Delay, Loss and Throughput in Packet-Switched Networks

Computer networks necessarily constrain throughput (the amount of data per

second that can be transferred) between end system, introduce delays between
end systems and can actually lose packets.
Overview of Delay in Packet-Switched networks(refer class work )
As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent host
along his path, it suffers from several types of delays at each node along the
path.
Types of Delay

Throughput in Computer Networks

Another critical performance measure in computer networks is end-to-end throughput. The
instantaneous throughput at any instant of time is the rate (in bits/sec) at which host B is
receiving a file. If the file consists of F bits and the transfers takes T seconds to transfer the
whole file, then the average throughput of the file is F/T bits/sec. For a simple two-link
network, the throughput is the min of all the throughputs, that is the transmission rate of
the bottleneck link. Therefore, the constraining factor for throughput in today's Internet is
typically the access network.

Computer Network Models

• A computer network consists software and hardware that is used to send and
receive data from one device to another.
• The role of hardware is to prove the physical equipment that are required in order to
send and receive data while software defines the set of instructions that uses the
hardware equipment’s for data transmission.
• A simple transmission of data consists several steps at various layers of computer
network

Layered Architecture
• The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
• Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services
to manage communications and run the applications.
• It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
• It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to
higher layer without defining how the services are implemented.
• Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
• The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to
a higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
• The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with
peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the
messages used.

o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer. o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a
communication with the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a
conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.
Let's take an example of the five-layered architecture.(refer class work)

o In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to

layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately
just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes
place.
o In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and
manageable tasks.
o The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface.
A Layered architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information
is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer
can be easily replaced by another implementation.
o A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to
the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical
medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer 2.Data-Link Layer 3.Network Layer 4.Transport Layer 5.Session
Layer 6.Presentation Layer 7.Application Layer

Physical layer:
o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from
one node to another node.

o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model. o It establishes, maintains and deactivates
the physical connection.

o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface

specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration:
It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.

o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,

half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

Data-Link Layer
o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on
a local network.

o It contains two sub-layers:

o Logical Link Control Layer:
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver
that is receiving
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header. It also
provides flow control.

o Media Access Control Layer:

o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and
the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer:

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.
o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address
mentioned in the header.

o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is
the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides
so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a
server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with
lower processing speed.

o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to
the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to
occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment the retransmission of the
corrupted frames.

o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.

Network Layer
o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on
the network.

o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on
the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.

o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide
the routing services within an internetwork.
The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.

o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it

determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by
internet protocol (IP).

Transport Layer:
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.

o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.

o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a pointto-point

connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol:

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet
using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.

User Datagram Protocol:

o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs
simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the
destination not only from one computer to another computer but also from one
process to another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer and
the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct
process.

o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer

receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely
identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.

o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services

Connection-oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service
treats each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.

o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control
but it is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.

o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error

control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The
sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any
error.

Session Layer:
It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting

the data in a sequence . If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is
known as Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation Layer:
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.

o It acts as a data translator for a network. This layer is a part of the operating
system that converts the data from one presentation format to another format.

o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different
encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the
different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format
into a common format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end. Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain
privacy. Encryption is a process of converting the sender-transmitted information
into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.

Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it

reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in
multimedia such as text, audio, video.

Application Layer:
An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.It handles issues such as network transparency,
resource allocation, etc. An application layer is not an application, but it performs
the application layer functions. This layer provides the network services to the end-
users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application
layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from
a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.

Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed
database sources and is used to provide that global information about
various objects.

TCP/IP model:
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.The TCP/IP
model is not exactly similar to the OSI model. The TCP/IP model consists
of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
datalink layer and physical layer. The first four layers provide physical
standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport functions
that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model.

o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and

each of them provides specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by
two or more lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. The functions
carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by the
network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses. The protocols used by this
layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer:
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model. An internet layer is also known
as the network layer. The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from
any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control,
and correction of data which is being sent over the network. The two protocols used in the
transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control protocol.

Application Layer:
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model. It is responsible for handling
high-level protocols, issues of representation.

o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.

o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using
HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.

Transmission media :
Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from
the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of
bits through LAN(Local Area Network).

o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.

o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media,
medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal
characteristics are more important. Different transmission media have different properties
such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission

media:
• Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of
a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
• Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals UNIT
-1 c Computer networks 34 will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
• Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal
when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted
signal.
• Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the
signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.

o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal.
This type of distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies.
Each frequency component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different
time which leads to the delay distortion.

o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is
added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

• Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that
has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.

• Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form
of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.
Guided media:
Twisted Pair Cable:

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting
signals because of good performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in
telephone lines. However, if two or more wires are lying together, they can interfere with
each other’s signals. To reduce this electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires
are twisted together in helical shape like a DNA molecule.

• Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce interference between
nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each pair. Up to 25 twisted pair are
put together in a protective covering to form twisted pair cables that are the backbone
of telephone systems.

Advantages of twisted pair cable:

•Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world.

• Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions

• Least expensive for short distances

• Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged.

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable:

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too
. Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters. High error rate for distances
greater than 100m.Very thin and hence breaks easily.
Twisted Pair is of two types:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering
which encases each pair of insulated conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is
prevented by metal casing. Shielding also eliminates cross talk. It has same attenuation
as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more
expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable:

• Easy to install

• Performance is adequate

• Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

• Increases the signalling rate

• Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair

• Eliminates crosstalk Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

• Difficult to manufacture ,Heavy.

Un Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables

are widely used in the computer and telecommunications industry as Ethernet cables
and telephone wires. In an UTP cable, conductors which form a single circuit are twisted
around each other in order to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from
external sources. Unshielded means no additional shielding like meshes or aluminum
foil, which add bulk, are used.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable: Installation is easy
,Flexible, Cheap It has high speed capacity, 100 meter limit Higher grades of UTP are
used in LAN technologies like Ethernet. It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm
thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical form to reduce electrical interference
from similar pair.

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable: Bandwidth is low

when compared with Coaxial Cable Provides less protection from interference.

Coaxial Cable:
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor
is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner-conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of

transmitting a single signal at high speed.

2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of

transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed. o It has better shielding as compared to
twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic:
Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to send
the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the
more light will be transmitted into the fibre.

o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality
of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause
the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.

o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as
compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper
cable.

o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows
the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.

o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as
it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity
of copper cable.

o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

UnGuided Transmission:
An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves
without using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow
easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves:
Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space. Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated
in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the
wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves:

Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission:

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of
a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned,
i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are
the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:
o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz
to 21-23 GHz.

o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
Advantages Of Microwave:
o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation
of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any
malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.

o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is

susceptible to weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as
rain, wind can distort the signal.

o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave

transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication:

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than
cable and fibreoptic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
How Does Satellite work?
The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it
amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre of
the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signalbroadcasting, mobile communication, etc

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared:
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short
ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides
in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in
one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms. Infrared communication is
unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere with the infrared
waves.