar is located along the right side of the
screen. The horizontal scroll bar is located just above the status bar. To
move up and down your document, click and drag the vertical scroll bar
up and down. To move back and forth across your document, click and
drag the horizontal scroll bar back and forth. You won't see a horizontal
scroll bar if the width of your document fits on your screen.
The Status Bar
The Status bar appears at the very bottom of your window and
provides such information as the current page and the number of words
in your document. You can change what displays on the Status bar by
right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting the options you want from
the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it. You
click it again to deselect it. A check mark next to an item means it is
selected.

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Understanding Document Views

In Office Word, you can display your document in one of five
views: Draft, Web Layout, Print Layout, Full Screen Reading, or Online
Layout.
Draft View
Draft view is the most frequently used view. You use Draft view
to quickly edit your document.
Web Layout
Web Layout view enables you to see your document as it would
appear in a browser such as Internet Explorer.
Print Layout
The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when
it is printed.
Reading Layout

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Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your

document more comfortable.
Outline View
Outline view displays the document in outline form. You can
display headings without the text. If you move a heading, the
accompanying text moves with it.
You should use Draft view for these lessons. Before moving
ahead, make sure you are in Draft view:

1. Click the View tab.

2. Click Draft in the Document Views group. When the Draft option
is selected it appears in a contrasting color.
Click
During the lessons that follow, you will be asked to "click" items
and to choose tabs. When asked to click:
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your left mouse button once.
If you are asked to double-click an item:
1. Point to the item.
2. Quickly press your left mouse button twice.
If you are asked to right-click:
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your right mouse button.

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If you are asked to choose a tab, click the tab.

Place the Cursor
During the lessons, you will often be asked to place the cursor at a
specific location (the insertion point) on the screen. You place the cursor
by moving the cursor to the specified location and pressing the left mouse
button or by using the arrow keys to move to the specified location.
Understanding Nonprinting Characters
Certain characters, called nonprinting characters, do not print and
will not appear in your printed document but do affect your document
layout. You can elect to see these characters on the screen as you type or
you can elect to have them remain invisible. For these lessons, opt to see
them onscreen. This table describes most of them:

Character Denotes

A tab

. A space

¶ The end of a paragraph

Hidden text

To view nonprinting characters:

1. Choose the Home tab.

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2. Click the Show/Hide button in the Paragraph group. The

Show/Hide button appears in a contrasting color, when it is
selected.
Execute Commands with Keyboard Shortcuts
There are many methods you can use to accomplish tasks when using
Office Word. Generally, you choose an option by clicking the option on
the Ribbon. However, you can also use shortcut keys. A key name
followed by a plus and a letter means to hold down the key while pressing
the letter. For example, Ctrl+b means you should hold down the Ctrl key
while pressing "b." A shorthand notation of the above would read as
follows:
Press Ctrl+b. Typists who are slowed down by using a mouse usually
prefer using keys.
Start a New Paragraph
When you type in Microsoft Office Word, you do not need to press a
key to move to a new line. To start a new paragraph, press the Enter key.
Exit Office Word
You have completed Lesson One. Typically, you save your work
before exiting.
Close and Save
1) Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
2) Click Exit Office Word, which is in the bottom-right corner.
3) You will be prompted: "Do you want to save changes to
Document1?" To save your changes, click Yes. Otherwise, click
No. If you click Yes, the Save As dialog box appears.
4) Specify the correct folder in the Save In box.
5) Name your file by typing Lesson One.doc in the File Name field.
6) Click Save. Office Word saves your file.

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Microsoft Office Word Basic Features

Lesson 1 familiarized you with the Microsoft Office Word window.
You are now ready to learn how to create a Office Word document. This
lesson covers typing, using the Backspace key, using the Delete key,
inserting text, bolding, underlining, and italicizing. To begin, open
Microsoft Office Word.
Type, Backspace, and Delete
In Microsoft Office Word, you create documents by typing them.
For example, if you want to create a report, you open Microsoft Office
Word and then begin typing. You do not have to do anything when your
text reaches the end of a line and you want to move to a new line—
Microsoft Office Word automatically moves your text to a new line. If
you want to start a new paragraph, press Enter. Microsoft Office Word
creates a blank line to indicate the start of a new paragraph.
To capitalize, hold down the Shift key while typing the letter you
want to capitalize. If you make a mistake, you can delete what you typed
and then type your correction.
You can use the Backspace key to delete. Each time you press the
Backspace key, Microsoft Office Word deletes the character that
precedes the insertion point. The insertion point is the point at which your
mouse pointer is located. You can also delete text by using the Delete
key. First, you select the text you want to delete; then you press the Delete
key.
Insert and Overtype
While creating your document, you may find you need to insert
text—place new text between existing text. Suppose, you type the
sentence, "Sibu has a large house." After typing it, you decide you want
to change the sentence to "Sibu has a large blue house." With Microsoft
Office Word, inserting a word, phrase, or even several paragraphs is easy.
Alternatively, you may want to overtype text—replace old text
with new text. For example, suppose you type the sentence, "Sibu has a
large blue house." After typing it, you decide you want to change the

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sentence to "Sibu has a large gray house." With Microsoft Office Word,
overtyping the word blue with the word gray is also easy.
Before you attempt to insert or overtype, you should check the
mode you are in—Insert or Overtype. You right-click the Status bar and
then use the Customize Status Bar menu to place the Insert/Overtype
button on the Status bar. You can then use the Insert/Overtype button to
switch between Insert and Overtype mode. When you are in Insert mode,
you can insert text. When you are in Overtype mode, you can overtype
text. By default, Microsoft Office Word is in the Insert mode.
Placing the Insert/Overtype button on the Status bar
1. Right-click the Status bar. The Customize Status Bar menu
appears.
2. Click Overtype. The Insert/Overtype button appears on the Status
bar.
3. If the word Insert appears on the Status bar, you are in Insert
mode.
4. If the word Overtype appears on the Status bar, click the word
Overtype and it will change to Insert, thereby changing Word to
Insert mode.
Bold, Italicize, and Underline
When creating a document, you may need to emphasize particular
words or phrases by bolding, underlining, or italicizing. Also, certain
grammatical constructs require that you bold, underline, or italicize. You
can bold, underline, and italicize when using Office Word. You also can
combine these features—in other words, you can bold, underline, and
italicize a single piece of text.
When you need to perform a task in Microsoft Office Word, you
can usually choose from several methods. Exercise 3 shows you how to
bold, underline, or italicize using four different methods: using the
launcher, the Ribbon, the Mini-toolbar/context menu, and the keyboard.

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Save a File and Close Office Word

You must save your documents if you wish to recall them later.
You can use the Save option on the Microsoft Office menu, to save a
document. You can also save a document by typing Ctrl+s. The first time
you save a document, the Save As dialog box appears. Use the Save As
dialog box to locate the folder in which you want to save your document
and to give your document a name. After you have saved your document
at least once, you can save any changes you make to your document
simply by clicking the Save after you click the Microsoft Office button.
See the exercise to show you how to save the file you just created
and close Office Word. You will name your file Lesson Two.
Every time you save your document, you overwrite the previous
version of your document. For example, you create a document and save
it. Later you delete several passages from the document and then save
your changes. The passages from the first draft of the document no longer
exist.
If you want to save both the original draft of your document and
the revised document, you must save the second draft of the document
using a different name. To save the document using a different name,
click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears. Click Save As. The
Save As dialog box appears. Use the File Name box to give your
document a new name.
More Basic Features
The features in Office Word can make your work easier, make
your documents more attractive, and/or enable you to work more
efficiently. This Microsoft Office Word lesson teaches you how to open
a file, cut, copy, paste, use spell check, use Find and Replace, and change
fonts. All of these features either make your work easier or make your
document more attractive.
Open a File
When you do not have time to complete your work or when you
finish your work, you can save and close your file. After saving a file,

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you can later open it to revise or finish it. You learned how to save a file
in Lesson 2. Here is how to open the file you saved:
Open a File with Windows XP
If you are using Windows XP:
1. Open Office Word .
2. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
3. Click Open. The Open dialog box appears.
4. Use the Look In field to move to the folder in which you saved
the file. The file is named Lesson Two.docx.
5. Click Lesson Two.docx.
6. Click Open. The file you created during the previous lesson
appears.
Alternate Method—Opening a File with Keys
1. Open Office Word .
2. Press Ctrl+o.
3. Locate the folder in which you saved your file. The file is named
Lesson Two.docx
4. Click Lesson Two.docx.
5. Click Open. The file you created during the previous lesson
appears.
Cut and Paste
You can use Word's Cut feature to remove information from a
document. Then you can use the Paste feature to place the information
you cut anywhere in the same or another document. In other words, you
can move information from one place in a document to another place in
the same or different document by using the Cut and Paste features.
The Office Clipboard is a storage area. When you cut, Word stores
the data you cut on the Clipboard. You can paste the information that is
stored on the Clipboard as often as you like.

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See Exercise 1 for practice cutting and pasting.

Copy and Paste
In Microsoft Office Word, you can copy information from one area
of a document and place the information you copied anywhere in the
same or another document. In other words, after you type information
into a document, if you want to place the same information somewhere
else, you do not have to retype the information. You simple copy it and
then paste it in the new location. As with cut data, Office Word stores
copied data on the Clipboard.
Exercise 2 will help you practice how to Copy and Paste.
Use the Clipboard
As you cut or copy, Office Word can store the information you
have cut or copied on the Clipboard in a hierarchy. Then each time you
cut or copy, the data you just cut or copied moves to the top of the
Clipboard hierarchy and the data previously at the top moves down one
level. When you choose Paste, the item at the top of the hierarchy is the
item Office Word pastes into your document. The Clipboard can store up
to 24 items. You can paste any item on the Clipboard into your document
by placing your cursor at the insertion point, displaying the Clipboard
pane, and then clicking the item.
The Clipboard pane includes an Options button. You can click the
Options button to set the Clipboard options described in the following
table.

Option Description

Show Office Clipboard Shows the Clipboard automatically

Automatically when you copy items.

Show Office Clipboard Shows the Clipboard when you press

When Ctrl+c Pressed Twice Ctrl+c twice.

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Collect Without Showing Copies to the Clipboard without

Office Clipboard displaying the Clipboard pane.

Show Office Clipboard Icon Displays the Clipboard icon on your

on Taskbar system taskbar.

Show Status Near Taskbar Displays the number of items copied

When Copying on the taskbar when copying.

Use Spell Check

Office Word checks your spelling and grammar as you type.
Spelling errors display with a red wavy line under the word. Grammar
errors display with a green wavy line under the error. In Office Word,
you can use the Review tab's Spelling & Grammar button to initiate a
spell and grammar check of your document.
See exercise 4 for practice using Spell Check.
Find and Replace
If you need to find a particular word or phrase in your document,
you can use the Find command. This command is especially useful when
you are working with large files. If you want to search the entire
document, simply execute the Find command. If you want to limit your
search to a selected area, select that area and then execute the Find
command.
After you find the word or phrase you are searching for, you can
replace it with new text by executing the Replace command.
Use Find with the Ribbon

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1. Type the following:

Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town. Her
daughter attends Eastern High School.
2. Select: "Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town.
Her daughter attends Eastern High School."
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click Find in the Editing group. A menu appears.
5. Click the Find option on the menu. The Find and Replace dialog
box appears.

6. Type east in the Find What field.

7. Click Find Next.
Note that the "East" in Easton is highlighted.

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8. Click Find Next again.

Note that "east" is highlighted.
9. Click Find Next again.
Note that the "East" in Eastern is highlighted.
10. Click Find Next. The following message should appear: "Word
has finished searching the selection. Do you want to search the
remainder of the document?"
11. Click No.
12. Click Cancel.
Alternate Method—Find with Keys
1. Select: "Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town.
Her daughter attends Eastern High School."
2. Press Ctrl+f.
3. Follow steps 6 through 12 in the preceding section.
Use Replace with the Ribbon

1. Select "Monica is from Easton. She lives on the east side of town.
Her daughter attends Eastern High School."
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click Replace in the Editing group. The Find and Replace dialog
box appears.

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4. Type east in the Find What box.

5. Type west in the Replace With box.
6. Click Find Next. The East in Easton is highlighted.
7. Click Replace. Word replaces the "East" in "Easton" with
"West" and then highlights the word "east."
8. Click Replace. Word replaces the word "east" with "west" and
then highlights the word "Eastern."
9. Click Close. Do not replace the "East" in "Eastern" with "West."
10. Your text should now read,
"Monica is from Weston. She lives on the west side of town.
Her daughter attends Eastern High School."
Alternate Method—Replace with Keys
1. Select "Monica is from Easton. She lives on the west side of town.
Her daughter attends Western High School."
2. Press Ctrl+h.
3. Follow steps 4 through 11 in the preceding section.

Change the Font Size

A font is a set of characters (text) represented in a single typeface.
Each character within a font is created by using the same basic style. In

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Microsoft Office Word, you can change the size of your font. The
following example illustrates changing the font size….

1. Type the following:

I can be any size you want me to be.
2. Select "I can be any size you want me to be."
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. In the Font group, click the down arrow next to the Font Size
box. A menu of font sizes appears.
5. Move your cursor over the menu of font sizes. As you do, Office
Word provides a live preview of the effect of applying each
font size.
6. Click 36 to select it as your font size.
Note: If you know the font size you want, you can type it in the Font Size
field.
Alternate Method—Change the Font Size with Grow Font and
Shrink Font
You can also change the size of your font by clicking the Grow
Font and Shrink Font buttons. Selecting text and then clicking the Grow
Font button makes your font larger. Selecting text and then clicking the
Shrink Font button makes your font smaller.

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1. Type the following:

Grow Shrink
2. Select "Grow"
3. Choose the Home tab.

4. Click the Grow Font button several times. You font

becomes larger.
5. Select Shrink.

6. Click the Shrink Font button several times. Your font

becomes smaller.
Change the Font
In Microsoft Office Word, you can change the font (the "family"
of type you use for your text). This feature is illustrated in the following
examples
Change the Font with the Ribbon

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1. Type the following:

Changing fonts
2. Select "Changing fonts."
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Font field. A menu of fonts
appears.
5. Move the cursor over the list of fonts. Office Word provides a
live preview of what the font will look like if you select it.
6. Click the font name to select the font you want.
Alternate Method—Change the Font with the Mini Toolbar

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1. Select "Changing fonts."

2. Right-click. The Mini toolbar and a menu appears.
3. Move to the Mini toolbar.
4. Click the down arrow next to the Font field. A menu of fonts
appears.
5. Click the name of the font you want.
Save Your File
This is the end of Lesson 3. You can save your file and close Office
Word. See Lesson 2 to learn how to save and close.
Formatting Paragraphs and Working with Styles
When you type information into Microsoft Office Word, each time
you press the Enter key Office Word creates a new paragraph. You can
format paragraphs. For example, you can indent the first line of a
paragraph, you can set the amount of space that separates paragraphs, and
you can align a paragraph left, right, center, or flush with both margins.
Styles are a set of formats you can quickly apply to a paragraph. For
example, by applying a style, you can set the font, set the font size, and
align a paragraph all at once. In this lesson, you will learn about the
various formats you can apply to a paragraph and about styles.

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When you are formatting a paragraph, you do not need to select

the entire paragraph. Placing the cursor anywhere in the paragraph
enables you to format it. After you format a paragraph, pressing the Enter
key creates a new paragraph in the same format.
Open a Blank Document
To begin a new Office Word project, you start by opening a new
document. To begin this lesson, open a blank document in Microsoft
Office Word.

1. Open Office Word .

2. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
3. Click New. The New Document dialog box appears.

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4. Click Blank Document.

5. Click Create. A new blank document opens.
Add Space Before or After Paragraphs
When creating a document, space is often used to clearly identify
where each paragraph begins and ends. By default, Office Word may
place slightly more space between paragraphs than it does between lines
in a paragraph. You can increase or decrease the amount of space that
appears before and after paragraphs by entering amounts in the Before
and After fields in the Paragraph section of the Page Layout tab.
Use the up arrows next to the Before and After fields to increase
the amount of space before or after each paragraph; use the down arrows
to decrease the amount of space before or after each paragraph. The
following illustrates:

1. Place your cursor anywhere in the second paragraph of a

document you have created.

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2. Choose the Page Layout tab. The default spacing appears in the
Spacing Before field.
3. Click the up arrow next to the Spacing Before field to increase
the space before the paragraph.
4. Click the up arrow next to the Spacing After field to increase the
amount of space after the paragraph.
Note: You can click the down arrows next to the Spacing Before
and the Spacing After fields to decrease the amount of space before or
after a paragraph. You can also type the amount of space you want to use
directly into the fields. Space is measured in points. There are 72 points
to an inch.
Change Line Spacing
Line spacing sets the amount of space between lines within a
paragraph. The spacing for each line is set to accommodate the largest
font on that line. If the lines include smaller fonts, there will appear to be
extra space between lines where the smaller fonts are located. At 1.5, the
line spacing is set to one-and-a-half times the single-space amount. At
2.0, the line spacing is set to two times the single-space amount (double
space).

1. Place your cursor anywhere in the second paragraph of a

document you have created.

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2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Line Spacing button in the Paragraph group. A

menu of options appears.
4. Click 2.0 to double-space the first paragraph.
Create a First-Line Indent
Some people and organizations delineate the start of a new
paragraph by indenting the first line. If you want to indent the first line
of your paragraphs, you can use the Paragraph dialog box to set the
amount by which you want to indent. In the Special Field of the
Paragraph dialog box, you tell Office Word you want to indent the first
line by choosing First Line from the menu options. In the By field, you
tell Office Word the amount, in inches by which you want to indent.

EXAMPLE: First-line Indent

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to
coordinate with the overall look of your document. You can use these
galleries to insert tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other
document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look.

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1. Place your cursor anywhere within the first paragraph of the

document you have created.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraphs group, click the launcher. The Paragraph dialog
box appears.

4. Choose the Indents and Spacing tab.

5. Click to open the drop-down menu on the Special field.
6. Click First Line.
7. Enter 0.5" in the By field.
8. Click OK. The first line of your paragraph is now indented half
an inch.

Special Note: To remove the first line indent:

1. Place the cursor anywhere in the paragraph.

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2. Choose the Home tab.

3. In the Paragraphs group, click the launcher. The Paragraph dialog
box opens.
4. Choose the Indents and Spacing tab.
5. Click the down arrow next to the Special field and then click
None.
6. Click OK.
Indent Paragraphs
Indentation allows you to indent your paragraph from the left
and/or right margin. You may find this necessary when you are quoting
a large block of text. The following exercise shows you how to indent a
paragraph 1 inch from each side.

EXAMPLE: Indentation
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to
coordinate with the overall look of your document. You can use these
galleries to insert tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other
document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look.

You can easily change the formatting of selected text in the

document text by choosing a look for the selected text from the
Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab. You can also format text
directly by using the other controls on the Home tab. Most controls
offer a choice of using the look from the current theme or using a
format that you specify directly.

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1. Place your cursor anywhere in the second paragraph of a document

you have created.
2. Choose the Page Layout tab.
3. Type 1" in the Indent Left field or use the up or down arrows to set
the field value to 1".
4. Type 1" in the Indent Right field or use the up or down arrows to
set the field value to 1". Your paragraph is now indented one inch
from both the left and right margins, as in the example.
Align Paragraphs
Microsoft Office Word gives you a choice of several types of
alignments. Left-aligned text is flush with the left margin of your
document and is the default setting. Right-aligned text is flush with the
right margin of your document, centered text is centered between the left
and right margins, and Justified text is flush with both the left and right
margins.

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EXAMPLE: Left-Aligned
Sample Paragraph
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are
designed to coordinate with the overall look of your
document. You can use these galleries to insert tables,
headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other
document building blocks. When you create pictures,
charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your
current document look.
EXAMPLE: Right-aligned
Sample Paragraph
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are
designed to coordinate with the overall look of your
document. You can use these galleries to insert tables,
headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other
document building blocks. When you create pictures,
charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your
current document look.
EXAMPLE: Centered
Sample Paragraph
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are
designed to coordinate with the overall look of your
document. You can use these galleries to insert tables,
headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other
document building blocks. When you create pictures,
charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your
current document look.
EXAMPLE: Justified
Sample Paragraph

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On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are

designed to coordinate with the overall look of your
document. You can use these galleries to insert tables,
headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and other document
building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current
document look.

The following example demonstrates how to justify text:

1. Type a sample paragraph.
Right-align

1. Select the paragraphs you created.

2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Align-right button in the Paragraph group. Office

Word right-aligns your paragraphs.
Left-align
1. Select the paragraphs you created.

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2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Align-left button in the Paragraph group. Office

Word left-aligns your paragraph.
Center
1. Selected the paragraphs you created.
2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Center button in the Paragraph group. Office Word

centers your paragraph.
Justify
1. Select the paragraphs you created.
2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Justify button in the Paragraph group. Office Word

justifies your paragraph.
Alternate Method—Right-Justify with Keys
1. Select the paragraphs you created.
2. Press Ctrl+r. The paragraph is now right-aligned.
Alternate Method—Left-Justify with Keys
1. Select the paragraphs you created.
2. Press Ctrl+l. The paragraph is now left-aligned.
Alternate Method—Center with Keys
1. Select the paragraphs you created.
2. Press Ctrl+e. The paragraph is now centered.
Alternate Method—Justify with Keys
1. Select the paragraphs you created.
2. Press Ctrl+j. The paragraph is now justified.
Adding Bullets and Numbers, Undoing and Redoing,
Setting Page Layouts and Printing Documents

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If you have lists of data, you may want to bullet or number them.
When using Microsoft Office Word, bulleting and numbering are easy.
The first part of this lesson teaches you to bullet and number.
After you have completed your document, you may want to share
it with others. One way to share your document is to print and distribute
it. However, before you print you may want to add page numbers and tell
Office Word such things as the page orientation, the paper size, and the
margin setting you want to use. In this lesson you will learn how to layout
and how to print your documents.
Add Bullets and Numbers
In Microsoft Office Word, you can easily create bulleted or
numbered lists of items. Several bulleting and numbering styles are
available, as shown in the examples. You can select the one you wish to
use.
EXAMPLES: Numbering

EXAMPLES: Bulleting

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Bullets

1. Type the following list as shown:

Apple
Orange
Grape
Mango
Cherry
2. Select the words you just typed.
3. Choose the Home tab.
4. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the Bullets
button . The Bullet Library appears.

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5. Click to select the type of bullet you want to use. Word adds
bullets to your list.
Note: As you move your cursor over the various bullet styles,
Office Word displays the bullet style onscreen.
To remove the bulleting:
1. Select the list again.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the Bullets
icon. The Bullet dialog box appears.
4. Click None. Office Word removes the bullets from your list.
Numbers

1. Type the following list as shown:

Apple
Orange
Grape
Mango
Cherry
2. Select the words you just typed.

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3. Choose the Home tab.

4. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the
Numbering button . The Numbering Library appears.
5. Click to select the type of numbering you want to use. Office
Word numbers your list.
Note: As you move your cursor over the various number styles,
Office Word displays the number style onscreen.
To remove the numbering:
1. Select the list again.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. In the Paragraph group, click the down arrow next to the
Numbering icon. The Number dialog box appears.
4. Click None. Office Word removes the numbering from your list.
Undo and Redo
You can quickly reverse most commands you execute
by using Undo. If you then change your mind again, and want to reapply
a command, you can use Redo.

1. Type Undo example.

2. Click the Undo button on the Quick Access menu. The typing
disappears.

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3. Click the Redo button on the Quick Access menu. The typing
reappears.
4. Select "Undo example."
5. Press Ctrl+b to bold. Office Word bolds the text.
6. Press Ctrl+i. Office Word italicizes the text.
7. Press Ctrl+u Office Word underlines the text.
8. Click the down arrow next to the Undo icon. You will see the
actions you performed listed. To undo the underline, click
Underline; to undo the underline and italic, click Underline
Italic; to undo the underline, italic, and bold click Bold etc.
9. To redo, click the Redo icon several times.
Alternate Method -- Undo & Redo by Using Keys
1. Type Undo example.
2. Press Ctrl+z. The typing disappears.
3. Press Ctrl+y. The typing reappears.
4. Select "Undo example."
5. Press Ctrl+u to underline.
6. Press Ctrl+z. The underline is removed.
7. Press Ctrl+y. The underline reappears.
Set the Orientation
Before you print your document, you may want to change the
orientation of your pages. There are two orientations you can use: portrait
and landscape. Paper, such as paper sized 8 1/2 by 11, is longer on one
edge than it is on the other. If you print in Portrait, the shortest edge of
the paper becomes the top of the page. Portrait is the default option. If
you print Landscape, the longest edge of the paper becomes the top of the
page.

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Portrait

Landscape

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Orientation in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Portrait. Office Word sets your page orientation to Portrait.
Set the Page Size
Paper comes in a variety of sizes. Most business correspondence
uses 8 1/2 by 11 paper which is the default page size in Office Word. If
you are not using 8 1/2 by 11 paper, you can use the Size option in the
Page Setup group of the Page Layout tab to change the Size setting.

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1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Size in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Letter 8.5 x 11in. Office Word sets your page size.

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Set the Margins

Margins define the amount of white space that appears at the top,
bottom, left, and right edges of your document. The Margin option in the
Page Setup group of the Page Layout tab provides several standard
margin sizes from which you can choose.

1. Choose the Page Layout tab.

2. Click Margins in the Page Setup group. A menu appears.
3. Click Moderate. Office Word sets your margins to the Moderate
settings.
Add Page Numbers
Page numbers help you keep your document organized and
enable readers to find information quickly. You can add page numbers to
the top, bottom, or margins of your pages and you can choose where the
numbers appear. For example, numbers can appear at the top of the page,
on the left, right, or center of the page. Office Word also offers several
number styles from which you can choose.

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1. Choose the Insert tab.

2. Click the Page Number button in the Header & Footer group. A
menu appears.
3. Click Bottom of Page.
4. Click the right-side option.
Insert Page Breaks
As you learned in Lesson 1, you can display your document in
any of five views: Draft, Web Layout, Print Layout, Full Screen Reading,
or Online Layout. In Print Layout view you see your document as it will
appear when you print it. You can clearly see where each page ends and
a new page begins.
As you review your document, you may find that you want to
change the point at which a new page begins. You do this by inserting a
page break. For example, if a page heading appears on one page and the
first paragraph under the heading appears on the next page, you may want
to insert a page break before the heading to keep the heading and the first
paragraph together.

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Change to Print View

1. Choose the View tab.

2. Click Print Layout in the Document Views group. Your document
changes to the Print Layout view.
Insert Page Breaks

1. Place your cursor before the D in "Displaced Homemakers"

2. Choose the Insert tab.
3. Click Page Break. Office Word places a page break in your
document.

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To delete a page break, you select the page break and then press
the Delete key.
Preview and Print Documents
When you have your margins, tabs, and so on the way you want them,
you are ready to print. In Office Word, You can preview your document
before you print. In the Preview mode, you can review each page, view
multiple pages at the same time, zoom in on a page, and access the Size,
Orientation, and Margin options.
If you press the Zoom button while you are in Preview mode, the Zoom
dialog box appears. In the Zoom dialog box you can set the sizes of the
pages that display as well as the number of pages that display.
When you are ready to print, you use the Print dialog box. In the Print
Range area, choose All to print every page of your document, choose
Current Page to print the page you are currently on, or choose Pages to
enter the specific pages you want to print. Type the pages you want to
print in the Pages field. Separate individual pages with commas (1,3, 13);
specify a range by using a dash (4-9).
Print Preview
1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
2. Highlight the Print option. The Preview and Print the Document
menu appears.
3. Click Print Preview. The Preview window appears, with your
document in the window.
4. Click One Page to view one page at a time. Click Two Pages to
view two pages at a time.
5. To view your document in normal size, click 100%.
6. Click the Zoom Button. The Zoom dialog box appears.
7. Select an option and then click OK. Perform this task for each
option and note the results.
Note: As you review your document, if you see changes you would like
to make to the layout, use the Margin, Orientation, or Page Size options

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to make the changes. If you want to make other types of changes to your
document, click the Close Print Preview button, to return to your
document. Once you are satisfied with your document, you are ready to
print.
Print
1. Click the Print button. The Print dialog box appears.
2. Click the down arrow next to the Name field and select the printer
to which you want to print.
3. Choose All as the page range.
4. Click OK. Office Word prints your document.
You have completed Lesson 5. You can save your document and close
Office Word.

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EXERCISES:
EXERCISE 1
1. Open Microsoft Office Word and type 3 sentences about your
family in any kind of font.
2. Create a new paragraph and start with “I can…” Write about
things that you know you can do well.
Select with the Mouse
1. Place your cursor before the word "I" in the second paragraph.
2. Press and hold down the left mouse button.
3. Drag the mouse until you have highlighted the second
paragraph.
4. Click anywhere outside the highlighted area to remove the
highlighting.
EXERCISE 2
The Arrow Keys
1. Use the down arrow key to move down your document.
2. Use the right arrow key to move to the right.
3. Use the up arrow key to move up.
4. Use the left arrow key to move to the left.
Cursor
1. Move around you document by using you mouse and clicking in
a variety of location.
2. Click in a location and type. Note what happens.
EXERCISE 3
Type and Backspace
1. Type the following sentence:
Sibu has a very large house.

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2. Delete the word "house." Using either the arrow keys or the
mouse, place the cursor between the period and the "e" in
"house."
3. Press the Backspace key until the word "house" is deleted.
4. Type boat. The sentence should now read:
"Sibu has a very large boat."
Delete
Delete the word "very" from the sentence you just typed.
1. Select the word "very." You can place the cursor before the "v"
in the word "very," press and hold down the Shift key, and then
press the right arrow key until the word "very" is highlighted.
2. Press the Delete key. The sentence should now read:
"Sibu has a large boat."
EXERCISE 4
Insert
Make sure you are in Insert mode before proceeding. You are going to
insert the word "blue" between the words "large" and "boat."
1. Place the cursor after the space between the words "large" and
"boat."
2. Type the word blue.
3. Press the spacebar to add a space.
4. The sentence should now read:
"Sibu has a large blue boat."
Overtype
You can type over the current text (replace the current text with
new text) in the Overtype mode. Do the following to change to the
Overtype mode.
• Click "Insert" on the Status bar. The word Insert changes to
Overtype.
Change the word "blue" to "gray."

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1. Place the cursor before the letter "b" in "blue."

2. Type the word gray.
3. The sentence should now read:
"Sibu has a large gray boat."
Note: You can overtype text without changing to Overtype mode by
selecting the text you want to overtype and then typing.
EXERCISE 5
Type the following exactly as shown. Remember, pressing the
Enter key starts a new paragraph. Press the Enter key at the end of each
of the following lines to start a new paragraph.
Launcher: Bold Italicize Underline these words. All three Regular
Ribbon: Bold Italicize Underline these words. All three Regular
Mini Toolbar: Bold Italicize Regular
Keys: Bold Italicize Underline these words. All three Regular

Your screen should look similar to the one shown here.

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Bold with the Dialog Box Launcher

1. On the line that begins with Launcher, select the word "Bold."
You can place the cursor before the letter "B" in "Bold." Press the
Shift key; then press the right arrow key until the entire word is
highlighted.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the dialog box launcher in the Font group. The Font dialog
box appears.

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4. Click Bold in the Font Style box.

Note: You can see the effect of your action in the Preview
window. To remove the bold, click Regular.
5. Click OK to close the dialog box.
6. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting. You
have bolded the word bold.
Alternate Method—Bold with the Ribbon

1. On the line that begins with "Ribbon," select the word "Bold."
You can place the cursor before the letter "B" in "Bold." Press
the Shift key; then press the right arrow key until the entire word
is highlighted.
2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Bold button in the Font group. You have bolded
the word bold.
Note: To remove the bold, you can select the text and then click
the Bold button again.
4. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Alternate Method - Bold with the Mini Toolbar

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1. On the line that begins with "Mini Toolbar," select the word
"Bold." You can place the cursor before the letter "B" in "Bold."
Press the Shift key; then press the right arrow key until the entire
word is highlighted.
2. Right-click. The Mini toolbar appears.

3. Click the Bold button . You have bolded the word bold.
Alternate Method—Bold with Keys
1. On the line that begins with "Keys," select the word "Bold."
You can place the cursor before the letter "B" in "Bold." Press
the Shift key; then press the right arrow key until the entire word
is highlighted.
2. Press Ctrl+b (hold down the Ctrl key while pressing b).
Note: To remove the Bold, press Ctrl+b again. You can also
remove formatting by pressing Ctrl+spacebar.
3. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Italicize with the Dialog Box Launcher

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1. On the line that begins with Launcher, select the word

"Italicize." You can place the cursor before the letter "I" in
"Italicize." Press the Shift key; then press the right arrow key
until the entire word is highlighted.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the dialog box launcher in the Font group. The Font dialog
box appears.

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4. Click Italic in the Font Style box.

Note: You can see the effect of your selection in the Preview
window. To remove the italics, click Regular in the Font Style
box.
5. Click OK to close the Font dialog box.
6. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting. You
have italicized the word Italicize.
Alternate Method—Italicize with the Ribbon

1. On the line that begins with "Ribbon," select the word "Italicize."
You can place the cursor before the letter "I" in “Italicize." Press
the Shift key; then press the right arrow key until the entire word
is highlighted.
2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Italic button on the Ribbon. You have italicized

the word Italicize.
Note: To remove the italics, select the text and click the Italicize
button again.
4. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Alternate Method—Italicize with the Mini Toolbar

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1. On the line that begins with "Mini Toolbar," select the word
"Italicize." You can place the cursor before the letter "I" in
"Italicize." Press the Shift key; then press the right arrow key
until the entire word is highlighted.
2. Right-click. The Mini toolbar appears.

3. Click the Italic button . You have italicized the word

Italicize.
Alternate Method—Italicize with Keys
1. On the line that begins with "Keys," select the word "Italicize."
You can place the cursor before the letter "I" in "Italicize." Press
the Shift key; then press the right arrow key until the entire word
is highlighted.
2. Press Ctrl+i (hold down the Ctrl key while pressing i).
Note: To remove italics, press Ctrl+i again. You can also
remove formatting by pressing Ctrl+spacebar.
3. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.You
have italicized the word Italicize.
Underline with the Dialog Box Launcher

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You can underline when using Office Word. Word provides you with
many types of underlines from which to choose. The following are
some of the underlines that are available if you use the dialog box
launcher:

The following illustrates underlining with the dialog box launcher:

1. On the line that begins with "Launcher," select the words

"Underline these words."
2. Choose the Home tab.

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3. Click the dialog box launcher in the Font group. The Font dialog
box appears.

4. In the Underline Style box, click the down arrow to open the
pull-down menu.
5. Click the type of underline you wish to use.
Note: To remove an underline, you select None from the pull-
down menu.
6. Click OK to close the dialog box. The underline you selected
appears under the words.
7. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Alternate Method—Underline with the Ribbon

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1. On the line that begins with "Ribbon," select the words

"Underline these words."
2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Underline button in the Font group .

Alternatively, you can press the down arrow next to the
underline button and click to choose the type of underline
you want.
Note: To remove the underlining, click the Underline
button again.
4. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Alternate Method—Underline with Keys
1. On the line that begins with "Keys," select the words "Underline
these words."
2. Press Ctrl+u (hold down the Ctrl key while pressing u).
Note: To remove the underlining, press Ctrl+u again.
3. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
All Three with the Dialog Box Launcher
1. On the line that begins with "Launcher," select the words "All
three."

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2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the dialog box launcher in the Font group. The Font dialog
box appears.
4. In the Font Style box, click Bold Italic.
Note: You can see the effect of your selection in the preview
window. To turn off the Bold Italic, click Regular.
5. In the Underline box, click to open the pull-down menu. Click
the type of underline you want to use.
Note: To remove an underline, select None from the pull-down
menu.
6. Click OK to close the dialog box.
7. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Alternate Method—All Three with the Ribbon
1. On the line that begins with "Ribbon," select the words "All
three."
2. Choose the Home tab.

3. Click the Bold button in the Font group.

4. Click the Italic button in the Font group.

5. Click the Underline button in the Font group.

6. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.
Alternate Method—All Three with Keys
1. On the line that begins with "Keys," select the words "All
three."
2. Press Ctrl+b (bold).
3. Press Ctrl+i (italicize).
4. Press Ctrl+u (underline).
Note: You can remove formatting by highlighting the text and
pressing Ctrl+spacebar.

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5. Click anywhere in the text area to remove the highlighting.

EXERCISE 6
Save a File
1. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
2. Click Save. The Save As dialog box appears if you are saving
your document for the first time.
3. Specify the correct folder in the Save In box.
4. Name your document by typing Lesson Two in the File Name
box.
5. Click Save.
6. Click the Microsoft Office button. A menu appears.
7. Click Exit Office Word, which is located in the bottom-right
corner of the window. Office Word closes.
EXERCISE 7
Cut with the Ribbon

1. Type the following:

I want to move. I am content where I am.

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2. Select "I want to move. "

3. Choose the Home tab.
4. Click the Cut button in the Clipboard group. Office Word
cuts the text you selected and places it on the Clipboard. Your
text should now read:
"I am content where I am."
Paste with the Ribbon

1. Place the cursor after the period in the sentence "I am content
where I am."
2. Press the spacebar to leave a space.
3. Choose the Home tab.

4. Click the Paste button in the Clipboard group. Office Word

pastes the text on the Clipboard. Your text should now read:
"I am content where I am. I want to move."

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Alternate Method—Cut with a Context Menu

1. Type the following:

I want to move. I am content where I am.
2. Select "I want to move. "
3. Right-click. The Mini toolbar and a context menu appear.
4. Click Cut on the menu. Your text should now read:
"I am content where I am."
Alternate Method—Paste with a Context Menu

1. Place the cursor after the period in the sentence

"I am content where I am."
2. Press the spacebar to leave a space.

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3. Right-click. A Mini toolbar and a context menu appear.

4. Click Paste. Your text should now read:
"I am content where I am. I want to move."
Alternate Method—Cut with Keys
1. Type the following:
I want to move. I am content where I am.
2. Select "I want to move."
3. Press Ctrl+x.
4. Your text should now read:
" I am content where I am."
Alternate Method—Paste with Keys
1. Place the cursor after the period in the sentence: "I am content
where I am."
2. Press the spacebar to leave a space.
3. Press Ctrl+v.
4. Your text should now read:
"I am content where I am. I want to move."

EXERCISE 8
Copy with the Ribbon

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1. Type the following:

You will want to copy me. One of me is all you need.
2. Select "You will want to copy me."
3. Choose the Home tab.

4. Click the Copy button in the Clipboard group. Office Word

copies the data you selected to the Clipboard.
Paste with the Ribbon

1. Place the cursor after the period in the sentence: "One of me is

all you need."
2. Press the spacebar to leave a space.
3. Choose the Home tab.

4. Click the Paste button in the Clipboard group. Office Word

places the data you copied at the insertion point. Your text
should now read: "You will want to copy me. One of me is all
you need. You will want to copy me."

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Alternate Method—Copy with a Context Menu

1. Type the following:

You will want to copy me. One of me is all you need.
2. Select "You will want to copy me."
3. Right-click. A Mini toolbar and a context menu appear.
4. Click Copy. Office Word places the data you copied at the
insertion point. Your text should now read: "You will want to
copy me. One of me is all you need. You will want to copy me."
Alternate Method—Paste with a Context Menu

1. Place the cursor after the period in the sentence: "One of me is

all you need."
2. Press the spacebar to leave a space.
3. Right-click. A context menu appears.
4. Click Paste. Office Word pastes the information on the
Clipboard into the document.
Alternate Method—Copy with Keys
1. Type the following:
You will want to copy me. One of me is all you need.
2. Select "You will want to copy me. "

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3. Press Ctrl+c. Office Word copies the information you selected

to the Clipboard.
Alternate Method—Paste with Keys
1. Place the cursor after the period in the sentence "One of me is
all you need."
2. Press the spacebar to leave a space.
3. Press Ctrl+v.
4. Your text should now read:
"You will want to copy me. One of me is all you need. You will
want to copy me."
EXERCISE 9
Use the Clipboard

1. Place the cursor at the point at which you want to insert your
text.
2. Choose the Home tab.
3. Click the Clipboard dialog box launcher to open the Clipboard.
4. Click the item on the clipboard you want to insert into your
document. Office Word pastes the Clipboard item into your
document at the insertion point.

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EXERCISE 10
Using Spell Check

1. Type the following exactly as shown. Include all errors.

Open thr door for Mayrala. She is a teacher from the town
of Ridgemont.
2. Select: "Open thr door for Mayrala. She is a teacher from the
town of Ridgemont."
3. Choose the Review tab.
4. Click the Spelling & Grammar button. The Spelling and
Grammar dialog box appears.

6. "The" is misspelled, so it is highlighted on the screen and noted

in the Not in Dictionary box. Office Word suggests correct
spellings. These suggestions are found in the Suggestions box.
7. Click "the" in the Suggestions box.

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8. Click Change.
Note: If the word is misspelled in several places, click Change
All to correct all misspellings.
9. The name "Mayrala" is not in the dictionary, but it is correct.
Click Ignore Once to leave "Mayrala" in the document with its
current spelling.
Note: If a word appears in several places in the document, click
Ignore All so you are not prompted to correct the spelling for
each occurrence.
10. "Ridgemont" is not found in the dictionary. If you frequently use
a word not found in the dictionary, you might want to add that
word to the dictionary by clicking the Add to Dictionary button.
Office Word will then recognize the word the next time it
appears. Click Add to Dictionary.
11. The following should appear on your screen: "Office Word
finished checking the selection. Do you want to continue
checking the remainder of the document?"
12. Click No. If you wanted Office Word to spell-check the entire
document, you would have clicked Yes.
Note: You can also press F7 to initiate a spelling and grammar check. If
you don't have anything selected, Office Word checks the entire
document.

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REFERENCES:
[1] Introduction to Computers. 5th Edition. Peter Norton’s (2010)
[2] Introduction to Computer Science. Ken Been (2007)
[3] Digital Design. Second Edition. M. Morris Mano (1991)
[4] Introduction to Computers and the Internet 5th Edition. Abdullah Abdulaziz
Almosa (2017).
[5] Computer and Software Packages, 8th Edition. Mohammed Bilal Alzogbi et. Al
(2015)
[6] Dell (www.dell.com)
[7] Intel (www.intel.com)
[8] MaranGraphics (http://www.maran.com/dictionary/)
[9] PCGuide (http://www.pcguide.com)
[10] Computer Fundamentals & Office Applications. MCRHRD Institute (2013)
[11] Balanced Introduction to Computer Science ©2003-2007 (David Reed)
[12] Essentials of Theoretical Computer Science, ©1996 (F. D. Lewis) Academic
Careers for Experimental Computer Scientists and Engineers ©1994
[Homepage]
[13] Logical Methods in Computer Science Foundations of Computer Science (Larry
Paulson)
[14] Foundations of Computer Science ©1998 (Hans-Peter Bischof)
[15] Introduction to Computer Science Lecture Notes ©2000 (Christian Jacob)
[Sanjiv K. Bhatia]
[16] Computer Science from the Bottom Up (Ian Wienand)
[17] Introduction to Computer Science ©2007 (Robert Sedgewick, Kevin Wayne)
[18] Introduction to Computer Science Lecture Notes ©2000 (Christian Jacob)
[Sanjiv K. Bhatia]
[19] Introduction to Computer Science Using Java ©2003-2006 (Bradley Kjell)
[20] Simply Scheme: Introducing Computer Science, 4th Edition ©2005 (Brian
Harvey, Matthew Wright)

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