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The Art Science of Java an introduction to computer
science 1st Edition Eric Roberts Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Eric Roberts
ISBN(s): 9780321486127, 0321486129
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 75.90 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
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out 2 or 3 tapestry threads. If extremely worn a good strengthening
is a backing of stout crash.
Carpet Joining.—Felts and all light fabrics are simply seamed by
flat sewing; but in Brussels, Wilton, and thick piles the joins to lie
smooth are connected by passing the needle in and out first one
edge and then the other. Should the seam set full, dashing on a little
water will rectify it. If in case of accidental burns, &c., the carpet has
to be mended on the floor, the only available plan consists in placing
on the patch, and securing both surfaces by darning. Repairing
carpets when up gives the opportunity of strengthening patches,
hems, &c., by felling stout webbing on the wrong side. When stair
carpets require binding, the webbing matches the predominant
colour in the pattern.
Matting Seams.—These are made in the following manner: Bring
the two edges together, take a straight stitch over both, pass the
needle slantwise under one edge, and through the adjacent one.
Thus the right side presents a row of slight sewing, the wrong a
series of sloping stitches taking in one selvedge only.
Velvet Joining.—Faults or cuts, &c., in velvet and plush are
concealed by very careful seaming on the wrong side. The needle
enters half the thickness of the material (Fig. 165), leaving no
stitches visible on the upper surface, and the sewing is drawn till the
edges just meet and no more. Care must be taken to work in all
stray filaments that no fluffiness disturbs the smoothness of the pile.
When finished make the seam still firmer by rows of darning, 4 or 5
stitches in height, and running parallel to the sewing; leave no loops,
but pass a horizontal stitch from one darning line to the other (Fig.
166). The preceding is also adapted to satin repairing, though on
account of the close shiny surface this cannot be quite as
satisfactorily made. Complete the mending by passing the wrong
side of the fabric over a cool iron, the steam of which raises the pile.
 165. 166. Velvet Joining. 167. Laced Joining.

Laced Joining (Fig. 167) consists in the uniting of torn edges of a

slit accidentally made by a thorn, knife, or scissors. In every home it
is constantly needed for the temporary repair of those well-known
three-cornered rents caused by mischievous nails, knobs, spikes, &c.
Laced joining is also the only way of stopping cracks in old silk
dresses, umbrellas, and parasols; for the latter being neatly
strengthened and concealed by a narrow galloon run on both right
and wrong sides. To execute the seam, trim the torn edges, and
draw them together, holding the work between the thumb and
fourth finger of the left hand. Imitate a kind of lacing thus: point the
needle from the chest, and pass it under the right edge; turn the
needle in the contrary direction, and slip it beneath the left edge,
and so on. Be sure to take in enough of the fabric to bear the
stitches, which are to be as close as necessary for the material.
Judgment is indispensable also for the placing of the stitches; a
knife-cut in a delicate material has a sharply defined edge, and can
be drawn together straight to a thread, but in a jagged or worn part
the stitches enter more or less deeply into the worn part, according
to the state of the piece.
Fine-drawing.—This is almost exclusively used by tailors in their
beautiful repairs, and is suitable for all kinds of cloth and thick
woollen textures. The method of working is as follows: Having, if
possible, turned the article wrong side outwards, place the rent
horizontally across the second and third fingers of the left hand.
Thread the needle with very fine sewing silk, and slip it between the
cloth nearly ¼ in. from one edge. Bring the needle out and take a
tiny stitch on the top of the cloth, slip it through the fabric back to
the edge again, then insert into the opposite side, repeat the small
stitch, and return in the same manner. Continue thus to the end. If
skilfully done the seam can scarcely be unripped, and completely
defies detection, provided all the cloth be the right way of the grain.
Fine-drawing comes in excellently for connecting stars, &c., in cloth
patchwork. For more ordinary purposes an invisible, though not
equally strong join, is by a flat sewing taken midway through the
thickness of the stuff. In either case the repair needs careful
pressing.

Darning.—The plain, or ordinary darn, was for a long time the

only one employed in repairing any material, whether linen or
woollen; the materials, soft darning cotton, merino, Angola worsted
or Berlin wool, and filoselle, rather finer than the fabric to be
mended.
In using filoselle for darning or for embroidery, it is necessary to
feel for the right way of the thread, or the filoselle will become
rough and work against the grain. Before threading your needle,
draw the filoselle through your finger and thumb, and you will soon
learn to know the difference between the smooth and the rough
way. A great help in feeling anything is to shut the eyes. When you
buy new stockings and socks, do not wear them until you have
sewed them over heel and toe. There is an open bar in heels and
toes that soon breaks, unless secured by sewing over. To do this,
stretch the heel or toe very tightly over your left hand; this opens
these little bars, and enables you to see holes top and bottom, when
you can sew them over. You must not do it like herringboning, but
straight, and from left to right. This plan prevents many a darn.
The Plain Darn is not limited to the repairing of house linen or
garments; it is also applied to carpets, curtains, tapestry hangings,
and even chair cushions and covers, which all need a close
inspection after a periodical cleaning. For all these we mostly have
recourse to the darn called point de reprise—the great distinction
between this and the point de toile being that, instead of precisely
taking up one and leaving down one, it consists in taking up and
leaving down an irregular number of stitches, according to the value
and strength of the material. The point de reprise is also used in
lace-making, embroidery, wool and guipure work; besides, on
account of its quick execution, it is generally chosen for the mending
of stockings. Materials: A darning or egg-eyed needle, and either
cotton, silk, merino, Angola, or linen thread. Method of working:
When a hole has to be mended it may be prepared in two ways,
either by drawing together all the broken threads as nearly as
possible into their original position, and securing them with a needle
and fine cotton, or by cutting off all irregularities, and carefully
paring the edges; the latter method is undoubtedly the neater. Hold
the part to be mended well stretched over the first and second
fingers of the left hand, and for the foundation proceed as follows:
Point the needle from the chest, and make an ascending row of
regular perpendicular stitches, leaving a rather long loop to allow for
stretching or shrinking in washing. For the descending row turn the
needle towards the chest, and return in the same manner, taking up
the thread left down in the preceding row, thus inverting the order
of stitches; continue to do this till the hole is well covered by a series
of long threads parallel to each other. Crossing: Place the work so
that the threads run horizontally, and darn as before, commencing
the same distance from the sides, as from the upper and lower
edge, or else a hole will soon make its unwelcome appearance close
to the new darn. A little judgment is necessary in deciding the
closeness of the stitches, as it is evident that a worn-out material
will not bear such close and heavy mending as a comparatively new
one. The best mode of covering a plain darn is that which gives it
the form of a cross; to this there are a few exceptions, such as the
diagonal darn and the double square darn shown in Fig. 169.
 168. Plain Darn. 169. Double Square Darn.

Double Square Darn.—When a fabric wears gradually from actual

age, the hole is more generally confined to one spot, but in these
accidental slits the damage extends over a considerable portion of
the material, while the latter is still sound, hence the necessity of
specially shaped darns, in which the crossing to avoid clumsiness
merely covers the part suddenly torn. The double square darn is
principally used for sheets, tablecloths, &c., which have been blown
about by the wind while drying, and caught by an unlucky thorn or
nail. Materials: A fine darning needle and linen thread. Method of
working: With the needle bring the torn edges together, and secure
them on a piece of toile cirée, then conceal the slit with rows of
darning, which measure exactly double its width and its length;
reverse the work, and repeat the process, so that the tear forms two
sides of a square of crossed darning.
Diagonal Darn.—This is an irregular-shaped
darn, often had recourse to by experienced
housekeepers in the repair of those
unfortunate slits, constantly discovered in
kitchen or nursery tablecloths, or in linen
pillow-cases, sheets, &c., when they have
seen their best days. As the tear is made on
the bias, the mending threads must of course
run in a corresponding direction; this imparts 170. Diagonal Darn.
to the work the peculiar shape of a double
pyramid or egg-boiler, with a square in the centre, inclosing the slit,
putting us in mind of the star pattern familiar in knitted quilts.
Materials: Flourishing thread, and a fine darning needle. Method of
working: Commence at the extremity of the slit at the distance of its
own length above it, and terminate the first row of darning at an
equal length below it; proceed by letting each row decrease one
stitch on the upper side, and increase one stitch on the lower side in
harmony with the tear. Turn the work, and cross in exactly the same
manner.
Mottled Darn.—To mend a material woven in two shades, form the
fresh warp by a series of foundation stitches matching exactly the
texture and tint of the ground; then cross the former threads by
others of the same colour as the woof. This method will produce a
speckled darn.
Strengthening Darn.—When upon inspection an article is found to
be wearing thin, strengthen the weak parts by a few rows of
darning, worked rather far apart, so as not to put too much strain on
the material. Both cotton and needle must be very fine, for fear of
breaking the threads. For strengthening stockings there is a new and
pretty way of doing so on the right side, which imitates a spotted
pattern, and leaves no loops. It consists in crossing the webs with
horizontal rows of stitches, passing the needle over and under one
web alternately. This style is very appropriate for heels and toes, but
in the case of frail spots here and there an invisible strengthening
may be effected by passing the needle upwards and downwards
between the webs.
Reprise Perdue or Imperceptible Darn is nothing more than a
skilful execution of the linen stitch, with the exception that it is
worked with the ravellings of the material itself, and that no loops
are left, the thread being cut as each row is completed. In the days
when linen held pre-eminence in fabrics, the reprise perdue was a
name which belonged exclusively to this particular darn; but, as
each new material was introduced, the need of a repair in its exact
imitation was naturally felt and met; hence the term has now
extended itself to any darn which reproduces the worn fabric so
exactly that the most practised eye can scarcely detect any
difference. The imperceptible darn is specially used to conceal an
accidental tear or burn in costly textures, such as Indian muslins,
cashmeres, and fine cambric, and in spots where the defects would
be likely to attract much notice, as the front or sides of boots and
slippers made of satin or prunella, &c. Above all, however, is this
style of darn valuable to manufacturers, for hiding either the faults
or the accidental damages done to their goods. Materials: A long
fine darning or straw needle, and ravellings of the fabric. There are
one or two materials, such as cloth and baize, which do not ravel
out. For the repair of the former it is best to use very fine silk, and
for the latter ravellings of mohair braid of the same colour. When the
exact shade of the material cannot be matched by the mending
thread, the darn should be well stretched on a board in front of the
light, and completed by a few touches of paint carefully applied with
a camel’s-hair pencil. Method of working: Draw the broken threads
as nearly as possible to their original position, and cut off the frayed
parts so as to have the edges perfectly even. When practicable, turn
the stuff on the wrong side, and mount the hole on a piece of stiff
paper—not newspaper, as the printing will dazzle the eyes. A piece
of toile cirée would here be specially valuable, as its green colour
affords great relief to the strained sight. The work being now ready,
execute the darn in the pattern of the material, letting the rows,
instead of forming a decided line, be rather irregular, and lose
themselves in the fabric.
The Rep Darn, as its name implies, is
employed in the repairing of rep, as well as
poplin, Brussels carpeting, and, in fact, any
ribbed material. This darn generally consists
merely in replacing the surface by covering each
rib with a perpendicular row of sewing stitches,
slanting one thread downwards. If by chance the
warp threads be also much worn, they will
171. Rep Darn.
require strengthening by one or two threads
passed across vertically, and secured to the back by a few run
stitches. Materials: Worsted, wool, or twist to match precisely the
colours of the fabric, and a darning needle.
Lace Patch or Darn.—This circular patch is a light and pretty way
of mending a hole caused by the accidental fall of a spark or cigar-
ash on tablecloths, napkins, &c. It may be executed in any of the
open stitches so much used in guipure work, though the feston
stitch, being the one generally adopted, is illustrated in Fig. 172. The
same stitch can also be applied to lessening the width of stretched-
out buttonholes, making an openwork gusset between the fore-
finger and thumb of a kid glove, widening the sides of fingers, or
filling in a hole that has split near the welt, to which is then added
an elastic loop.

172. Lace Patch. 173. Lace Patch.

Detail of Lace Patch.—Materials: Embroidery cotton or flourishing

thread, which, being soft and flat, fills up the little interstices after
washing, and renders the patch almost invisible even in damask; in
this case, therefore, twisted cotton or silk should never be employed.
Egg-eyed needle.—Shape the circle carefully, then overcast the edge
of the hole by buttonhole stitches placed rather far apart, and taken
in more or less deeply, according to the texture of the stuff. Fill in
the space by working rows of feston or buttonhole stitches round
and round, keeping the thread all the time under the needle, and
gradually decreasing in circumference till the centre is reached,
when draw the thread closely, and secure it safely on the wrong
side. Before attempting this patch on the article itself, it is well to
practise it upon a piece of coarse material, in order to acquire
dexterity in the work, and thus avoid either puckering or tightening.
For a triangular patch such as the one used in gloves, lay the
foundation on the widest side, letting the stitches be more or less
apart, according to the size of the silk or the openness of the work.
Form the patch by rows of buttonhole stitches, going from left to
right and from right to left, without breaking off the silk, putting the
needle in the centre of every loop, and slipping a stitch at each row,
until at the angle there is but one left.
Swiss or German Darn.—More appropriately
called web stitch, as it imitates exactly the web
itself, and is, therefore, the true stitch for
mending all hosiery and knitted articles. By the
web is understood the texture of threads woven
in a loom, forming a tissue of threads interwoven 174. Swiss Darn.
with each other, those extending in length being
called the warp, and those stretched across, the weft or woof. The
origin of this stitch is comparatively of recent date, for it can only
have been known since the introduction of stocking knitting in the
reign of Elizabeth. The method comprehends the plain web, the rib,
Jacob’s ladder, and grafting. Materials: A sewing needle, rather finer
than the loop through which it has to pass, smooth darning, or, still
better, embroidery cotton, wool or silk matching to a shade, a
wooden or indiarubber ball, and a piece of stiff brown paper or toile
cirée. Method of working: Cut the hole even, ravel out the edges of
the horizontal sides, leaving at each a row of open loops, clear and
distinct as if prepared for picking up dropped stitches in knitting.
(Fig. 174).—Foundation. Secure the thread on the wrong side by 3
or 4 perpendicular stitches of common darning. Turn the work,
stretching it over the first and second fingers of the left hand; keep
it in place by the third finger and thumb. Cover the gap by a
succession of vertical threads, commencing, one or two webs from
the edge. Bring the needle out at the top between two webs, pass
the thread alongside the hole, and insert the needle at the lower
part, in the centre of the right-hand web, and draw it through the
centre of the left-hand web. Carry the thread upward to the same
point from which it started, that is, by putting the needle in the
same hole, and take up a complete web. The result will be an
elongated V, with the angle uppermost. Form a second V in the
same manner, and there will then remain half a web only from the
hole. Pick up, on the needle, this half web and the first loop, and
pass the thread upwards to form the point of the V, by meeting the
thread on the last bar; that is, put the needle in the hole from which
the previous thread has emerged, and again take up two loops.
Continue thus till the gap is covered, letting the needle point always
towards the left, and passing it back one loop to the right at each
stitch. This fresh ground will then represent a series of long narrow
vandykes. Finish by fastening the thread on the wrong side, in the
same manner as at the beginning.
Crossing.—Conceal the foundation by
working backwards and forwards rows
parallel to each loop in identical imitation of
the web. For the first line attach the thread
to the work, and bring the needle out
between two webs, precisely as for the first
process. Take up the two bars on either
side of the thread, entering where the
woven stitch is indented, and emerging 175. Crossing.
where it comes out; then insert the needle
above, and one bar to the right, picking up again two bars or
stitches (Fig. 175). Next enter one bar below, and to the right raise
two bars, and so on to the end of the row; each web thus forms a V
shape. Special care is needed for the 1st row, as on it depends the
arrangement of the webs. This line completed, bring the needle out
one bar perpendicularly downwards, in readiness for the second, and
work from left to right instead of from right to left, putting the
needle above every accompanying purl of the wrong side, or the
stitches will be disconnected. The beauty of the work consists
entirely in its evenness and flatness, hence the utility of the toile
cirée or wooden ball, as it keeps the work well stretched. When a
ball is used, the stocking is strained over it and held in place by the
left hand, the thumb meanwhile resting on the top of the ball.

176. Web Stitch. 177. Foundation of Single Web.

Single Web.—Having now thoroughly explained the ordinary or

double web stitch we will just mention the single one, a lighter and
consequently less durable mode of repairing, often employed in silk
and Lisle thread stockings. Its execution is very similar to that of the
former stitch. For the foundation, bring the needle out in the centre
of a web, pass the thread across, along the side of the hole, insert
the needle again in the centre of a web and the first loop. Then
continue to take up alternately two loops on the upper and lower
edge, letting the last loop of one stitch be the first of the next. The
foundation will then have the appearance of a succession of
elongated U’s in contrast with the series of V’s formed by the double
web stitch (Fig. 176). The crossing follows the same rule as the
foundation (Fig. 177). Another single web, more rapid, but not so
neat, is executed as follows: Make the whole perfectly even, and
holding the stocking lengthwise towards you, fill up the gap with
common darning, taking up the edge web on either side, not placing
the rows too closely. Now for the imitation of the web, turn the work
so that the darning lines are horizontal, commencing at the lower
part of the hole, and ascend to the top by twisting the thread under
each bar, to resemble a kind of cord stitch. Descend by stitches in
the reverse direction, and thus complete an exact web.
The Rib is a variety of Swiss darning scarcely known, and will
doubtless be highly appreciated by mothers in particular. This stitch,
though apparently showing the wrong and right side alternately, is
really completely executed on the right side alone. Method of
working: Lay the foundation, as for a simple web; then cover by an
equal number of pearl and plain stitches. The change from plain to
pearl is executed thus: instead of putting the needle straight under
two threads, pass it beneath the second bar of the raised web, and
over the first bar of the adjoining one; point the needle downwards
and bring it out one bar to the right, cross over two bars and slant it
upwards one thread to the left, so that it emerges from the identical
hole the first stitch entered. Continue to slip the needle over two
bars, sloping it alternately upwards and downwards, till the hollowed
web or purl stitches are completed. Then reverse the work by
crossing over the last bar, and passing under the first bar of the
raised web or garter stitches, in readiness for the next plain one.
The wider the rib, the more easy its imitation.
Jacob’s Ladder, or Dropped Stitch.—This frequently occurs in
stockings, as well as in silk or cotton gloves, knitted petticoats, &c.,
and so rapidly forms a long ladder of open bars that we can here
almost literally apply the maxim, “A stitch in time saves nine.” No
better remedy seems to be devised by careless workers than passing
the needle under and over the bars, which, being wider than the
space left for them, cannot be properly stretched, and the result is
an unsightly and puckered darn, especially when the mischief
extends to two or three adjacent rows. The following mode is
undoubtedly the right one: Take up a dropped or slipped stitch, as in
knitting, by inserting a fine crochet hook into the first loop below,
and draw through it the first rung or bar of the ladder. Then
continue to pass each succeeding row into the loop left on the
crochet needle till all are raised, when the last remaining loop is
fastened firmly and neatly by a needle threaded with cotton, silk, or
wool. A chain stitch is thus formed, very similar to the web.
Grafting.—To graft means to join
one thing so that it receives support
from another. In the mending of
stockings, &c., the term signifies
joining two pieces together, or
strengthening a thin part. The joining
consists of seaming, patching, and
refooting. In stockings, vests,
sleeves, &c., where the worn part can
be taken off all round, a fresh piece is 178. Grafting.
put in by means of a seam perfectly
invisible, provided the cotton or silk match precisely in colour and
quality. Cut off the decayed portion, and prepare the edges of the
piece to be united. Rest the work on the first and second fingers of
the left hand, keeping it flat by the pressure of the thumb; or hold it
as for sewing, in which case graft rather loosely to avoid any ridge.
Take up on the needle two loops parallel to each other (Fig. 178),
pass the thread through these, drawing two webs together. Repeat
on the opposite side, and continue thus to the end of the row; the
needle at each time enters a loop already picked up and a fresh one.
Fasten off as for web stitch.
 179. Detail of Patch. 180. Patch set in.

Patching is a neat and expeditious method of filling up large holes,

specially valuable for weak sight, or in repairing silk and thread
stockings; or, in short, any fine material with loops so small as to
render the raising up of each stitch a very tedious task. It is very
similar to the linen buttonhole patch. Method of working: Cut out the
unsound part straight to a thread, and prepare a patch of the same
material to fit the gap exactly. Border with rather close buttonhole
stitch the perpendicular edges of both hole and patch (Fig. 179).
Attach lightly the 4 corners, graft the upper and lower edge, and
sew the buttonholed by drawing together the opposite loops of each
stitch (Fig. 180).
Refooting.—This process comprises herringboning, and the three
different stocking, seams—grafting, buttonholing, and stitching.
When the foot of a stocking is apparently past mending, separate it
from the sound part of the leg, and rip up the 4 seams, thus
detaching the sole from the upper part with the heel. Pin or tack
each part on brown paper, outline the shape in chalk, then cut out,
allowing nearly ¼ in. for turnings. Unpick the leg seam of any old
stockings, spread them flat, and upon them place the paper pattern,
the lines of which are followed precisely in the cutting out. The two
pieces being ready, unite by buttonholing the side seams of the foot,
and the centre seam of the leg. Method of working: Leave ¼ in.
turnings, and buttonhole each folded edge. Then holding the work
as for sewing, join the rows, either by a buttonhole stitch taken in
each of the opposite loops, or by neat sewing. In most cases,
however, a single buttonholed or sewn seam may suffice. When
completed flatten the seam, and secure each turning by tiny
herringbone stitches, carefully avoiding puckering. If preferred, a
tiny ribbon sewn over the seam, can replace the turnings, though it
will not be equally lasting. The toes and the two parts of the heel
are united by stitching on the right side. Ravel out the edge loops,
and lay the pieces opposite each other as for sewing, with the loops
of the back in exact correspondence with the front ones. Insert the
needle in the first loop, and bring it out in the next one, pass it back
to the hole it first entered and bring it out again; thus each stitch
occupies two bars. The joining of the sole and heel is accomplished
on the wrong side. The ravelled-out loops of the sole are stitched on
the ⅛ in. turning of the heel, which is fastened down on the latter
itself by an almost imperceptible herringbone. This stitched seam is
also occasionally used in stockings reheeled by knitting. The new
foot is lastly grafted to the leg. It is almost useless to make any
remarks on the most advantageous way of cutting out the pieces, as
this depends so much on the size and condition of old legs at
command. Nevertheless it may be advisable to suggest that if the
width is insufficient to manage the instep and heel in one single
piece, the latter can be slit up at the clocks, thus making two heel
parts, to be connected with the front by the buttonhole seam,
scarcely visible on the right side, especially when hidden by an
embroidered spray. Such refooting may be considered rather long
and complicated, but is most important for the elaborate and
expensive hose now worn.

Supplementary Literature.
Misses S. F. A. Caulfield and B. C. Saward: ‘The Dictionary of
Needlework; an Encyclopædia of artistic, plain, and fancy
needlework; with over 800 illustrations.’ London, 1882. 21s.
Beeton’s ‘Book of Needlework; including tatting, crochet, knitting,
netting, embroidery, point lace, guipure d’art, Berlin work,
monograms, initials, names, crewel work, pillow lace, and lace
stitches.’ London. Latest edition. 7s. 6d.
 THE LIBRARY.
The library in a house is a haven to which the unlucky wight, kept
indoors by a steady rain overhead and a slushy mire underfoot, may,
or ought to be able to, seek retreat and pass many hours of quiet
and thorough enjoyment, instead of wandering aimlessly about the
house, and looking out of the windows with an idiotic expression on
his face at the dim and misty landscape. But how can it be a
peaceful, restful refuge, when the would-be reader finds a vast
number of volumes, treating of all manner of subjects, intermixed in
a most marvellous fashion; flighty romantists, witty memoir writers,
heavy theologians, enigmatic scientists, and deep-thinking
philosophers elbowing each other and almost crushing the unlucky
poets out of sight? Dismay seizes the daring explorer of the wonders
of a country-house library; the book he wants is not to be found,
and what is more he does not know where to look for it, great
names stare at him from all sides, and seem to sneer at him for
being so foolish as not to read them; but then he wants a particular
book, and in despair, rather than face the long row of books which
seem to jeer at his unsuccessful attempt to get what he is in search
of, he composes himself down to read Punch, or stare out at the
drip, drip, dripping rain.
Let us see if this can be avoided. Of course it can; the way to
change the whole aspect of affairs is so to arrange the books on
their shelves that the veriest stranger, after he has been in the
library a couple of minutes, should know where to look for what he
wants, and put his hand on the book if it be in the collection.
The twelve essential rules for the management of the library are:
1. Arrange your books on their shelves into classes, according to
the subjects they treat of.
2. Put everything in its proper place.
 3. Always keep directories, peerages, gazetteers, atlases, county
maps, and lexicons in convenient and easily got at places. It will
often save much time and trouble to keep them in book slides on the
table, or in a separate bookcase.
4. Write your name and address in a large bold handwriting on the
fly-leaf of every volume.
5. If you have your books specially bound, let the same style and
colour of binding be used for one class of books.
6. Never allow animals in a library. They are apt to do serious
mischief to MSS. and books, while chasing some imaginary rat.
Newton had the results of many years of hard brain work completely
destroyed through the pranks of his favourite little dog.
7. Keep servants out of the library, except at stated intervals, and,
when admitted, let them be under your personal supervision.
Everybody will remember that the first part of Carlyle’s ‘History of
the French Revolution,’ while yet in MS., was used by a servant to
light a fire.
8. Avoid dampness or excessive heat; books require warm dry air,
in order to preserve their bindings. Thus it will be seen that the
more the books are read the better it will be for the books.
9. On no account let the library be turned into a refreshment room
for a juvenile party.
10. Never allow MS. notes, letters, &c., to litter the tables and the
room. MS. notes should be kept in folding pads, or in drawers, and
letters carefully filed and put away.
11. No book should be left open and placed face downwards, in
order to mark the place where the reader has left off; no other
practice so speedily spoils books as this.
12. Always have a good index or catalogue of the contents of your
library.
 The last is as important a rule as any. A library without a
catalogue is, as Thomas Carlyle expresses it, “A Polyphemus without
an eye in his head.” Isaac D’Israeli, who has left us such a vast
treasure-house of book lore, says that the man who possesses a fine
library cannot be “more animated than a leaden Mercury who does
not aspire to make some small addition to his library, were it only by
a critical catalogue. He must be as indolent as that animal called the
sloth, who perishes on the tree he climbs, after he has eaten all its
leaves.”
The task of cataloguing must not dismay the amateur; the task is
a most useful one, and can easily be managed. The best catalogue
would be this:
Let it be divided into three primary divisions: The body, containing
the titles, authors’ names, date, and place of publication, and the
size and description may be added if considered necessary; index of
authors’ names, with the number of the pages of the catalogue on
which their works will be found, and an index of subjects.
The body should be divided into thirteen divisions, which are: 1,
Theology; 2, history and biography; 3, science and philosophy; 4,
art; 5, bibliography; 6, antiquities; 7, political and commercial; 8,
poetry; 9, travels; 10, MSS.; 11, novels; 12, miscellaneous; 13,
periodical literature. These may be subdivided, if necessary. The
subdivisions are: History into (1) national, (2) local, (3) biography,
and (4) genealogy; science into (1) medicine, surgery, and
chemistry, (2) natural history, (3) geology, and (4) mechanics; art
into (1) painting, sculpture, &c., (2) music; antiquities into (1)
chronicles, ballads, and other ancient literature, (2) history of
antiquities; political into (1) standard works, (2) pamphlets, &c.;
travels into (1) ancient, (2) modern; miscellaneous into (1) law, (2)
drama, (3) educational, (4) miscellaneous.
The books in the body should be entered under the authors’
names, alphabetically arranged, under each division, the full titles,
description, &c., following. A very good plan is to tack to each entry
in the catalogue finding symbols, as “Bookcase A, shelf 3,” which
denotes where the book is to be found.
Now as to the actual mode of taking the census of the books to be
catalogued. A large number of sheets of paper, about the size of
ordinary writing paper, must be procured, each sheet being divided
into three columns. The centre column (the largest of the three) is
reserved for the full description of the book as it is to stand in the
body of the catalogue; the column on the left is reserved for the
exact account of the subject treated of by the book; that on the
right for the author’s name, as in the following example:

Subject Index. Travels. Author’s Index.

Columbus, Life
Irving,
and Irving, Washington.
Washington.
Voyages.
The Life and Voyages of
Page* Christopher Columbus. 3
Page*
vols. Crown 8vo. One
vignette. London, 1850.

* Of course, the number of the page which should follow these entries
cannot be filled in until the body of the catalogue is properly written out,
when, as each entry is made in the catalogue, the number of the page in
which the entry is made is placed both in the left and right columns.
The slips, when duly filled up, should be set aside in packets
under their respective divisions. As soon as every book has been
noted down, there remains nothing more to be done but to
transcribe alphabetically the various slips on sheets of foolscap, and
the task is completed.
Any works which are published anonymously should be entered in
the third primary division under the heading “Anonymous,” and have
the abbreviation “Anon.” added in the body or first primary division.
Supplements may be from time to time prepared, carefully pursuing
the same method as observed in forming the original catalogue. The
supplement is then attached to the catalogue, the first page having
a piece of parchment gummed on, with about an inch protruding
from the cover; on this the words “Supplement of 188-” should be
written.
The ancient learned Greeks and Romans had their book-shelves,
or rather rows of niches, in which the parchment rolls were placed,
made of cedar wood, encrusted with precious metals. Although this
would, perhaps, be impracticable in our days, still the bookcases
should be solid and massive, yet elegant. In some libraries the
bookcases run right round the room, but no higher than 3 ft. to 4 ft.,
the tops forming a resting-place for various curiosities. This method,
of course, leaves the upper part of the wall clear, whereon to hang
pictures, trophies of arms, armorial shields, or other mural
decorations. Other libraries have cupboards, or rather bookcases,
with wooden panelled doors of 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. high, the regular
bookcases being placed on the top of these. This is a very good
plan, for the lower part of the bookcase may serve as a convenient
resting-place for magazines, pamphlets, newspapers, and drawings.
One great point to be observed is to have the books protected by
good glass; it gives a better appearance to the whole room when the
glass is really good, and, above all, the books are safe from the
injurious effect of dust or damp.
Magazines and periodicals are generally bound, and, therefore,
may be placed on the shelves. A number of pamphlets relating to a
certain subject may be cheaply, neatly and easily bound at home.
Each pamphlet should be taken and opened at the middle; then,
with the aid of a needle and some strong twine, it should be sewn in
such a manner as to leave two loops, occupying about two-thirds of
the length, on the outside at the back. When each pamphlet has
been treated in a like way, taking especial care that each loop is of
equal size, two strips of coarse canvas must be cut, long enough to
wrap entirely round the whole set of pamphlets. Two pieces of
pasteboard, of the exact size you wish the volume to be, must be
procured; then, having previously passed the canvas strips under the
loops of twine, you carefully paste or glue the canvas, and place
them on the boards. Two pieces of clean paper, well gummed, are
placed inside the cover over the canvas strips. A piece of canvas, or,
better still, leather, of about double the thickness of the back of your
volume, and the exact height of the pasteboard cover, is glued on to
the back, a good piece overlapping on each side of the cover. Now
nothing remains to be done but to glue a piece of parchment
behind, writing on it the description of the contents. The whole is
placed under a substantial weight, and in a couple of days you have
a neat volume instead of a collection of stray sheets of printed
paper.
Dabblers in literature, and the searchers after general knowledge,
frequently cut out from papers and periodicals articles and
paragraphs which interest them. These accumulate and soon
encumber the writing-table, library-table, and the mantelpiece, and
ultimately find their way into the fire or the waste-paper basket. This
may be obviated and a more orderly appearance be given to the
room, by collecting these newspaper scraps in a box or drawer, and
at convenient intervals pasting them, in alphabetical order, into a
large book formed of cheap paper. The cartridge paper should be
folded twice; thus each sheet gives eight pages, and the printed
scraps pasted in in two rows or three columns, leaving a good
margin, whereon the subject treated of in the newspaper scraps
should be legibly written, the date and name of the paper whence
the scrap has been cut being written at the end of each cutting.
The foregoing notes are due to the late E. C. Rye, Librarian of the
Royal Geographical Society.
Books placed in a library should be thoroughly dusted two or three
times a year, not only to keep them in all their freshness, but also to
prevent any development of insects and to disclose signs of
dampness. The interior of a book also asks that care, which
unfortunately is neglected very often. After having taken a book
from the shelves, it should not be opened before ascertaining that
the top edge is not covered with dust. If it is a book that has had
the edge cut, it should be dusted with a soft duster, or the dust
simply blown off. If it is a book which has uncut edges it should be
brushed with rather a hard brush. By this method in opening the
volume, one need not be afraid that the dust will enter between the
leaves and soil them.
A library has generally three kinds of enemies to be guarded
against, viz. insects, damp, and rats or mice. Every one knows how
to guard against damp and rats or mice. Several means are adopted
to keep insects at a distance. The first consists in the proper choice
of woods: these are cedar, cypress, mahogany, sandal, or very dry
and sound oak. All these are compact or of very strong aroma, and
are such as insects do not like to pierce. Another source of safety is
the use of astringent or poisonous chemicals in the binding of books.
The insects that make ravages in books multiply very rapidly; and
very few libraries are free from them. The microscopic eggs, that are
left by the female, give birth to a small grub, which pierces the
leather boards and book for its nourishment, and to get to the air.
These are familiarly called bookworms, but by the scientific world
they are known as Hypothenemus eruditus which eats the leather,
and Anobium striatum which bores through the paper. The larvæ of
the Dermestes also attack wood as well as books.
Alum, as employed in the paste used by binders, is not an
absolute preventive, although it contributes greatly to the
preservation of the leather. Resin as used by shoe-makers is
preferable, and in effect works in the same way; but oil of turpentine
has a greater effect. Anything of strong odour, like aniseed or
bergamot, mixed perfectly but in small quantities, preserves the
paste during an unlimited time.
 THE FARMYARD.
This chapter will embrace the ordinary domestic animals, birds, &c.,
usually kept at a country-house.

Horse.—Choosing and Buying.—The weak points of a horse can

be better discovered while standing than while moving. If sound, he
will stand firmly and squarely in his limbs without moving any of
them, the feet flat upon the ground, with legs plump and naturally
poised; if a foot is lifted from the ground, or the weight taken from
it, disease may be suspected, or at least tenderness, which is a
precursor of disease. If the horse stands with his feet spread apart,
or straddles with his hind legs, there is a weakness in the loins, and
the kidneys are disordered. Heavy pulling bends the knees. Bluish,
milky cast eyes in horses indicate moon blindness. A bad tempered
horse keeps his ears thrown back. A kicking horse is apt to have
scarred legs. A stumbling horse has blemished knees. When the skin
is rough and harsh, and does not move easily to the touch, the
horse is a heavy eater, and digestion is bad. Never buy a horse
whose breathing organs are at all impaired. Place your ear at the
side of the heart, and if a wheezing sound is heard it is an indication
of trouble. (Rural Record.)
Examine the eyes in the stable, then in the light; if they are in any
degree defective, reject. Examine the teeth to determine the age.
Examine the poll or crown of the head, and the withers, or top of
the shoulders, as the former is the seat of poll evil, and the latter
that of fistula. Examine the front feet; and if the frog has fallen, or
settled down between the heels of the shoes, and the heels are
contracted, reject him, as, if not already lame, he is liable to become
so at any moment. Observe the knees and ankles, and, if cocked,
you may be sure that it is the result of the displacement of the
internal organs of the foot, a consequence of neglect of the form of
the foot, and injudicious shoeing. Examine for interfering, from the
ankle to the knees, and if it proves that he cuts the knee, or the leg
between the knee and the ankle, or the latter badly, reject. “Speedy
cuts” of the knee and leg are most serious in their effects. Many
trotting horses, which would be of great value were it not for this
single defect, are by it rendered valueless. Carefully examine the
hoofs for cracks, as jockeys have acquired great skill in concealing
cracks in the hoofs. If cracks are observable in any degree, reject.
Also both look and feel for ringbones, which are callosities on the
bones of the pastern near the foot; if apparent, reject. Examine the
hind feet for the same defects of the foot and ankle named in
connection with the front feet. Then proceed to the hock, which is
the seat of curb, and both bone and blood spavins. The former is a
bony enlargement of the posterior and lower portion of the hock-
joint; the second a bony excrescence on the lower, inner, and rather
anterior portion of the hock; and the last is a soft enlargement of
the synovial membrane on the inner and upper portion of the hock.
Either is sufficient reason for rejecting. See that the horse stands
with the front feet well under him, and observe both the heels of the
feet and shoes to see if he “forges” or overreaches; and in case he
does, and the toes of the front feet are low, the heels high, and the
heels of the front shoes a good thickness, and the toes of the hind
feet are of no proper length, reject him; for if he still overreaches
with his feet in the condition described, he is incurable. If he props
out both front feet, or points them alternately, reject. In testing the
driving qualities, take the reins while on the ground, invite the owner
to get in the vehicle first, then drive yourself. Avoid the display or
the use of the whip; and if he has not sufficient spirit to exhibit his
best speed without it, reject. Should he drive satisfactorily without, it
will then be proper to test his amiability and the extent of his
training in the use of the whip. Thoroughly test his walking qualities
first, as that gait is more important in the horse of all work than
great trotting speed. The value of a horse, safe for all purposes
without blinds, is greatly enhanced thereby. Purchase of the breeder,
if practicable.
 The Field has often warned its readers against describing any
horse they might have for sale as a “perfect” hunter, or “good”
hunter. Describing a horse as a good hunter is giving a very
comprehensive warranty of performance, and to a certain extent of
soundness as well. No horse can be called a hunter unless he can
jump, and his jumping powers may depend a great deal upon the
man who rides him. If he jumps at all, he may either take the bit in
his teeth and “commit” his rider to a fence 40 yd. off; or he may
require a resolute man and a cutting whip to get him over anything
like a ditch. No horse to whom either of these peculiarities attaches
could be called a “good,” much less a “perfect,” hunter. It has never
been expressly decided whether, under these assumed conditions,
there would be a breach of warranty if the horse were so described,
but the probabilities are against the seller. A horse that is in the very
slightest degree touched in the wind is unsound, yet for practical
purposes a whistler or a grunter is ten times more useful as a hunter
than a horse with bad navicular, or a sprained sinew. But, so far as
the law goes, the lame horse might be sold as a good hunter, while
the whistler could not. Upon this ground, if a court were to decide
that a horse described as a good or perfect hunter must be sound in
wind and eyes, there would be every reason to expect that the same
tribunal would hold that he must be sound on his feet and legs, or at
any rate fit for immediate use. In the case of harness horses,
however, it has been held that a warranty of soundness is not
involved in one of quietness. Warranties of soundness are going out
of fashion. But as the pedigree, or antecedents, of a horse often
have a material influence on the price paid for him, a statement
concerning one or both is often made by the seller as an integral
part of the contract. Such assertions are just as much a warranty as
if they referred to his quietness, age, or soundness, and, should they
prove false, render the seller liable to an action for breach of
warranty. It would be wise of the seller to say nothing, unless he
himself received a written description with the horse, which
statement he could show and explain to the person purchasing from
him, when, should the contents be untrue, he will not be liable.
When a horse is sent for sale to a commission stable, the
commission agent is justified in repeating to a buyer the description
given to him (the agent) by the owner of the horse, and the seller
will be bound by that description. Of course the agent has no right
to exceed his instructions and give a warranty on his own account.
Should he do so, the seller will not be bound. But a warranty by an
ordinary servant, or by a person directed by another to sell a horse,
and put, for that purpose, in a position which to a stranger might
seem to imply an authority to warrant, would bind the seller.
Keeping.—Horse keeping must always be costly. Grooms’ wages,
rent of stabling, hay, oats, straw, beans, carrots, bran, linseed,
taxes, coals and candles, gas or oil, shoeing, stable implements, and
veterinary attendance cost money in every establishment. When the
whole cost is taken into account it will be found that in the case of
full-sized horses the expense of each varies, according to
circumstances, from about 30s. to 36s. or more a week, even when
there is no waste. The prime cost of horses, carriages, and harness
will depend to a great extent upon the purpose for which they are
required. It is well to be circumspect in buying a second-hand
vehicle, as getting up worthless carriages for sale is a regular trade.
With harness and saddlery the best goods are everywhere the best
economy.
The first item is the stable. If one is attached to the house, no
extra cost will be incurred. The average charge for renting will be
about 5s. per horse per week, inclusive of rates and taxes, but
exclusive of fire, lights, or straw. If stabling be rented by the year,
the weekly average will be less, as also in places where there is not
much demand, and where it is rather of makeshift.
The groom should be a thorough stableman, conversant with the
proper mode of dressing horses, methodical in habit, and honest.
From 25s. to 30s. per week should secure the services of a good
man, and for this sum he would find himself in everything. If
accommodation allows, he might sleep on the premises, but should
he sleep and live in the house his wages will be much less. He
should know how to clip, singe, foment, put on a bandage properly,
and give a horse a ball; but it is well to allow no drugs or physic to
be given without the directions of a veterinary surgeon. If the man is
a hard worker, he will look after 3 saddle horses and clean his
master’s breeches and boots, single-handed; but this is rather trying
him, and is more than the majority of grooms would undertake; in
most instances it would be necessary to have a second hand—a lad
at about 14s. a week would do—to “muck out” the stables, help
dress the horses, and do rough work. Similarly, 2 hunters, a harness
horse, and vehicle, will be heavy work for one man.
Many persons have their horses foraged by contract, supplies
being sent in at fixed periods. In London some contractors do it for
about 1s. or 1s. 2d. a hand, i.e. a horse not exceeding 16 hands will
be foraged for about 16s. per week, while a pony not exceeding 12
hands would only cost 12s. When living in the country, purchase of
neighbouring farmers. Let all forage be of the best quality—it is
cheapest in the end. Oats and hay must be old—that is to say, oats
and hay harvested in 1884 should not be used in the stables till the
July or August following at the earliest. Some people give the last
cut oats after Christmas; but it should never be done. A horse
requires feeding often; though 3 times a day is sufficient, 4 times is
better. Horses should drink before they eat, because water does not
remain in the stomach, but passes through it into a large intestine
called the cæcum. If a horse be fed first, the water passing through
the stomach would be likely to carry with it particles of food, and
thus bring about colic. Whatever a groom may say, let a horse drink
just as much as he likes. If he be watered 4 times a day he will
never take too much to be good for him. It will be cheaper to buy
enough forage to last the season or more, than to be perpetually
getting in small quantities. If a hunter—taking him as the typical
horse, because he requires the best keep—be fed 4 times a day, he
will have a quartern of oats at each feed, or a peck a day (4
quarterns = 1 peck), or 1 bush. of oats will last 4 days, and in 1
week he will eat 1¾ bush. With each feed a couple or three double
handfuls of chaff should be given, as this will cause the food to be
more thoroughly masticated. Hay is given in the rack morning and
evening, about 6-8 lb. each time; though where horses are not
limited as to oats they will not require so much. A truss of hay
weighs 56 lb., so the weekly allowance to each horse may be set
down at about 1½ truss. Some good judges recommend that hay
should be in the rack between feeding times. Beans are more
nutritive than oats, but are heating, and should not be given to a 4-
year-old at all. A 5-year-old should not have them unless he works
hard, and then not more than 1 lb. per diem; aged horses may have
about 2 lb. per day divided into 3 feeds; but during a frost, or when
only used for gentle work, such as hacking in the London season,
beans should be dispensed with. Bran is chiefly used for mashes,
and it is advisable to follow the time-honoured plan of giving one
every Saturday night. Linseed gruel is, by some horses, preferred to
that made from oatmeal; but the latter is refreshing and soothing if
the horse will take it. A few carrots given every now and then will
tend to keep the blood cool. Study the appetite of each horse.
For bedding there is nothing better than wheat straw. Oat straw is
permissible, and cheaper. Barley straw must on no account be used.
The quantity of straw required per week will vary with the care with
which the groom separates the clean from the soiled in the morning,
the wish of the owner as to the look of his stable, and the size of the
box or stall. Speaking roughly, a careful groom can manage in an
ordinary sized loose box with about 50-60 lb. per week, and with this
allowance a horse can be well bedded and kept clean; this, of
course, after the bed has been originally formed with about 2
trusses.
As to cost. Oats vary from 3s. to 4s. per bush.; best upland hay
may be set down at 5l. a ton (40 trusses of 56 lb. in a ton); straw at
3l. 10s. a ton; and beans at a trifle more than 1d. a lb. Thus the cost
of keeping a horse for a week will be:—

s. d.
2 bush. oats, at 3s. 6d. 7 0
1½ trusses hay, at 2s. 6d. 3 9
 14 lb. beans 1 6
60 lb. straw (say) 2 0
——
14 3

Something must be allowed for bran, linseed, and carrots; these

may be set down at about 2s. per week.
Groom’s wages must be added. Suppose he receives 25s. per
week, and only has one horse to look after, that one horse will cost
the owner 39s. 3d. at the lowest estimate; if there be 2 horses, they
will each stand at 26s. 9d., and so on. Shoeing may be set down
roughly at 3l. per annum; the tax for a groom is 15s. per year; the
veterinary surgeon may have to be called in occasionally; while coals
and lights must not be left out of sight. From a money point of view,
therefore, keeping horses in a private stable is, generally speaking,
no cheaper than sending them to livery at 30s. per week; but the
advantage is that they are generally better done at home. (Field.)
Horses need well-ventilated stables, free from draught and damp.
The floor should be smooth and nearly level. It should be well
drained and light, for sudden change from darkness to light is trying
to the eyes, and a damp, offensive odour is injurious. Then, again,
the bedding and litter should be carefully separated from that which
is foul. They should be well shaken up and dried, and the stall
should be thoroughly cleansed; and when the stable is empty, let in
plenty of fresh air. A horse’s stall should be large enough to allow
him to lie down comfortably in any position. A tired horse will be
glad to lie down with his legs stretched out if he has room; but if
you cannot give him a loose box, then a light halter block should be
used, and care taken to arrange the halter so that it may travel
freely to allow the head to come easily to the litter, for rest and sleep
are as necessary as food and water. If a horse comes to the stable
wet, he should be rubbed dry before the blanket is put on. If he is
standing about in the cold, it should be put on. The legs should be
rubbed, and the hoofs always examined for stones. When dressed
and made comfortable, leave a bucket of chilled water in the box,
which should be filled up with cold the last thing at night when
closing the stables.
Cleaning.—One of the most important things in the management
of farm horses is their cleaning, and yet nothing is more neglected.
The horse should never be cleaned or harnessed while it is eating
breakfast. Let horses eat their food in peace, for many, from
sanguine temperament or greed, bolt their oats when handled
during the time of feeding. Harness can be quickly enough put on
after the feed is eaten, and time should then be taken to comb the
mane and tail, and use a wisp of straw on the body and legs. When
the horses come in at dinner-time, they should at once be
unharnessed. The feed is then to be given, and before the harness is
again put on, the horse should be thoroughly rubbed down with a
wisp of straw or hay. If the horses are very warm on coming in, they
should be rubbed down immediately after the removal of the
harness.
The cleaning or grooming, which should be done at night, consists
first in currying the horse with a currycomb to free him of the dirt
adhering to the hair, and which being now dry, is easily removed. A
wisping of straw removes the roughest of the dirt loosened by the
currycomb. The legs ought to be thoroughly wisped, not only to
make them clean, but to dry up any moisture that may have been
left in the evening; and at this time the feet should be picked clean
by the foot-picker—i.e. an iron instrument made for the purpose—of
any dirt adhering between the shoe and the foot. The brush is then
to be used to remove the remaining and finer portions of dust from
the hair, which is cleared from the brush by a few rasps along the
currycomb. This wisping and brushing, if done with some force and
dexterity, with a combing of the tail and mane, should render the
horse pretty clean. The skin of the farm horse should at all times be
clean if not sleek, and a slap of the hand upon the horse will show if
there is loose dust in the hair. The currycomb should not be used
below the knees, as it is apt to cause injury. For cleaning the legs
and feet, nothing is better than the water brush.
 At morning stables, after the carriage horse is “mucked out,” the
next step is to quarter him over and pick and wash his feet out. The
first quartering may be done with an old water brush, and means
roughly removing from the horse with water alone anything
imparted to his side by manure. By the time the horse has done
feeding the quartering will have nearly dried. If the animal is for
morning exercise the above is sufficient. The dressing proper can be
done when he comes home. If he is for hunting or hacking that day
a good stableman will set to work at him as soon as the horse has
finished his feed. If he is a grey, and has become stained with
manure in the night, the groom should well rub in, with his hands
only, plenty of common brown soap (not soft soap), and use plenty
of tepid water in doing it. Then take a clean water brush, and let his
shoulder go at his work until the stain is out. This is easily seen,
because if the man finds no discoloration in the water in the bucket
when he has sponged (with a perfectly clean sponge) all the soap
off, no particle of stain will remain. If the water used in stable work
is hard, a little soda dissolved in it will cause the soap to lather well.
The horse should be tied up short while being washed, and after the
sponging the wet places should be thoroughly dried with a rubber,
which should be cleanliness itself. Worn-out table linen makes the
best stable rubbers, the older the better. When the washed parts are
quite dry, the horse should be well dressed with a clean horse-brush;
one with any old dirt or grease in it will make fresh stains. After
dressing with the horse brush, his coat should be again well rubbed
the right way with another dry rubber fresh from the towel-horse
and the saddle-room fire. Lazy stablemen are in the habit of using
powdered charcoal to remove stains from grey horses. The practice
is idle and dirty. In the case of clipped horses, stable stains can be
removed in a very short time, and not much more is requisite with
that of a well-done horse with his summer coat on. When the coat is
shifting, a little more labour is requisite.
Driving.—Strict adherence to the rule of the road will not
necessarily protect a driver from being liable for the result of a
collision between another vehicle and his own. Sometimes he may
be held to be negligent because he remained on the near side, and
did not pull out of the way, even into the opposite gutter, if
necessary. It is not possible to say what acts constitute negligent
driving; the nearest rule that can be given is that drivers should act
as reasonable men in the management of their vehicles. If they do
anything that a reasonable man would not do, or omit to do
anything that he would, then they are guilty of negligence; but acts
that would amount to negligence in one case would not necessarily
be so in another. Negligence on the part of a driver is not excused
merely because the victim was also guilty of some degree of
negligence, provided of course that it did not contribute to the
immediate cause of the accident. If, however, the proximate cause of
an accident be a driver’s unskilfulness, the injured driver may not
recover, although the primary cause of the accident was the wrong-
doing of some one else. If a man leave a horse and cart standing in
the street without any one to look after them, and the horse, either
by itself, or on being struck by a passer-by, backs into the window of
a shop, and damages goods, the owner of the cart, having chosen to
leave it in the street, must take the risk of any mischief. In cases
where there is negligence on both sides, the rule to be deduced is,
that a person injured by the negligent driving of another, cannot
recover damages if but for own negligence, the accident would not
have happened at all. Sometimes it may happen that a person who
is driven into, or over, must bring his action, not against the driver of
the vehicle inflicting the injury, but against a third party; as, for
instance, if one carriage be so improperly driven as to compel a
second carriage to take such a line as to make it collide with a third,
the driver of the first carriage would be liable to the owner of the
third. Lastly, in a pure accident, in which no one has been guilty of
negligence, the injured party has no right of action at all. It is not
because a man’s horse runs away, or becomes unmanageable, that
the owner is to be responsible for any harm that may be sustained
by a member of the public; a mutilated person is always entitled to
sympathy, but not invariably to damages. (Field.)
 Hiring.—Horses, carriages, or both, may be hired under 3
conditions: (a) Where the hired property remains on the owner’s
premises; (b) Where, during the period of hire, it is transferred to
the premises of the hirer; (c) Where it is hired from the owner for a
particular journey, and returned to him as soon as this is performed.
Under either of the 2 first conditions, the hiring may be for a period
exceeding a year, or for any shorter time. All contracts not to be
performed within one year from the time of making must be in
writing and signed. An agreement made on the 1st of May, 1887, to
hire horses for one year from that day, will terminate on 1st of May,
1888, and therefore be completed within the year, and so not
require writing; but if the agreement (made on the 1st) be for a
year’s hire, to commence on the 20th of May, the contract will not be
completely performed until the 20th of May, or 20 days after the
expiration of the year, consequently writing will be needed.
The chief inducement to hire instead of buying carriages and
horses is, that by payment of an inclusive charge, the trouble and
annoyance inseparable from keeping a private stable are avoided.
The owner of a carriage let out to hire undertakes, in return for the
sum paid, to do certain repairs, varying according to circumstances.
Most coachmakers now bind themselves to execute only such
repairs as may be rendered necessary by fair wear and tear;
accidents, however arising, being expressly exempted. The result is
that, in the event of a “smash,” the hirer has to pay the owner for
the damage; and, if the former or his servant is in fault, the loss falls
on him; while, if the other vehicle be in the wrong, the hirer has to
get his damages from its proprietor—the owner of the hired carriage
being indemnified either way. If the carriage is bought out-and-out
during the period for which it was originally hired, the seller is not
bound to repair gratis after he has sold it.
Under ordinary circumstances the hirer of a horse is not
responsible for any damage that may happen to it, so long as he has
not been guilty either of negligence or of using the horse for a
purpose other than that for which it was hired. But if he has broken
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